“The Husband’s Message” (Anonymous): A Critical Analysis

Introduction: “The Husband’s Message” (Anonymous)

“The Husband’s Message,” an anonymous Old English poem, first appeared in the Exeter Book around the late 10th century. Translated by Michael R. Burch, the poem conveys a message from a husband to his wife, urging her to fulfill a promise made in the past. It blends themes of loyalty, love, and the passage of time, reflecting the complexities of relationships in a society bound by duty and honor. The husband’s emissary, a ship’s messenger, recounts how the husband has endured trials and hardships but now commands wealth and security. He calls upon his wife to join him, reinforcing their bond. The poem’s enduring popularity lies in its vivid portrayal of enduring love and the fulfillment of promises, as seen in the lines: “He reminds you how, in those distant days, witty words were pledged by you both / in the mead-halls and homesteads.” The poem’s themes resonate with audiences for their universal portrayal of commitment and emotional longing, transcending time and cultural boundaries.

Text: “The Husband’s Message” (Anonymous)

translation/interpretation by Michael R. Burch

See, I unseal myself for your eyes only!
I sprang from a seed to a sapling,
waxed great in a wood,
                           was given knowledge,
was ordered across saltstreams in ships
where I stiffened my spine, standing tall,
till, entering the halls of heroes,
                   I honored my manly Lord.

Now I stand here on this ship’s deck,
an emissary ordered to inform you
of the love my Lord feels for you.
I have no fear forecasting his heart steadfast,
his honor bright, his word true.

He who bade me come carved this letter
and entreats you to recall, clad in your finery,
what you promised each other many years before,
mindful of his treasure-laden promises.

He reminds you how, in those distant days,
witty words were pledged by you both
in the mead-halls and homesteads:
how he would be Lord of the lands
you would inhabit together
while forging a lasting love.
 
Alas, a vendetta drove him far from his feuding tribe,
but now he instructs me to gladly give you notice
that when you hear the returning cuckoo’s cry
cascading down warming coastal cliffs,
come over the sea! Let no man hinder your course.

He earnestly urges you: Out! To sea!
Away to the sea, when the circling gulls
hover over the ship that conveys you to him!

Board the ship that you meet there:
sail away seaward to seek your husband,
over the seagulls’ range,
                          over the paths of foam.
For over the water, he awaits you.

He cannot conceive, he told me,
how any keener joy could comfort his heart,
nor any greater happiness gladden his soul,
than that a generous God should grant you both
to exchange rings, then give gifts to trusty liege-men,
golden armbands inlaid with gems to faithful followers.

The lands are his, his estates among strangers,
his new abode fair and his followers true,
all hardy heroes, since hence he was driven,
shoved off in his ship from these shore in distress,
steered straightway over the saltstreams, sped over the ocean,
a wave-tossed wanderer winging away.

But now the man has overcome his woes,
outpitted his perils, lives in plenty, lacks no luxury,
has a hoard and horses and friends in the mead-halls.

All the wealth of the earth’s great earls
now belongs to my Lord …
                             He only lacks you.

He would have everything within an earl’s having,
if only my Lady will come home to him now,
if only she will do as she swore and honor her vow.

Annotations: “The Husband’s Message” (Anonymous)

Line	Annotation	Literary Devices
“See, I unseal myself for your eyes only!”	The speaker is revealing the message only for the recipient.	Metaphor (unseal = open up emotionally)
“I sprang from a seed to a sapling,”	Describes growth from humble beginnings, symbolizing development or change.	Metaphor (seed to sapling = growth)
“waxed great in a wood,”	The speaker became strong, growing tall and strong like a tree.	Metaphor (waxed great = became powerful)
“was given knowledge,”	Suggests receiving wisdom or awareness.	Metaphor (knowledge = wisdom)
“was ordered across saltstreams in ships”	The journey is described, symbolizing hardship or adventure.	Metaphor (saltstreams = the sea)
“where I stiffened my spine, standing tall,”	The speaker shows resilience and strength, like standing tall in adversity.	Metaphor (stiffened spine = bravery)
“till, entering the halls of heroes, I honored my manly Lord.”	Describes the speaker’s arrival in a noble place, showing respect.	Metaphor (halls of heroes = noble place)
“Now I stand here on this ship’s deck,”	The speaker is physically on a ship, delivering the message.	Literal description
“an emissary ordered to inform you of the love my Lord feels for you.”	The speaker is a messenger, tasked with delivering a message of love.	Metaphor (emissary = messenger)
“I have no fear forecasting his heart steadfast, his honor bright, his word true.”	The speaker confidently shares that the husband’s love and honor are unshakeable.	Metaphor (heart steadfast = unwavering love)
“He who bade me come carved this letter”	The husband instructed the speaker to deliver the message, creating a sense of purpose.	Metaphor (carved = created)
“and entreats you to recall, clad in your finery,”	The husband asks the wife to remember their past promises when she is dressed in her best.	Imagery (clad in finery = wearing fine clothes)
“what you promised each other many years before,”	The husband wants the wife to recall their vows from the past.	Allusion (to past promises)
“mindful of his treasure-laden promises.”	Refers to promises of wealth and rewards.	Metaphor (treasure-laden = rich with promises)
“He reminds you how, in those distant days, witty words were pledged by you both in the mead-halls and homesteads:”	A reminder of past conversations and promises made in a social setting.	Imagery (mead-halls = communal place)
“how he would be Lord of the lands you would inhabit together while forging a lasting love.”	Recalling the promise of shared wealth and eternal love.	Metaphor (Lord of the lands = ruler)
“Alas, a vendetta drove him far from his feuding tribe,”	The speaker explains that the husband was forced to leave because of a conflict.	Allusion (vendetta = conflict)
“but now he instructs me to gladly give you notice”	The husband now gives orders to the messenger to deliver the joyful news.	Metaphor (instructs = orders)
“that when you hear the returning cuckoo’s cry cascading down warming coastal cliffs,”	The husband signals the time for the wife to return, marked by natural imagery.	Imagery (cuckoo’s cry = sign of return)
“come over the sea! Let no man hinder your course.”	The speaker urges the wife to come without hesitation, despite any obstacles.	Imperative (come over the sea = return)
“He earnestly urges you: Out! To sea! Away to the sea, when the circling gulls hover over the ship that conveys you to him!”	The urgency for the wife to return is emphasized. The imagery of the sea suggests a journey.	Repetition (Out! To sea!)
“Board the ship that you meet there: sail away seaward to seek your husband, over the seagulls’ range, over the paths of foam.”	The speaker directs the wife to embark on a journey over the sea to find her husband.	Imagery (paths of foam = sea foam)
“For over the water, he awaits you.”	The husband waits across the sea, reinforcing the distance and longing.	Metaphor (over the water = across the sea)
“He cannot conceive, he told me, how any keener joy could comfort his heart,”	The speaker conveys the intensity of the husband’s joy in anticipation of reunion.	Metaphor (keener joy = greater happiness)
“nor any greater happiness gladden his soul,”	Emphasizes the profound joy the husband expects upon reunion.	Metaphor (gladden his soul = make him happy)
“than that a generous God should grant you both to exchange rings, then give gifts to trusty liege-men,”	The husband looks forward to the union, with promises of wealth and gifts.	Metaphor (exchange rings = marriage)
“golden armbands inlaid with gems to faithful followers.”	Describes the gifts that signify loyalty and honor.	Imagery (golden armbands = wealth and loyalty)
“The lands are his, his estates among strangers, his new abode fair and his followers true,”	Describes the husband’s wealth and success in a new place.	Metaphor (lands are his = he is rich)
“all hardy heroes, since hence he was driven, shoved off in his ship from these shore in distress,”	The hardships the husband faced are described, emphasizing his perseverance.	Metaphor (shoved off = forced to leave)
“steered straightway over the saltstreams, sped over the ocean, a wave-tossed wanderer winging away.”	Imagery of the husband’s journey across the sea, emphasizing hardship and struggle.	Imagery (wave-tossed wanderer = struggling traveler)
“But now the man has overcome his woes, outpitted his perils, lives in plenty, lacks no luxury,”	Describes the husband’s transformation from hardship to success.	Metaphor (overcome his woes = conquered troubles)
“has a hoard and horses and friends in the mead-halls.”	Emphasizes the wealth and social standing the husband now possesses.	Imagery (hoard and horses = wealth and power)
“All the wealth of the earth’s great earls now belongs to my Lord …”	The speaker emphasizes the husband’s newfound wealth and power.	Metaphor (wealth of earth’s great earls = great wealth)
“He only lacks you.”	The husband’s only desire is to be reunited with his wife.	Metaphor (lacks you = missing her)
“He would have everything within an earl’s having, if only my Lady will come home to him now, if only she will do as she swore and honor her vow.”	The speaker emphasizes the final plea for the wife to fulfill her promise and return.	Repetition (if only = repeated plea)

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Husband’s Message” (Anonymous)

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	“waxed great in a wood”	Repetition of the initial consonant sound “w” in “waxed” and “wood” to create rhythm and emphasis.
Allusion	“He reminds you how, in those distant days, witty words were pledged by you both”	A reference to a past event or promise, invoking shared history between the husband and wife.
Anaphora	“He earnestly urges you: Out! To sea! Away to the sea”	The repetition of the phrase “to sea” emphasizes the urgency and importance of the wife’s journey.
Antithesis	“he has a hoard and horses and friends in the mead-halls / now belongs to my Lord…”	Contrasting the husband’s past struggles with his present wealth and status, highlighting his transformation.
Assonance	“he only lacks you”	The repetition of the vowel sound “a” in “lacks” and “you” creates a soft, melodic quality, emphasizing the husband’s longing for his wife.
Hyperbole	“He cannot conceive, he told me, how any keener joy could comfort his heart”	An exaggerated expression of the husband’s joy and desire, stressing the intensity of his emotions.
Imagery	“Board the ship that you meet there: sail away seaward to seek your husband”	Vivid imagery of a sea journey conveys the speaker’s message and the idea of a physical and emotional voyage.
Irony	“He only lacks you”	The husband possesses wealth, power, and honor, yet the only thing he lacks is his wife, creating an ironic situation where the most essential thing is missing.
Metaphor	“I sprang from a seed to a sapling”	The speaker compares growth and development to a seed turning into a sapling, symbolizing strength and maturation.
Motif	“sea” and “saltstreams”	The recurring motif of the sea and water highlights the journey and separation between the husband and wife, serving as a central theme of longing and reunion.
Onomatopoeia	“cuckoo’s cry”	The word “cuckoo” imitates the actual sound of the bird, creating a sensory experience for the reader.
Oxymoron	“a wave-tossed wanderer winging away”	Contrasting terms “wave-tossed” (struggling) and “winging away” (flying smoothly) to create a paradoxical image of the husband’s journey.
Paradox	“The lands are his, his estates among strangers”	A seemingly contradictory statement that the husband has estates among strangers, implying isolation despite his wealth.
Personification	“the returning cuckoo’s cry cascading down warming coastal cliffs”	The cuckoo’s cry is personified as it “cascades,” giving the natural element human qualities.
Repetition	“He would have everything within an earl’s having, if only my Lady will come home to him now”	The repetition of “if only” emphasizes the speaker’s desperation for the wife to fulfill her promise.
Rhetorical Question	“He cannot conceive, he told me, how any keener joy could comfort his heart”	A rhetorical question that emphasizes the depth of the husband’s longing and his inability to imagine a greater joy than his reunion with his wife.
Simile	“I stiffened my spine, standing tall”	A comparison of the speaker’s strength and resilience to a tall, sturdy figure, conveying confidence and determination.
Synecdoche	“his word true”	“Word” represents the husband’s honor and promises in general, a part representing the whole concept of his character.
Symbolism	“cuckoo’s cry”	The cuckoo’s call symbolizes the arrival of spring, renewal, and the time for the wife to return to her husband.
Understatement	“he lacks no luxury”	An understatement of the husband’s newfound wealth, implying that he has everything he needs, but it downplays the full extent of his success.
Volta	“But now the man has overcome his woes”	The shift from describing the husband’s troubles to his current success marks a turning point in the narrative, known as a “volta” in poetry.

Themes: “The Husband’s Message” (Anonymous)

• Love and Loyalty: In “The Husband’s Message,” love and loyalty are central themes, as the husband’s deep affection for his wife motivates the entire narrative. The husband expresses unwavering love, despite the years of separation, and his commitment to her is clear throughout the poem. The message he sends through the emissary is filled with references to promises made in the past and the hope of their fulfillment in the future. The speaker emphasizes the husband’s steadfast love: “I have no fear forecasting his heart steadfast, his honor bright, his word true,” showing that the husband’s feelings remain constant despite the passage of time. His loyalty is not just emotional but also bound by the promises made in their youth, which he wishes to be honored: “He reminds you how, in those distant days, witty words were pledged by you both.” This highlights the endurance of love and loyalty over time and the belief in the sacredness of promises, even as the husband awaits his wife’s return.
• Separation and Reunion: The theme of separation and reunion permeates “The Husband’s Message,” symbolized by the husband’s journey away from his wife and the emissary’s plea for her to return. The poem evokes the physical and emotional distance between the two lovers. The husband’s journey, described with phrases like “shoved off in his ship” and “a wave-tossed wanderer,” represents both literal and metaphorical separation. However, the theme of reunion is equally prominent, with the husband’s call for the wife to return to him: “Board the ship that you meet there: sail away seaward to seek your husband.” The recurring imagery of the sea, such as “when the circling gulls hover over the ship,” symbolizes the journey and the obstacles faced by both the husband and wife, and it underscores the longing for reunion. The reunion represents the fulfillment of promises and a restoration of harmony between them. The husband’s plea, “He only lacks you,” illustrates that despite his material wealth and power, the only thing he truly desires is the return of his wife, thus reinforcing the emotional nature of their separation.
• Promises and Vows: The theme of promises and vows is deeply woven into “The Husband’s Message,” as both the husband and wife made commitments to one another in their past. The husband asks his wife to recall the promises they made “many years before” when they were “clad in your finery.” These words emphasize the binding nature of vows and the emotional weight of promises made in youthful days. The husband’s message also reiterates the mutual promises made to share lands and build a lasting love: “how he would be Lord of the lands you would inhabit together while forging a lasting love.” This theme suggests that vows are not just temporary promises but pledges that span the distance of time and separation. The husband’s request for the wife to honor her vow underscores the importance of fulfilling promises, which in the context of the poem, symbolizes not only personal integrity but also the strength of their relationship. The enduring nature of these vows, despite the years of absence, highlights the theme of commitment that transcends time and hardship.
• Transformation and Success: The theme of transformation is reflected in the husband’s journey from hardship to success in “The Husband’s Message.” Early in the poem, the husband is described as a “wave-tossed wanderer” and someone who was “shoved off in his ship from these shore in distress.” This imagery suggests a past filled with struggle and peril. However, as the poem progresses, it becomes clear that the husband has overcome these difficulties and now lives in wealth and abundance: “he has a hoard and horses and friends in the mead-halls.” The husband’s success is not just material but also social, as he has acquired followers who are loyal to him, reinforcing the idea of his transformation. The message of success is not just about wealth but also about perseverance and the eventual triumph over adversity. The husband’s prosperity is contrasted with his earlier hardships, emphasizing his resilience: “The lands are his, his estates among strangers.” This success, however, is still incomplete without his wife, underscoring the notion that personal fulfillment is tied not just to material gain but to emotional connection and the completion of life’s promises.

Literary Theories and “The Husband’s Message” (Anonymous)

Literary Theory	Explanation	References from the Poem
Feminist Theory	Feminist theory focuses on gender roles, relationships, and the portrayal of women in literature. In this poem, the wife’s role and expectations are framed by the husband’s perspective, which reflects the patriarchal values of the time. The husband’s desire for her return underscores her role as the supportive wife, fulfilling the promises made in the past.	“He reminds you how, in those distant days, witty words were pledged by you both” highlights the husband recalling promises made by the wife, emphasizing her role in the relationship. “He only lacks you” further exemplifies the wife’s central importance in the husband’s life, while also showing how the wife is expected to fulfill her promise within the patriarchal structure.
Historical/Contextual Theory	This theory emphasizes understanding the work in its historical and cultural context. In “The Husband’s Message,” understanding the Viking Age context is crucial, where honor, duty, and loyalty were integral to societal values, and the journey across the sea symbolizes the harshness and sacrifices of that era.	“He who bade me come carved this letter” reflects the cultural practice of letter-writing and messengers, common in medieval society. The description of the husband as “a wave-tossed wanderer” signifies the struggles and voyages of individuals during the Viking Age, while the emphasis on honor and loyalty through “his heart steadfast, his honor bright” draws upon the social and cultural expectations of the time.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Psychoanalytic theory, based on Freudian ideas, looks at the unconscious desires and internal conflicts in literature. In this poem, the husband’s longing for his wife and the separation may represent unconscious desires for unity and the fulfillment of promises. The journey across the sea might symbolize the emotional distance and psychological struggle between them.	“He only lacks you” can be seen as expressing the husband’s deep emotional need and desire for the reunion with his wife. The metaphor of “wave-tossed wanderer” suggests an inner turmoil and psychological struggle in the husband’s journey, indicating that the external voyage also symbolizes the emotional journey of yearning and fulfillment of repressed desires.
Structuralist Theory	Structuralism analyzes how the structure of a text functions in relation to its underlying systems and codes. In this poem, the binary oppositions (separation/reunion, promise/fulfillment) play a critical role in shaping the narrative. The structured message delivered by the emissary adheres to the traditional roles of a hero’s journey, following a predictable pattern of hardship and eventual reunion.	“Board the ship that you meet there: sail away seaward to seek your husband” provides a structural pathway for the reunion, framed by the opposition of “to sea” (separation) and “return” (reunion). The structured repetition in the poem, especially the call to “go to sea,” mirrors the journey’s expected outcome of reunion, while the formal plea to “honor your vow” reinforces the thematic structure of duty and fulfillment.

Critical Questions about “The Husband’s Message” (Anonymous)

• How does the speaker’s role as an emissary shape the narrative of “The Husband’s Message”?
• The speaker, acting as an emissary in “The Husband’s Message,” plays a pivotal role in conveying the husband’s emotions and intentions. The fact that the message is delivered through a third party adds layers of complexity to the narrative, creating a sense of distance between the husband and wife, both physically and emotionally. The speaker’s role also enhances the theme of duty, as the emissary is bound by the task of delivering the message with fidelity, emphasizing the husband’s trust in the emissary. The phrase “See, I unseal myself for your eyes only!” reveals the personal and intimate nature of the message, highlighting the speaker’s role in relaying the husband’s love and longing. The reliance on the emissary to deliver a message of love underscores the idea of communication as a form of connection, even when physical presence is unavailable. It also reflects the cultural value placed on intermediaries in times of separation, giving the emissary the unique ability to bridge the gap between the two lovers, despite being a mere vessel for the husband’s emotions.
• What role does nature play in conveying the themes of longing and separation in “The Husband’s Message”?
• Nature plays a significant symbolic role in “The Husband’s Message,” particularly in representing the emotional landscape of separation and the hope for reunion. The recurring references to the sea and natural elements, such as “saltstreams” and “cuckoo’s cry,” are not only literal but also metaphorical, reflecting the emotional turbulence and longing that both the husband and wife experience. The sea, which the husband traverses in his journey, is a central motif symbolizing both physical and emotional separation: “A wave-tossed wanderer winging away” evokes the sense of struggle and uncertainty faced by the husband as he is separated from his wife. The returning cuckoo, whose cry “cascades down warming coastal cliffs,” signals the time for reunion, represents hope and the cyclical nature of seasons, symbolizing the anticipation of return and the emotional relief that it will bring. Nature, thus, is not just a setting in the poem but a reflective mirror to the internal states of the characters, illustrating the deep connection between external events and inner emotions.
• What is the significance of the husband’s transformation from hardship to success in “The Husband’s Message”?
• The husband’s transformation from a “wave-tossed wanderer” to a man who “lacks no luxury” reflects the theme of personal growth and triumph over adversity. The imagery of the husband’s journey, including being “shoved off in his ship from these shore in distress,” indicates a past filled with hardship, suggesting that his current wealth and success are the results of his perseverance. The repetition of phrases like “he has a hoard and horses and friends in the mead-halls” reinforces the idea that his material success is a symbol of his survival and resilience. This transformation underscores a fundamental aspect of the poem: the value of endurance and the rewards that come with overcoming difficulties. However, the husband’s newfound prosperity is incomplete without his wife, as demonstrated by the poignant line, “He only lacks you.” This indicates that true fulfillment, for him, does not lie solely in material wealth but in the emotional connection and fulfillment of promises, thus suggesting that success, while important, is ultimately hollow without love and companionship.
• How does the motif of promises and vows function within the cultural context of “The Husband’s Message”?
• In “The Husband’s Message,” promises and vows function as central structural elements that guide the narrative and highlight the cultural values of loyalty and commitment. The husband constantly reminds the wife of the vows they made “many years before,” invoking a sense of obligation and duty that transcends time and distance. The cultural context of the poem—likely the Viking or Anglo-Saxon period—places a strong emphasis on the importance of honor and the keeping of promises, especially in the context of marriage. The husband’s message is a call to fulfill a vow made in the past, and his persistence is evident in the repeated pleas for the wife to “come over the sea” and honor her commitment. The reminder of their shared promises also signifies that relationships in this context are built on mutual trust and fidelity, and that these promises are sacred and should be honored regardless of the challenges faced. The cultural weight of vows is evident in the husband’s reminder: “He reminds you how, in those distant days, witty words were pledged by you both.” This not only highlights the emotional bond but also the expectation that vows, once made, are meant to be fulfilled, reflecting the serious cultural and social implications of promises in that era.

Literary Works Similar to “The Husband’s Message” (Anonymous)

1. “The Wife’s Lament” (Anonymous)
   Similar to “The Husband’s Message,” this poem explores themes of separation, longing, and emotional pain as the wife reflects on her exile and the lost love with her husband.
2. “The Seafarer” (Anonymous)
   Like “The Husband’s Message,” this poem portrays a journey across the sea and the internal struggles of the narrator, emphasizing themes of isolation, longing, and the emotional pull of home and love.
3. “The Wanderer” (Anonymous)
   This poem, like “The Husband’s Message,” deals with the experience of exile, loss, and yearning for reunion, as the wanderer reflects on his past and the bonds he left behind.
4. “A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” by John Donne
   Both this poem and “The Husband’s Message” deal with the emotional distance between lovers. Donne’s poem expresses the idea of enduring love despite physical separation, much like the steadfast love in “The Husband’s Message.”
5. “Sonnet 18” by William Shakespeare
   Similar to “The Husband’s Message,” Shakespeare’s sonnet expresses an undying, eternal love, transcending time and physical separation, reinforcing the theme of lasting emotional connection despite absence.

Representative Quotations of “The Husband’s Message” (Anonymous)

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“See, I unseal myself for your eyes only!”	The emissary begins delivering the message, emphasizing the intimate and personal nature of the message from the husband to his wife.	Feminist Theory (Gender roles in communication)
“I sprang from a seed to a sapling,”	The speaker compares the growth of his journey to the growth of a tree, symbolizing the hardships and growth experienced.	Psychoanalytic Theory (Symbol of personal growth and development)
“was ordered across saltstreams in ships”	The journey across the sea represents both the physical separation and the emotional distance between the husband and wife.	Historical/Contextual Theory (Viking Age voyages and separation)
“I stiffened my spine, standing tall,”	The speaker describes resilience and strength in the face of adversity, signifying the journey’s trials.	Structuralist Theory (Strength as a structural element of the journey)
“He who bade me come carved this letter”	The husband is the one who directs the emissary, signaling the importance of the written message in the transmission of emotions and desires.	Historical/Contextual Theory (Importance of messages and intermediaries in medieval communication)
“He reminds you how, in those distant days, witty words were pledged by you both”	The husband recalls promises made in the past, invoking a sense of nostalgia and duty for the wife to fulfill their vows.	Feminist Theory (Role of women in maintaining promises)
“Let no man hinder your course.”	The speaker urges the wife to fulfill her vow without hesitation, emphasizing her agency and the importance of her actions.	Feminist Theory (Women’s agency in fulfilling promises)
“Board the ship that you meet there: sail away seaward to seek your husband”	The wife is urged to reunite with her husband by embarking on a journey across the sea, symbolizing hope and fulfillment.	Structuralist Theory (Separation and reunion as structural oppositions)
“He only lacks you”	The husband expresses that despite his wealth and success, his true fulfillment is incomplete without his wife.	Psychoanalytic Theory (Unconscious desire for unity)
“He would have everything within an earl’s having, if only my Lady will come home to him now”	The final plea from the emissary emphasizes that despite all material wealth, the husband’s emotional desires are centered on the reunion with his wife.	Historical/Contextual Theory (Social and cultural expectations of marriage vows)

Suggested Readings: “The Husband’s Message” (Anonymous)

1. NILES, JOHN D. “The Trick of the Runes in ‘The Husband’s Message.'” Anglo-Saxon England, vol. 32, 2003, pp. 189–223. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44510322. Accessed 28 Feb. 2025.
2. Niles, John D. “The Problem of the Ending of the Wife’s ‘Lament.'” Speculum, vol. 78, no. 4, 2003, pp. 1107–50. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20060924. Accessed 28 Feb. 2025.
3. Kaske, R. E. “A POEM OF THE CROSS IN THE EXETER BOOK: ‘RIDDLE 60’ AND ‘THE HUSBAND’S MESSAGE.'” Traditio, vol. 23, 1967, pp. 41–71. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27830826. Accessed 28 Feb. 2025.
4. RAFFEL, BURTON. “A Woman’s Message and the Husband’s Message.” Prairie Schooner, vol. 32, no. 2, 1958, pp. 125–27. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40626095. Accessed 28 Feb. 2025.
5. Veach, Dan. “The Husband’s Message.” Beowulf and Beyond: Classic Anglo-Saxon Poems, Stories, Sayings, Spells, and Riddles, Lockwood Press, 2021, pp. 39–40. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1hw3xs9.16. Accessed 28 Feb. 2025.