Month: March 2023

“Dead Man’s Path” by Chinua Achebe

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Introduction to “Dead Man’s Path” by Chinua Achebe

Written by the great Nigerian writer, Chinua Achebe, the story “Dead Man’s Path” first appeared in 1953. It was included in his collection, Girls at War and Other Stories, which hit the markets in 1972. “Dead Man’s Path” is set in a rural village in Nigeria and explores the clash between traditional African beliefs and Western education. The protagonist, Michael Obi, is a young and ambitious school principal who is determined to modernize the school and raise its profile. However, his plans face fierce resistance from the local villagers, who view the school as a sacred ground that connects the living and the dead. The popularity of the story lies in its conflictual presentation of the traditions and innovations.

Main Events in “Dead Man’s Path” by Chinua Achebe

“Dead Men’s Path” by Chinua Achebe explores the clash between traditional African beliefs and Western colonialism in Nigeria. The main events in the story are:

  1. Introduction: The story opens with the arrival of a new headmaster, Michael Obi, at Ndume Central School. He is young, ambitious, and determined to modernize the school.
  2. The Path: The school is located on land the local villagers consider sacred for them. There is a path that runs through the school’s compound, which the villagers believe is a pathway for their ancestors to reach the afterlife. The path has been used for generations. Therefore, it has become an important part of the villagers’ culture.
  3. Conflict: Obi wants to close the path and erect a fence around the school. He believes that the path is a primitive superstition, having no place in modern education. The villagers feel outraged by his plans and see it as a direct attack on their culture.
  4. Compromise: The local priest, who is also a respected member of the community, intervenes and suggests a compromise. He proposes that the path be left open, but that the school should plant hedges on either side to make it less visible.
  5. Destruction: Obi, who is unwilling to compromise, rejects the proposal and goes ahead with his plans. The path is destroyed, and a fence is erected around the school. The villagers are angry and feel that their culture has been disrespected.
  6. Retribution: On the day of the official opening of the school, the villagers retaliate by destroying the fence and pulling down the building. The school supervisor reprimanded Obi for his over-zeal for inciting almost a tribal war.
  7. Realization: In the aftermath of the tragedy, Obi begins to understand the importance of cultural traditions and the need to respect them. He realizes that his arrogance and ignorance have caused great harm and that he needs to find a way to reconcile with the villagers.
  8. Conclusion: The story ends with Obi looking out over the destroyed path and realizing that he has failed in his mission to modernize the school. He feels a sense of shame and regret and understands that he has a lot to learn about the culture and traditions of the people he is meant to serve.
Literary Devices in “Dead Man’s Path” by Chinua Achebe
  1. Allusion: A reference to a historical or literary figure, event, or object that enriches the text. In “Dead Man’s Path,” Achebe alludes to the religious and cultural traditions of the Igbo people, such as the importance of ancestors, and the belief in reincarnation.
  2. Dialogue: The dialogue between characters, such as the conversation between the headmaster and the village priest, reveals their different beliefs and values, and contributes to the conflict in the story.
  3. Foreshadowing: A hint or suggestion of events to come. In “Dead Man’s Path,” the conversation between the headmaster and the village priest foreshadows the conflict that will arise between the headmaster and the villagers over the closing of the path.
  4. Imagery: The use of vivid and descriptive language to create mental images in the reader’s mind. In “Dead Man’s Path,” Achebe employs imagery to evoke the beauty of the surrounding landscape, the lush vegetation, and the rich culture of the Igbo people.
  5. Irony: A contrast between what is expected and what actually happens. In “Dead Man’s Path,” there is irony in the fact that the headmaster, who is supposed to be educated and open-minded, is so dismissive of the villagers’ traditions and beliefs.
  6. Juxtaposition: Achebe juxtaposes the headmaster’s belief in progress and modernity with the villagers’ reverence for tradition and their ancestors.
  7. Metaphor: A comparison between two things without using “like” or “as”. In “Dead Man’s Path,” the path itself is a metaphor for the cultural divide between the headmaster and the villagers.
  8. Point of view: The story is told from the third-person omniscient point of view, allowing the reader to understand the perspectives of both the headmaster and the villagers.
  9. Repetition: Achebe uses repetition of phrases such as “dead” and “ancestors” to emphasize the importance of the village’s traditions and beliefs.
  10. Satire: The story can be seen as a satire on the idea of progress and modernity being imposed on traditional societies without consideration for their customs and beliefs.
  11. Symbolism: The use of objects, actions, or images to represent abstract ideas or concepts. In “Dead Man’s Path,” the path symbolizes the clash between tradition and modernity, and the conflict between the headmaster and the villagers.
  12. Tone: Achebe’s tone is critical of the headmaster’s arrogance and ignorance, but also empathetic towards the villagers and their cultural traditions.
  13. Theme: The story’s theme of the clash between tradition and modernity is conveyed through the conflict between the headmaster and the villagers over the path.
Characterization in “Dead Man’s Path” by Chinua Achebe

Here are the major and minor characters in “Dead Man’s Path” by Chinua Achebe, along with a brief description of each:

Major Characters:
  1. Michael Obi: The headmaster of the Ndume Central School who is committed to bringing progress and modernity to the village.
  2. Nancy Obi: Michael’s wife who shares his belief in progress and supports him in his efforts to improve the school.
  3. The village priest: A respected elder who represents the traditional values and beliefs of the villagers, including the importance of the ancestral spirits and the sacredness of the path.
  4. The old woman: A villager who tells Michael the story of the path and warns him of the consequences of disrespecting the ancestors.
Minor Characters:
  1. The supervisor – Michael’s supervisor who is responsible for overseeing the school’s operations.
  2. The villagers – The local people who use the path to visit their ancestral graves and believe that it is sacred and should not be closed.
  3. The workmen – The men hired by Michael to clear the path and prepare it for paving.
  4. The dead man – A former villager whose grave lies on the other side of the path.
  5. The school inspector – The government official who inspects the school and praises Michael for his efforts to improve it.

Note: Some of these characters may be considered major or minor, depending on the reader’s interpretation.

Writing Style in “Dead Man’s Path” by Chinua Achebe

Achebe’s writing style in “Dead Man’s Path” is characterized by its conciseness, clarity, and use of irony. He employs vivid imagery and symbolism to convey the setting and themes of the story, while his use of dialogue reveals the perspectives and motivations of the characters. Achebe’s writing is empathetic towards the villagers and their cultural traditions, while also criticizing the headmaster’s ignorance and disrespect. He employs satire to expose the flaws and contradictions of Western-style progress and modernity, as well as the hypocrisy of those who promote it without regard for local cultures and beliefs. Overall, Achebe’s writing style is straightforward, accessible, and powerful, conveying a powerful critique of cultural clashes and the dangers of unchecked progress.

Major Themes in “Dead Man’s Path” by Chinua Achebe
  1. The clash between tradition and modernity: The story explores the conflict between the headmaster’s Western-style progressivism and the villagers’ traditional beliefs and practices, particularly regarding the sacredness of the path.
  2. The dangers of arrogance: The headmaster’s dismissive attitude toward the villagers’ beliefs and practices leads to his downfall, demonstrating the dangers of arrogance and the importance of respecting local cultures and traditions.
  3. The power of storytelling and myth: The story shows how the villagers’ oral traditions and myths shape their worldview and understanding of the world, while also providing them a way to pass on cultural values and beliefs from generation to generation.
  4. The influence of the past on the present: The story suggests that the past, particularly the legacy of colonialism and the imposition of Western values and beliefs, continues to shape the present, leading to cultural clashes and tensions.
  5. The need for balance and compromise: The story suggests that progress and modernity can coexist with tradition and culture, but only if both sides are willing to compromise and find a balance between the two.
  6. The consequences of disrespecting the ancestors: The story shows how the headmaster’s disrespect for the path and the ancestors leads to a violent confrontation and his ultimate failure, suggesting that ignoring or disrespecting the spiritual and cultural beliefs of others can have serious consequences.
Literary Theories and Interpretation of “Dead Man’s Path” by Chinua Achebe
  1. Postcolonial Theory: The story can be read through the lens of postcolonial theory, which examines the effects of colonialism on colonized cultures and societies. The story critiques the imposition of Western values and beliefs on traditional African cultures and shows how this can lead to cultural clashes and tensions.
  2. Cultural Studies: Cultural studies theory examines how cultural practices and beliefs shape our understanding of the world and our social and political identities. The story can be read as a critique of cultural arrogance and the need to respect and value local cultures and traditions through the characters of Obi, Nancy and local priest.
  3. Structuralism: Structuralism is a theory that examines the underlying structures and systems that shape our understanding of the world. The story can be read through a structuralist lens, which would analyze the binary oppositions (such as tradition vs. modernity) that underlie the conflict in the story.
  4. Reader-Response Theory: Reader-response theory suggests that meaning is constructed through the interaction between the text and the reader. The story can be read through a reader-response lens, which would examine how readers interpret and respond to the themes and symbols in the story. It will show how readers from different part of the world interpret story through their own worldview.
  5. Feminist Theory: Feminist theory examines issues of gender and power in literature and society. While there are no explicit references to gender in the story, a feminist interpretation might examine how gender roles and expectations are reinforced or challenged by the cultural practices and beliefs depicted in the story.
  6. Marxist Theory: Marxist theory examines issues of class and power in society and literature. The story can be read through a Marxist lens, which would examine the power dynamics between the headmaster and the villagers, as well as the economic and political structures that shape their interactions.
Questions and Thesis Statements about “Dead Man’s Path” by Chinua Achebe
  1. What is the significance of the path in the story, and how does it reflect the conflict between tradition and modernity?

Thesis Statement: The path in “Dead Man’s Path” represents the clash between tradition and modernity, highlighting the importance of respecting local cultures and traditions in the face of Western-style progressivism.

  • What is the role of the headmaster in the story, and how does his character contribute to the themes of cultural clash and arrogance?

Thesis Statement: The headmaster’s character in “Dead Man’s Path” serves to critique cultural arrogance and demonstrate the dangers of imposing Western values on traditional African cultures.

  • How does Achebe use irony and satire to critique Western-style progressivism and modernity in the story?

Thesis Statement: Achebe’s use of irony and satire in “Dead Man’s Path” satirizes Western-style progressivism and underscores the importance of finding a balance between tradition and modernity.

  • What is the role of storytelling and myth in the story, and how do they reflect the cultural values and beliefs of the villagers?

Thesis Statement: The role of storytelling and myth in “Dead Man’s Path” reflects the cultural values and beliefs of the villagers, offering a way to pass on cultural knowledge and preserve local traditions.

  • How does the story depict the influence of colonialism on African cultures and societies, and what insights does it offer into the ongoing effects of colonialism?

Thesis Statement: “Dead Man’s Path” depicts the ongoing effects of colonialism on African cultures and societies, illustrating the need to confront the legacy of colonialism in order to build a more just and equitable future.

  • How does the story demonstrate the importance of compromise and balance between tradition and modernity, and what lessons can be drawn from the conflict between the headmaster and the villagers?’

Thesis Statement: The conflict between the headmaster and the villagers in “Dead Man’s Path” demonstrates the importance of compromise and balance between tradition and modernity, offering lessons for how to navigate cultural clashes in a rapidly changing world.

Short Questions-Answers About “Dead Man’s Path” by Chinua Achebe
  1. What is the central conflict in “Dead Man’s Path”?

The central conflict in “Dead Man’s Path” is the clash between traditional African beliefs and Western education. The protagonist, Michael Obi, is determined to modernize the school and its surroundings by clearing a path that runs through an ancestral burial ground. However, the local villagers believe that the path is sacred and that the spirits of their ancestors will be angered by its desecration. The conflict between Michael and the villagers escalates until it culminates in a tragic outcome.

  1. What themes are explored in “Dead Man’s Path”?

“Dead Man’s Path” explores themes such as cultural conflict, tradition, modernization, and the impact of colonialism on African society. The story highlights the tension between Western education and traditional African beliefs, as well as the consequences of disregarding cultural traditions and values through the characters of Obi, his wife Nancy, the village woman and the priest.

  1. How does the setting of “Dead Man’s Path” contribute to the story?

The setting of “Dead Man’s Path” is a rural village in Nigeria, which contributes to the story in several ways. The village is portrayed as a place where tradition and modernization are in conflict, and where the legacy of colonialism sees coming into conflict with the local traditions. The path that Michael wants to clear runs through an ancestral burial ground, which symbolizes the connection between the living and the dead. The setting also reflects the cultural richness of Nigeria and highlights the importance of cultural heritage.

  1. What is the significance of the title “Dead Man’s Path”?

The title “Dead Man’s Path” is significant because it refers to the path that Michael wants to clear, which runs through an ancestral burial ground of the local people. The title suggests that the path is haunted by the spirits of the dead, and that Michael’s actions will have consequences beyond his understanding. The title also highlights the conflict between the living and the dead, and the importance of respecting cultural traditions and values.

Relevant and Important Quotations from “Dead Man’s Path”
  1. “He had many wonderful ideas and this was an opportunity to put them into practice.”
  2. “We shall have such beautiful gardens and everything will be just modern and delightful.”
  3. “What will the Government Education Officer think of this when he comes to inspect the school next week?”
  4. “Our fathers never meant any harm to your school or to you.”
  5. “You think you can clear away the bush and the dirt and make it civilized?”

“Dead men do not require footpaths. The whole idea is just fantastic.”

You may also read: A Man Who Was Almost a Man by Richard Wright

Foreshadowing

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Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device of Foreshadowing

The term, foreshadowing, comprises two different words fore- and shadow. It seems to indicate that an object throws its shadow before it appears in view.

In grammar, it appears as a verb having irregular forms such as foreshadowed and foreshadowing.

Literally, it means a warning, a hint, or a clue about something going to happen in the future such as his belligerence toward me foreshadows his enmity in the future. Some other related terms include foretell, portend, and augur. It often happens or appears at the start of a story or poem or the start of the chapter of a story, or novel.

Definition of Literary Device of Foreshadowing

In literature, it is a term that indicates what is going to happen later in the story. It often happens, appears, or is inserted in the form of clues, or hints. Some of its forms are red herrings, flashforwards, or symbols.

Types of foreshadowing

There are two major types of foreshadowing. It is either direct or indirect.

  1. Direct Foreshadowing: This type of foreshadowing directly points out the danger such as the danger of sharks for the Marlin in The Old Man and the Sea by Hemingway.
  2. Indirect Foreshadowing: This type of foreshadowing indirectly points toward the danger that may appear real or unfounded such as the danger of animal rebellion that later materializes in Animal Farm, a novella written by George Orwell.
Literary Examples of Foreshadowing
Example # 1

From Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen

It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife. However little known the feelings or views of such a man may be on his first entering a neighbourhood, this truth is so well fixed in the minds of the surrounding families, that he is considered as the rightful property of some one or other of their daughters.
“My dear Mr. Bennet,” said his lady to him one day, “have you heard that Netherfield Park is let at last?”
Mr. Bennet replied that he had not.

This is the first passage of Pride and Prejudice, the phenomenal novel by an English writer, Jane Austen. The very first line shows that the novel is bout marriage making and the next few lines clarify that Mr. Bennet has a huge family having a good yet nagging lady. Therefore, there must be something about marriage at his home. It, later, turns out that almost all his daughters are of marriageable age and that Mrs. Bennet is very pressing about their matches. This is a good and appropriate example of a foreshadowing.

Example # 2

From Lord of the Flies by William Golding

Ralph did a surface dive and swam under water with his eyes open; the sandy edge of the pool loomed up like a hillside. He turned over, holding his nose, and a golden light danced and shattered just over his face. Piggy was looking determined and began to take off his shorts.
Presently he was palely and fatly naked. He tiptoed down the sandy side of the pool, and sat there up to his neck in water smiling proudly at Ralph.

The image of Ralph that William Golding has created in his novel, Lord of the Flies, is not only suitable for a leader, but also for a guide. His swimming skill, piggy’s envy, and their friendship show that it is going to be a combination of mind and matter. This is another good example of a foreshadowing.

Example # 3

From Moby-Dick or The Whale by Herman Melville

Once more. Say, you are in the country; in some high land of lakes. Take almost any path you please, and ten to one it carries you down in a dale, and leaves you there by a pool in the stream. There is magic in it. Let the most absent-minded of men be plunged in his deepest reveries—stand that man on his legs, set his feet a-going, and he will infallibly lead you to water, if water there be in all that region.

This description of the sailor shows that he is obsessed with voyages. That is why it seems from those magical lands he mentions that even an absent-minded person would lead another person to water. This shows his obsession with the sea and water which later proves correct. This is a very good foreshadowing used by Herman Melville.

Example # 4

From Beloved by Toni Morrison

124 was spiteful . Full of a baby’s venom. The women in the house knew it and so did the children. For years each put up with the spite in his own way, but by 1873 Sethe and her daughter Denver were its only victims. The grandmother, Baby Suggs, was dead, and the sons, Howard and Buglar, had run away by the time they were thirteen years old—as soon as merely looking in a mirror shattered it (that was the signal for Buglar); as soon as two tiny hand prints appeared in the cake (that was it for Howard).

These lines show that Sethe is going to face difficult times as Baby Suggs, her old companion, has left her and other men have run away. This foreshadowing used by Toni Morrison has all the necessary elements.

Example # 5

From A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens

It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way—in short, the period was so far like the present period, that some of its noisiest authorities insisted on its being received, for good or for evil, in the superlative degree of comparison only.

By using anaphoric lines “It was…,” Dickens has employed a beautiful yet implicit foreshadowing to let the reader see that the times were different across the English Channel and that both of these times were going to show things differently for characters from France and England. This is an apt and yet abstract use of a foreshadowing.

Example # 6

From Brave New World by Aldous Huxley

A SQUAT grey building of only thirty-four stories. Over the main entrance the words, CENTRAL LONDON HATCHERY AND CONDITIONING CENTRE, and, in a shield, the World State’s motto, COMMUNITY, IDENTITY, STABILITY.

This passage from Brave New World shows the type of society Huxley has presented. It clearly shows that it is a very advanced society with very short and curt shibboleths for the people to follow. Therefore, it must have been a dystopic society. This prediction proves true later in the novel, and shows his skillful use of a foreshadowing.

How to Create a Foreshadowing
  1. Using conversation related to the event, accident, or incident such as in Pride and Prejudice.
  2. Use character traits of the characters involved in the event or incident such as in Beloved by Toni Morrison
  3. Use the title of the book, the story, or the chapter such as Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen.
  4. Use natural settings to announce what is going to happen such as in A Tale of Two Cities.
Benefits of Using Foreshadowing
  1. It keeps the reader hooked to the text until he finishes.
  2. It makes the reader enjoy and be relished the story.
  3. It makes the reader have a sense of improvement in his comprehension of world events.
  4. It makes the readers aware of new happenings to understand the world around them.
  5. It makes stories and poems interesting.
  6. It fills stories and poems with a multiplicity of meanings.
Literary Device of Foreshadowing in Literary Theory
  1. Although some other theoretical studies have used foreshadowing to predict emotions, emotional responses, and human adjustment such as structural affect theory, foreshadowing is in use in discursive theoretical studies, discursive English studies, post-colonial studies, and narratology.
  2. Interestingly, two main literary terms/devices, foreshadowing, and flashbacks have been used in an interactive narrative generation on computers. Yet, in theoretical lenses, they become part of progress in discussion, debate, and arguments about narratives.
Suggested Readings

Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction To Literary And Cultural Theory. Manchester University Press, 2020. Print. ‘

Bae, Byung-Chull, and R. Michael Young. “A Use Of Flashback And Foreshadowing For Surprise Arousal In Narrative Using A Plan-Based Approach.” Joint International Conference on Interactive Digital Storytelling. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, 2008. Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. Literature, Criticism, and Theory. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2004. Print.

Interested in reading more? Read on Flashback

Flashback

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Meanings of Literary Device of Flashback

Etymologically, flashback, a cultural term, is a combination of two terms, flash and back. It originated from fires in engines around the beginning of the 20th century. Later, it came into use in cinematic techniques in 1916. In grammar, it is a noun with plural, flashbacks.

As a literary term, it is mostly used in narratives, movies, and films. This term makes the audiences and readers see an event happening before them after it is inserted into a narrative. It happens in chronological order before its time.

In psychology, it means hallucinations about past events triggered by some traumatic event.

Definition of Literary Device of Flashback

A flashback takes the story back into the past. It is a scene inserted in the present time but shows the past. Therefore, flashbacks make up the back story of the narrative. It is also called analepsis.

Types of Flashbacks
  1. Internal Analepsis: It points to an earlier event that happened in the narrative.
  2. External Analepsis: This flashback refers to the time that happened before the narrative has come.
Elements of Flashback

A flashback has four integral elements.

  1. Movement: It means how much time and space a flashback has taken in bringing changes or a change.
  2. Degree: It means the time that a flashback takes in creating a break.
  3. Level of Specification: It means whether it is specific or general and has been used to generalize some past event.
  4. Vividness: It means the type of frame and the ways it is shown happening before the audiences or readers.
Examples of Flashback in Literature
Example # 1

The Odyssey by Homer

Homer has used the technique of flashback in his poem, the Odyssey. Odysseus is shown in the Phaeacian court when he recounts the journeys that he has taken so far. These journeys make up the story of books 5-12. It means when the story opens the readers find Odysseus in the seventh year after he departs on these journeys. However, Odysseus has left these seven years when he recounts his tales to Alcinous.

Example # 2

From The Snows of Kilimanjaro by Ernest Hemingway

Now in his mind he saw a railway station at Karagatch and he was standing with his pack and that was the headlight of the Simplon-Orient cutting the dark now and he was leaving Thrace then after the retreat. That was one of the things he had saved to write, with, in the morning at break-fast, looking out the window and seeing snow on the mountains in Bulgaria and Nansen’s Secretary asking the old man if it were snow and the old man looking at it and saying, No, that’s not snow. It’s too early for snow. And the Secretary repeating to the other girls, No, you see. It’s not snow and them all saying, It’s not snow we were mistaken. But it was the snow all right and he sent them on into it when he evolved exchange of populations. And it was snow they tramped along in until they died that winter.

This passage occurs in the short story “The Snows of Kilimanjaro” written by Ernest Hemingway. He has beautifully inserted several flashbacks in the story at different places and almost all of them are without any sequence or chronological order. This one, too, shows Harry ruminating over his past when he is at the Karagatch railway station and recalling what happened to him in Bulgaria.

Example # 3

From The Handmaid’s Tale by Margret Atwood

But that’s where I am, there’s no escaping it. Time’s a trap, I’m caught in it. I must forget about my secret name and all ways back. My name is Offred now, and here is where I live. Live in the present, make the most of it, it’s all you’ve got. Time to take stock. I am thirty-three years old. I have brown hair. I stand five seven without shoes. I have trouble remembering what I used to look like. I have viable ovaries. I have one more chance.

This passage occurs in the novel of Margret Atwood, The Handmaid’s Tale. This postmodern presentation of the futuristic ontology is replete with various flashbacks. Here Offred thinks about herself and introduces her persona in a flashback, including her physical features and age.

Example # 4

From Slaughterhouse-Five or The Children’s Crusade by Kurt Vonnegut

Speaking of people from Poland: Billy Pilgrim accidentally saw a Pole hanged in public, about three days after Billy got to Dresden. Billy just happened to be walking to work with some others shortly after sunrise, and they came to a gallows and a small crowd in front of a soccer stadium. The Pole was a farm laborer who was being hanged for having had sexual intercourse with a German woman. So it goes. (Chapter-7)

This passage occurs in the seventh chapter of the novel of Kurt Vonnegut. Although it is, somewhat, semi-autobiographical, it shows his deep observation regarding the character of Billy Pilgrim and his flashbacks about the past and the present. This passage shows Billy reaching Poland and thinking about the German bombing of Dresden.

Example # 5

Flashback in Forrest Gump

Forrest Gump presents examples of flashbacks in the movies. It opens with the protagonist, Forrest Gump, thinking about his life and telling the stories to different audiences who share a bench with him on the road. His recruitment in the army, his visit to Vietnam, his business, and his love all pass on the screen in his flashbacks and narrates his story.

How to Create Flashback

  1. Learn using in media res or start a narrative from the middle and then move to childhood including significant events.
  2. Plan before narrating a story.
  3. Pick the event that becomes a hook. Check that it really hooks the readers or the audiences into the narrative.
  4. Try less significant events after the hook and move to the more significant events.
  5. End the story on a more significant event, and tie it to the hook.
Benefits of Using Flashback
  1. It captures the imagination of the readers.
  2. It makes readers and audiences play with their imagination and understand the story in sequence.
  3. It jolts the readers into surprise and they stay hooked to the story or the movie.
  4. It creates a sense of reality before the audience or the readers.
  5. It makes the readers and the audiences construct events in their imagination and feel empathetic to the protagonist after he/she undergoes suffering.
Flashback in Literary Theory
  1. As flashback is a frame, it has often been mentioned with reference to contextual frame theory. Other than this, it is an important part of the narrative technique used in cultural theoretical concepts, narratology, cinematography, and postmodernism.
  2. It is specifically in indigenous narratives where memory plays an important role in showing colonialism, its retreat, and its aftershocks on the indigenous population.
  3. Flashback is also an important feature of postcolonial literature where indigenous, local, or native writers recall the memories of colonial torture, colonial ravages, and colonial devastation and its impacts on the natives.
Suggested Readings

Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction To Literary and Cultural Theory. Manchester University Press, 2020. Print.

Hemingway, Ernest. The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: The Hemingway Library Edition. Simon and Schuster, 2017. Print.

Roth, Eric, and Winston Groom. Forrest Gump. Paramount Pictures, 1994.

Sculley, John, and John A. Byrne. Odyssey. Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 1987. Print. Thompson, Michael, Richard Ellis, and Aaron Wildavsky. Cultural theory. Routledge, 2018. Print.

Interested in reading more? Read on Dramatic Poetry

Dramatic Poetry

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Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device of Dramatic Poetry

The literary device dramatic poetry comprises two different words. The first one is related to drama, while the second is related to poetry. Interestingly, in the pre-Elizabethan, Elizabethan, and even the Restoration period, the playwrights used blank verses or poetic diction for plays. Therefore, this type of poetry was called dramatic poetry.

In literary terms, dramatic poetry is also called verse drama or dramatic verse. Such a poetic work also tells a story. Most of the folk tales of almost every other culture use dramatic poetry to relate the folk stories specifically associated with that culture. Such poetic works stay alive through oral singing. Today, Opera is the form of the same cultural tradition.

Definition of Literary Device of Dramatic Poetry

In literary terms, a poetic form that presents a character, a story or an event in verse form is a type of dramatic poetry.

Types of Dramatic Poetry

Generally, dramatic poems or dramatic poetry comprises four forms;

  1. Soliloquy
  2. Dramatic Monologue
  3. Character
  4. Dialogue
Literary Examples of Dramatic Poetry

Example # 1

From Macbeth by William Shakespeare

“Glamis thou art, and Cawdor; and shalt be

What thou art promised: yet do I fear thy nature;

It is too full o’ the milk of human kindness

To catch the nearest way: thou wouldst be great;

Art not without ambition, but without

The illness should attend it,….”  ( Act-I, Scene-V)

This passage occurs in Macbeth, a popular play by William Shakespeare. It is an example of soliloquy, a type of dramatic poetry. It shows that although it is not properly rhymed, it has a proper metrical pattern, a hallmark of such blank verse poetry.

Example # 2

From “My Last Duchess” by Robert Browning

That’s my last Duchess painted on the wall,

Looking as if she were alive. I call

That piece a wonder, now; Fra Pandolf’s hands

Worked busily a day, and there she stands.

Will’t please you sit and look at her? I said

“Fra Pandolf” by design, for never read

Strangers like you that pictured countenance,

The depth and passion of its earnest glance,

But to myself they turned (since none puts by

The curtain I have drawn for you, but I)

These lines occur in the popular poem of Robert Browning “My Last Duchess.” It has all the ingredients of dramatic poetry as it is a monologue, has a character who speaks to his audience, and has a purpose to speak in such a way.

Example # 3

From “The Runaway Slave at Pilgrim’s Point” by Elizabeth Barrent Browning

I stand on the mark beside the shore

Of the first white pilgrim’s bended knee,

Where exile turned to ancestor,

And God was thanked for liberty.

I have run through the night, my skin is dark,

I bend my knee down on this mark:

I look on the sky and the sea.

This first-person account of a slave in dramatic form presents a beautiful example of dramatic poetry used in the poem. It presents him speaking about his pilgrim, his family, and the gratitude he expresses for God. However, it has not the dramatic quality such as in “My Duchess” by Robert Browning.

Example # 4

From “Hawk Roosting” by Ted Hughes

I sit in the top of the wood, my eyes closed.
Inaction, no falsifying dream
Between my hooked head and hooked feet:
Or in sleep rehearse perfect kills and eat.

The convenience of the high trees!
The air’s buoyancy and the sun’s ray
Are of advantage to me;
And the earth’s face upward for my inspection.

This metaphorical poem presents the hawk speaking to his unknown interlocutors. These two stanzas not only present a character but also show his inner intentions and his would-be actions toward his audiences. This is a good example of dramatic poetry in poetic form.

Example # 5

From Hamlet by William Shakespeare

Heaven and earth,
Must I remember? Why, she would hang on him
As if increase of appetite had grown
By what it fed on, and yet, within a month—
Let me not think on’t—Frailty, thy name is woman!—

These comments by Hamlet in Hamlet, a play by William Shakespeare, present a beautiful example of dramatic poetry and how rhetorical strategies could be applied to it. Shakespeare has not only used a rhetorical question but also generalized a common perception about women.

How to Create Dramatic Poetry

When creating a type of dramatic poetry, think about these steps.

  1. Type or form: What is the type of writing you are going to start? What is the shape and genre of this piece? Is it literary or scientic?
  2. Think about the character, situation, audiences, and readers.
  3. Decide whether your presentation in poetic or blank verse format.
  4. Complete what you have written and read it to evaluate its impacts.

Benefits of Using Dramatic Poetry

  1. It helps understand characters, situations, language, and audiences.
  2. Dramatic poetry makes it easy to arouse emotions, passions, and excitement.
  3. It makes writings effective and impactful.
  4. Dramatic poetry helps writers and poets to achieve their objectives easily.

Dramatic Poetry in Literary Theory

  1. Although dramatic poetry is not of any relevance in any literary theory, it helps in critiquing from a formalist perspective in formalism literary theory. It helps evaluate conflict and tension in poems or dramatic stories.
  2. In other literary theories, it helps understand characters and their psychologies, identities, and intentions. Therefore, it could be applied to literary pieces when critiquing from the psychoanalytic approach, Marxist theoretical perspective, or even the indigenous critical theory.
  3. Furthermore, dramatic poetry, as is related to drama, has relevance in simple critiques as Eliot and Dryden have stressed upon its significance.
Suggesting Readings

Abrams, Meyer Howard, and Geoffrey Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning, 2014.

Césaire, Aimé. Lyric and Dramatic Poetry, 1946-82. University of Virginia Press, 1990. Trowbridge, Hoyt. “Dryden’s Essay on the Dramatic Poetry of the Last Age.” Philological Quarterly 22 (1943): 240.

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Metaphor

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Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device of Metaphor

The term metaphor originated from the French term metaphor. However, in French, it has arrived from the Greek term, metaphora, which means to transfer.

Grammatically, it is a noun with plural metaphors.

In literature, it is a figure of speech. It makes the major element of figurative language. In this figure, a word or a phrase representing a thing, or an idea, demonstrates its application to what it is not applicable.

Definition of Literary Device of Metaphor

To define it in literary devices/terms, it means a figure of speech that presents an idea, action, or object in a way that it is compared to a thing/idea/object to which it is incomparable. Literally, such comparisons do not happen. Yet, this comparison helps in clarifying meanings.

Common Examples of Metaphors

  1. Journey of love
  2. Blindness of mind
  3. Stupidity of the age
  4. Crime of love
  5. Garden of solitude
  6. Battle of wits
  7. Climb a bandwagon
  8. Making a beeline
  9. Put on auto-pilot
  10. Finger in the pie
  11. A sitting duck

Shakespearean Metaphors

  1. Abraham’s bosom
  2. Beauty’s field
  3. Beauty’s legacy
  4. Barbary horse
  5. Bleeding rings
  6. Dove feathered raven
  7. Drunken desire
  8. Knit your hearts
  9. Lady Tongue
  10. Love’s picture, love’s sweet bait, love’s eyes

Literary Examples of Metaphors

Example # 1

From King Lear by William Shakespeare

The weight of this sad time we must obey,
Speak what we feel, not what we ought to say.
The oldest hath borne most; we that are young
Shall never see so much, nor live so long. (Act-5, Lines 322-325)

This passage occurs in the popular play of William Shakespeare, King Lear. Here Shakespeare presents time as if it is a human being, or something very heavy, having great weight. Yet time never has a weight. This is an exceptionally good metaphor Shakespeare has used to make his audience understand the importance of time.

Example # 2

From The Jungle by Upton Sinclaire

The occasion rested heavily upon Marija’s broad shoulders—it was her task to see that all things went in due form, and after the best home traditions; and, flying wildly hither and thither, bowling every one out of the way, and scolding and exhorting all day with her tremendous voice.

This passage occurs in the novel, the Jungle, by Upton Sinclaire. Sinclair has presented an abstract idea of the occasion as if it is a very heavy responsibility that Marija cannot take up. Yet, she seems as light as a feather. It has rather reduced the heaviness of this responsibility. This is an incredibly good metaphor used to show how the occasion is heralding something grave for Marija and yet she is not realizing it.

Example # 3

From “Dream Land” by Christina Rossetti

Where sunless rivers weep
Their waves into the deep,
She sleeps a charmèd sleep:
Awake her not.
Led by a single star,
She came from very far
To seek where shadows are
Her pleasant lot.

Christian Rossetti in her poem “Dream Land” has presented rivers as if they are human beings. She compares the rivers to human beings as they show their sorrow by weeping. This metaphorical language has rather personified the rivers, making the audiences feel an emotional attachment to the poetic idea.

Example # 4

From Hard Times by Charles Dickens

For, the boys and girls sat on the face of the inclined plane in two compact bodies, divided up the centre by a narrow interval; and Sissy, being at the corner of a row on the sunny side, came in for the beginning of a sunbeam, of which Bitzer, being at the corner of a row on the other side, a few rows in advance, caught the end. But, whereas the girl was so dark-eyed and dark-haired, that she seemed to receive a deeper and more lustrous colour from the sun, when it shone upon her, the boy was so light-eyed and light-haired that the self-same rays appeared to draw out of him what little colour he ever possessed.

This passage from Hard Times shows many metaphors at work. The face of the inclined plane having two compact bodies show how a metaphor works in a narrative. It shows as if it is another body having its own face. It shows how Dickens compares things and how he uses unique metaphors.

Example # 5

From Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad

The sea-reach of the Thames stretched before us like the beginning of an interminable waterway. In the offing, the sea and the sky were welded together without a joint, and in the luminous space, the tanned sails of the barges drifting up with the tide seemed to stand still in red clusters of canvas sharply peaked, with gleams of varnished sprits. A haze rested on the low shores that ran out to sea in vanishing flatness.

This passage occurs in Heart of Darkness byJoseph Conrad. First Conrad shows the Thames stretching which is a direct metaphor. The next sentence shows several metaphors such as the welding of the sea and the sky, the sails of the barges having peaks and haze that is taking rest. Only Conrad could have used so many metaphors in just a few sentences.

Types of Metaphor

There are several types of metaphors. Some of the important terms are as follows.

  1. Absolute Metaphor
  2. Complex Metaphor
  3. Conceptual Metaphor
  4. Conventional Metaphor
  5. Extended Metaphor
  6. Dead Metaphor

How to Create Metaphors

  1. Make a plan and choose a thing, a concept or idea, a character, a person or anything you want to compare.
  2. Focus on what you are comparing that thing, person or idea with.
  3. Observe similarities and differences.
  4. Compare it directly.

Benefits of Using Metaphors

  1. Metaphors help make language easy, understandable and descriptive.
  2. They help writers to convey their messages easily.
  3. They help writers to create new linguistic structures and a unique style in writing.
  4. They help readers stretch their imaginations and understand difficult concepts.
  5. They also help readers understand things easily and appreciate the literary qualities of a piece of writing.
  6. They are a powerful tool for communication, making connections, appreciating things and understanding abstract ideas.

Literary Device of Metaphor in Literary Theory

  1. Metaphors are very important in literary theory. Specifically, in formalism or Russian Formalism, metaphor is the primary literary term used to make ideas clear and appreciate the literariness of a poetic piece.
  2. They are significant in readers’ response theory in that they help readers understand different cultural ideas and social abstractions.
  3. They are used in structuralism and post-structuralism in clarifying abstractions and social constructions.
  4. Some of the titles used in different other literary theories such as critical race theory, critical indigenous or indigenous critical theory, queer theory and post-colonialism are also metaphorical in that they signify several abstract ideas.
  5. Capitalism and Marxism, too, utilize metaphors extensively to signify identity, sexuality, gender, norms, mores and conventions.

Suggested Readings

Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. Literature, Criticism and Theory. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2004. Print.

Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary And Cultural Theory. Manchester University Press, 2020. Print.

Goatly, Andrew. The Language of Metaphors. Routledge, 1997. Print. Thompson, Michael, Richard Ellis, and Aaron Wildavsky. Cultural Theory. Routledge, 2018. Print.

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Irony

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Etymology, Meanings of Literary Device Irony

The term irony seems to have occurred in the Grecian language first as eiron which means dissembler. It was used as a verb as eironeia to show simulated ignorance. However, after entering the English language in the early period of the 16th century, it turned into irony which means Socratic irony that has widened its meanings with time. The word Socratic finds its roots in the name of the Grecian sage, Socrates. This is a type of irony that shows the use of a method to expose the ignorance of the antagonist. Literally, it is considered part of humor or a type of humor to create amusement.

Grammatically, it is used as a noun that means to use something or show something to affect ignorance, while its verb is ironize which is rarely used in everyday writing. It means to speak ironically.

Definition of Literary Device Irony

In literature, irony is a term or a technique in which something or its meanings appear entirely different from what it appears at the surface level. Apart from literature and literary pieces, it appears in rhetoric, too.

Categories :

There are several categories of ironies such as;

  1. Classical Irony: This type of irony refers to the irony occurring in the classical Greek plays as used by the original rhetoricians. It is also called Socratic irony.
  2. Romantic Irony: This type of irony is used in fiction presenting self-criticism.
  3. Cosmic Irony: This type of irony is used in generalization. However, it is not cosmetic irony.
  4. Situational Irony: This type of irony appears in actions whose results are contrary to expectations.
  5. Verbal Irony: This irony occurs in statements whose meanings are contradictory to what is said.
  6. Dramatic Irony: This type of irony is what an actor says or does and knows about it as compared to the audience who knows the reality but the actor does not.
  7. Meta Irony: This is not the type of irony that is about the irony and its studies about/over/against irony.

Common Examples

  1. The West takes care of human rights by deploying armed forces around the world and bombing human rights violators.
  2. This democracy asks the people to responsibly cast their votes or pay for not casting them.

Literary Examples :

Example # 1

From Oedipus The King by Sophocles (translated by David Grene)

Children, young sons and daughters of old Cadmus,
why do you sit here with your suppliant crowns?
The town is heavy with a mingled burden
of sounds and smells, of groans and hymns and incense; 5
I did not think it fit that I should hear
of this from messengers but came myself,—
I Oedipus whom all men call the Great.

These are the first few lines of the play, Oedipus The King. These lines show how Oedipus is speaking from his heart, yet it seems ironic to the audiences and readers. The logic of its being ironic is that as a king it is his duty to take care of the city and yet he is unaware of the plague befallen upon the city. This irony is obvious in the last line that he is “the Great” and yet he is asking the people about the problem.

Example # 2

From Hamlet by William Shakespeare

I’ll have grounds

More relative than this. The play’s the thing

Wherein I’ll catch the conscience of the King.

These lines occur in Hamlet by William Shakespeare. Prince Hamlet speaks these lines in an aside when he comes to know that a play is going to be staged in the palace and that his childhood friends are eager to watch the play with him. Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are happy that they are going to pacify Hamlet, while Hamlet is planning to catch the king through the actors. This is quite an ironic if seen from the perspective of Hamlet.

Example # 3

Irony in The Old Man and The Sea by Ernest Hemingway

The dramatic irony occurs when Santiago comes to know that the marlin is huge and that he might have to stay with him at the sea. Despite knowing his fragile physical condition, he vows to kill the marlin and also talks as if he has good physical strength and stamina required for the rigors of fishing. He even generalizes some arguments such as a man can be destroyed by not defeat which are a good example of cosmic irony.

Example # 4

From Macbeth by William Shakespeare

This castle hath a pleasant sea; the air

Nimbly and sweetly recommends itself

Unto our gentle senses.

These verses from Macbeth demonstrate the use of dramatic irony. What King Duncan does not know is that he is going to be killed and the readers and the audiences know it. Even Banquo who does not know it, and responds to him by saying that “The air is delicate” to prove and adds “I have observed” it. This dramatic irony is the crux of the entire play after which Lady Macbeth enters the stage to prove it.

Example # 5

From “The Cask of Amontillado” by Edgar Allen Poe

“Be it so,” I said, replacing the tool beneath the cloak, and again offering him my arm. He leaned upon it heavily. We continued our route in search of the Amontillado. We passed through a range of low arches, descended, passed on, and descending again, arrived at a deep crypt, in which the foulness of the air caused our flambeaux rather to glow than flame.

This short passage occurs in the story, “The Cask of Amontillado” by Edgar Allen Poe. This passage shows the true thinking of Montresor. He is clearly taking Fortunato to his death chamber but in the guise of his friend who needs him to check the cask of amontillado that he has got as a gift from somebody. He has already hooked him to do this. The latent in his words is clear that he has offered him his shoulder to support him, while he is going to kill him later.

Example # 6

Title of the story “How Much Land Does a Man Need?” by Leo Tolstoy

The title of the story is ironic in that it shows that a man wants a huge tract of land as shown through the character of Pahom and yet when he runs to cover a lot of fields in one go, he arrives at the point when death takes him into its fold. He dies and it just takes a few yards of land where he goes to be buried as a dead man. This shows the ironic title of the story.

How to Create Irony

  1. Think about whether you are writing a story, poem, or play.
  2. Think about the situation and its verbal representation.
  3. Create its contradiction or opposite situation.
  4. Write that opposite situation and think whether it truly represents the opposite of that situation or event.
  5. Also, try to think about what type of irony you are going to employ.
  6. Evaluate its impact in a real-life situation.

Benefits of Using Irony

  1. Irony helps to differentiate characters, situations, and events.
  2. It makes audiences and readers think deeply about what it said or acted in front of them.
  3. It helps the readers to understand the real meanings behind different words and sentences.
  4. It helps writers and authors to create conflict, suspension, empathy, or comedy in their writings.

Literary Device of Irony in Literary Theory and Theories of Irony

  1. The irony is an integral part of figurative language. Therefore, it helps in the formalistic analysis of a literary text to evaluate the effectiveness of the scenes, events, and incidents or characters as well as the overall message that it conveys. When analyzing a thematic strand, irony emerges as the most important element.
  2. Iron is also important in feminism when attacking the oppressive patriarchy, and in indigenous critical and critical race theory when attacking the established hegemony against the indigenous culture such as the Kashmiri narratives or American Indian narratives do against the Indian culture or American culture.
  3. Irony and its different categories are important in postmodernism and posthumanism to show different thematic strands lying uncovered in the existing and contemporary political and social-cultural situations.
  4. Irony also helps understand real-life situations when authors feel fed up with using realism to convey their messages to their readers. Specifically, its role in the theory of meaning, interpretative form, and aestheticsn is important. It is also included in theoretical perspectives as a theory of irony and even theories of irony in media and cultural studies.

Suggested Readings

Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. Literature, Criticism, and Theory. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2004. Print.

Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary And Cultural Theory. Manchester University Press, 2020. Print.

Colebrook, Claire. Irony. Psychology Press, 2004. Print.

Gibbs Jr, Raymond W., Raymond W. Gibbs, and Herbert L. Colston, eds. Irony in Language and Thought: A Cognitive Science Reader. Psychology Press, 2007. Print. Winner, Ellen, and Howard Gardner. “Metaphor and Irony: Two Levels of Understanding.” Metaphor and Thought 2 (1993): 425-443.

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Consonance:

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Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device of Consonance

Etymologically, the literary device of consonance is a derivative of a Latin term, consonantia, which means harmony or agreement. It has been derived from consonantem which is an agreement of sounds. It entered the old English in or around the 15th century and has been in common usage since then.

Semantically, it means a combination of sounds that create harmony, or a pleasant combination of sounds, or harmony in tones.

Grammatically, it is a noun with plural consonances.

Definition of Literary Device of Consonance

In literary terms, it falls under stylistics. It is identified as a repetition of similar consonant sounds in words occurring close to each other. It is also considered an antonym of assonance, a repetition of vowel sounds in a similar fashion.

Consonance and Alliteration

Although it seems that alliteration and consonance are similar in some ways, they are entirely different. A consonance shows only the repetition of consonant sounds, while an alliteration shows the initial sounds of neighboring words as consonants. The similarity is only in that both show the repetition of consonant sounds that create perfect notes. For example, he fries frogs show the use of /f/ sound as an alliterate, while “He fries many of those frogs on the fire” shows the use of consonance as there are intervening sounds.

Literary Examples of Consonance

Example # 1

“The Darkling Thrush” by Thomas Hardy

I leant upon a coppice gate

      When Frost was spectre-grey,

And Winter’s dregs made desolate

      The weakening eye of day.

The tangled bine-stems scored the sky

      Like strings of broken lyres,

And all mankind that haunted nigh

      Had sought their household fires.

Read this stanza from the poem of Thomas Hardy’s “The Darkling Thrush,” and see that he has used consonants of different sounds. The first line shows the sound of /p/, the second of /w/, the third of /d/, and the last one of /h/. All these are beautiful uses of consonants that have created a rhythm in the poem.

Example # 2

“Possibilities” by Wislawa Szymborska

I prefer movies.

I prefer cats.

I prefer the oaks along the Warta.

I prefer Dickens to Dostoyevsky.

I prefer myself liking people

to myself loving mankind.

I prefer keeping a needle and thread on hand, just in case.

I prefer the color green.

These lines from “Possibilities” by Wislawa Szymborska show the use of consonants in different lines such as the sound of /r/ in the first three lines, and then /d/ in the second last and again /r/ in the last line.

Example # 3

“The Secret of the Machines” by Rudyard Kipling

We were taken from the ore-bed and the mine,  

   We were melted in the furnace and the pit—  

We were cast and wrought and hammered to design,  

   We were cut and filed and tooled and gauged to fit.  

These four lines occur in the poem of Kipling “The Secret of Machines.” He has beautifully used the sound of /w/ in almost all four lines successively, and also has used anaphora as “We were” which is an alliteration, too. This combination of consonants, anaphora, and alliteration has created a beautiful rhythm.

Example # 4

“The Carpenter’s Son” by Alfred Edward Houseman

“Here the hangman stops his cart:
Now the best of friends must part.
Fare you well, for ill fare I:
Live, lads, and I will die.

“Oh, at home had I but stayed
‘Prenticed to my father’s trade,
Had I stuck to plane and adze,
I had not been lost, my lads.

There are several consonances in “The Carpenter’s Son” by A. E. Houseman. Just try to spot /t/ in the first line, /h/ in the first line of the second stanza which is also an alliteration, and then /l/ in the last line of the second stanza. They make a perfect combination to give a rhythmic touch to the poem.

Example # 5

“The Chambered Nautilus” by Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.

This is the ship of pearl, which, poets feign,

Sails the unshadowed main,—

The venturous bark that flings

On the sweet summer wind its purpled wings

In gulfs enchanted, where the Siren sings,

And coral reefs lie bare,

Where the cold sea-maids rise to sun their streaming hair.

There are several consonances and a beautiful alliteration of /s/. The first line shows the sound of /p/, while the second shows the sound of /s/ repeated several times. The sound of /s/ in the fourth line also shows an alliteration with /w/ as a consonance. All these sounds have created a perfect rhythmic pattern in this stanza from “The Chambered Nautilus.”

How to Create Consonance

Consonances occur in poetry as well as prose. You can create consonances in either poetry or prose. Just pick up words that sound similar such as this combination shows “sound similar” which is also a good alliteration. When writing a poem, get help from your thesaurus to create similar-sounding word clusters. This could be done in the following steps.

  1. Write your ideas on a piece of paper.
  2. Create verses or a paragraph in prose.
  3. Now replace words that do not sound similar and insert similar-sounding words.
  4. Read it to feel the rhythm of the words and read it aloud to feel it better.

Benefits of Using Consonance

  1. A consonance creates high sounding rhythm.
  2. It creates beautiful notes suitable for lyrics.
  3. It creates a suitable metrical pattern.
  4. It helps poets and writers to win readers through rhythm and melody created with consonances.

Literary Device of Consonance in Literary Theory

  1. In literary theory, consonance is not of much help in interpreting literature. However, when it comes to formalism to observe tension and conflict in a poem, consonances help evaluate the rhythm, melody, and metrical pattern to reach the thematic strand that the poet wants to convey to the readers.
  2. Besides this, it also helps indigenous literary writers to create indigenous or native rhythmic patterns.
  3. It helps students theorize the poetic or prose structure of the writing.

Suggested Readings

Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary And Cultural Theory. Manchester University Press, 2020. Print.

Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. Literature, Criticism, and Theory. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2004. Print. Terhardt, Ernst. “Pitch, Consonance, and Harmony.” The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 55.5 (1974): 1061-1069.

Conflict

Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device of Conflict

Etymologically, the term conflict is stated to have emerged out of a Latin term, conflictus. It means to strike together, or be against the other thing. Later, in 1640, it entered the French language as a conflict and then in English with the meanings changing to struggle or contest. The word conflict is in use in psychological, international relations, and strategic studies along with literature.

In grammar, conflict is a noun. Its plural is conflicts which could be changed according to its role in a sentence such as conflictual, conflicting, conflictive, and conflicts.

Definition of Literary Device of Conflict

As a literary term, conflict means a struggle, a contest, or contention between two characters, opposite parties, two natural events, or even two human-induced issues. It leads to tension in the story or the literary piece, creating suspense for the readers until the resolution arrives.

Types of Conflicts as Literary Device

There are five major types of conflicts.

  1. Man against man
  2. Man against nature
  3. Man against objects or animals
  4. Man against himself
  5. Main against social forces

Literary Examples of Conflict

Example # 1

From The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum

“Who are the wizards?” asked Dorothy. “Oz himself is the Great Wizard,” answered the Witch, sinking her voice to a whisper. “He is more powerful than all the rest of us together. He lives in the City of Emeralds.” Dorothy was going to ask another question, but just then the Munchkins, who had been standing silently by, gave a loud shout and pointed to the corner of the house where the Wicked Witch had been lying.

Although this is a short extract from a popular novel, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, it shows the emergence of tension. The conversation of Dorothy with the Witch shows that Dorothy wants to confront Oz yet she does not know how. This creates a conflict in her mind about her power and the power of the Witch. Although she gets involved in this conflict in the novel, this passage shows how it emerges from the simple conversation into the physical world. This is a type of man-against-supernatural conflict.

Example # 2

From The Adventures of Tom Sawyer by Mark Twain

“All right, I’ll keep still. Now they’re stuck. Can’t find it. Here they come again. Now they’re hot. Cold again. Hot again. Red hot! They’re p’inted right, this time. Say Huck, I know another o’ them voices; it’s Injun Joe.” “That’s so –– that murderin’ half-breed! I’d druther they was devils a dern sight. What kin they be up to?” The whispers died wholly out, now, for the three men had reached the grave and stood within a few feet of the boys’ hiding-place.”

Although this short conversation between Injun Joe and Huck takes place in a tight place, it shows how the conflict is going to ensue between them. Injun Joe wants to keep his crime under the carpet, while he also fears that Huck would disclose it to the law enforcement agencies. This creates a conflict between them which also is a theme of the novel. This is a type of man-again-man conflict.

Example # 3

From The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway

He always thought of the sea as la mar which is what people call her in Spanish when they love her. Sometimes those who love her say bad things of her but they are always said as though she were a woman. Some of the younger fishermen, those who used buoys as floats for their lines and had motorboats, bought when the shark livers had brought much money, spoke of her as el mar which is masculine. They spoke of her as a contestant or a place or even an enemy. But the old man always thought of her as feminine and as something that gave or withheld great favours, and if she did wild or wicked things it was because she could not help them. The moon affects her as it does a woman, he thought.

This passage occurs in The Old Man and the Sea. This is a classic of Hemingway that presents an old man, Santiago, struggling alone against the marlin as well as the world. This passage, however, presents his conflict with the sea. It means that this is a type of man-versus-nature conflict.

Example # 4

From All Quiet on The Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque

Kantorek would say that we stood on the threshold of life. And so it would seem. We had yet taken no root. The war swept us away. For the others, the older men, it is but an interruption. They are able to think beyond it. We, however, have been gripped by it and do not know what the end may be. We know only that in some strange and melancholy way we have become a wasteland. All the same, we are not often sad.

This passage occurs in the novel, All Quiet on the Western Front, an anti-war story by a German writer, Erich Maria Remarque. This passage shows clearly that Paul Baumer knows that he is against war. This creates a conflict in him that lasts until he is dead by the end of the novel. This is a man-versus-society as the war ensues due to animosity between two social structures.

Example # 5

From The Black Boy by Richard Wright

It was in this tenement that the personality of my father first came fully into the orbit of my concern. He worked as a night porter in a Beale Street drugstore and he became important and forbidding to me only when I learned that I could not make noise when he was asleep in the daytime. He was the lawgiver in our family and I never laughed in his presence. I used
to lurk timidly in the kitchen doorway and watch his huge body sitting slumped at the table. I stared at him with awe as he gulped his beer from a tin bucket, as he ate long and heavily, sighed, belched, closed his eyes to nod on a stuffed belly. He was quite fat and his bloated stomach always lapped over his belt. He was always a stranger to me, always somehow
alien and remote.

Although this short passage from The Black Boy, a memoir of Richard Wright, shows his feelings toward his father, it also shows that he is in conflict with his father which is man-versus-man conflict. He sees his father struggling and ruling the household at the same time.

Example # 6

From Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck

George stared morosely at the water. The rims of his eyes were red with sun glare. He said angrily, “We could just as well of rode clear to the ranch if that bastard bus driver knew what he was talkin’ about. ‘Jes’ a little stretch down the highway,’ he says. ‘Jes’a little stretch.’ God damn near four miles, that’s what it was! Didn’t wanta stop at the ranch gate, that’s what. Too God damn lazy to pull up. Wonder he isn’t too damn good to stop in Soledad
at all. Kicks us out and says ‘Jes’ a little stretch down the road.’ I bet it was more than four miles. Damn hot day.

This passage shows George and Lennie facing the world. They are against the entire social fabric of their time. First, George spoke against the drive, then against God, and then against the hot day. This shows that everything is in conflict with them as they are facing hardships not knowing from whom. This shows man-versus-nature and man-versus-man conflict simultaneously.

How to Create a Conflict

  1. Plan ahead your storyline and decide what type of conflict you want to insert in it.
  2. After deciding the conflict, place that man with his desires, hopes, and ambitions and create obstructions on his way through the agent that is going against him in conflict.
  3. Create a situation showing suspense, and decide how you want to resolve that conflict.
  4. Present various types of conflicts simultaneously like that of The Old Man and the Sea and Of Mice and Men as shown in examples.

Benefits of Using Conflict

  1. It creates suspense, curiosity, and thirst in the readers to read the fiction or poem until the end.
  2. It makes the readers demonstrate empathy, or sympathy, or catharsis in Grecian terms.
  3. It makes readers aware of how to deal with conflicts and resolve them in real life.
  4. It makes the readers to thinking critically and find solutions to problems.

Literary Device of Conflict in Literary Theory

  1. As a literary term, conflict is an integral part of every other literary theory. However, in formalism, it is necessary as it is part of narratology and characterization.
  2. It is important in postmodernism, indigenous critical studies, and critical race theory due to its association with identity, personality clash, and sovereignty and now they come into conflict with each other.
  3. It is an integral part of psychoanalytic literary theory as it creates conflicts based on the psychology of conflicts among different characters.
  4. It is also used in postcolonialism on account of its usage in power struggles and in readers response theory due to the involvement of the reader with the characters.
  5. It is also used in indigenous critical theory because it creates conflicts between the indigenous population and characters and the outsiders and demonstrates it through different ways.

Suggested Readings

Baldick, Chris. The Concise Oxford Dictionary Of Literary Terms. Oxford University Press, 1996. Print.

Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. Literature, Criticism, and Theory. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2004. Print,. Al-Lehaibi, Majed S. “Conflict: A Cultural Theme in the Modern American Novel.” English Language and Literature Studies 3.2 (2013): 93.

Diction

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Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device of Diction

Etymologically, the literary device of diction is a derivative of the Latin term dictionem which means a saying or a word, or a type of style. Its root is the Latin dicere which means to say, or proclaim, or declare. In other words, in English, the literary device diction means the type of writing. It is used in the same meanings in English studies.

Semantically, it has various meanings which amount to the style of writing. Different authors use different types of diction as given below in the category types.

Definition of Literary Device of Diction

In literary terms, diction refers to the choice of words and style that a writer adopts for his/her writing. In other words, it refers to language that writers use to have their own distinct styles and voices.

Types of Diction

There are several types of diction some of which are as follows.

  1. Formal Diction: This diction is mostly used in academic writing such as dissertations, journals, newspapers, articles, and books. Other than these, business communication and technical communication also utilizes formal diction.
  2. Informal Diction: This type of diction, sometimes, violate linguistic rules and styles. It is mostly used in casual writings such as private letters, emails, and literary pieces. African American poets and other indigenous or native writers have used informal diction in poetry. Some Nigerian novelists have also used pidgin and informal diction in their writings.
  3. Pedantic Diction: It is a learned diction that involves using theoretical perspectives and loaded vocabulary such as in philosophical treatises or literary critiques.
  4. Colloquial Diction: It comprises common language used by the public. However, it is also used in literary pieces through dialog. Some creole and African American writers have used this diction in poetry, too.
  5. Slang Diction: It comprises common language having taboo words used by the public.
  6. Poetic Diction: Poetic diction is the language of poetry having a lot of figures of speech.
  7. Abstract Diction: It comprises theoretical language, having abstract ideas explained.
  8. Concrete Diction: It means using language that has concrete descriptions of things.

Literary Examples of Diction

Example # 1

Formal Diction from Orientalism by Edward Said: Introduction

Americans will not feel quite the same about the Orient, which for them is much more likely to be associated very differently with the Far East (China and Ja2an. mainly). Unlike the Americans, the French and the British-less so the Germans. Russians, Spanish, Portuguese, Italians, and Swiss-have had a long tradition of what I shall be calling Orienta/ism. a way of coming to terms with the Orient that is based on the Orient’s special place in European Western experience.

These few sentences occur in Orientalism, a theoretical book by Edward W. Said. This passage occurs in its introduction. These lines explain the concept of orientalism as it is understood in different parts of the world and what it means for different people. The writer is very careful in using formal language to point out what he means.

Example # 2

Informal Diction from Mules and Men by Zora Neal Hurston

“De gopher come in and looked all around de place. De judge was a turtle, de lawyers was turtles, de witnesses was turtles and they had turtles for jurymen.
“So de gopher ast de judge to excuse his case and let him come back some other time. De judge ast him how come he wanted to put off his case and de gopher looked all around de room and said, ‘Blood is thicker than water,’ and escused hisself from de place.
“Yeah,” said Floyd Thomas, “but even God ain’t satisfied wid some of de things He makes and changes ’em Hisself.

These lines occur in the novel of Zora Neal Hurston, Mules and Men. She has beautifully used informal and colloquial language in these lines. Floyd Thomas has been shown talking to other people about what the judge, lawyer, and jurymen are and what they think about them. This is a real language spoken in public in African American communities in the United States.

Example # 3

Pedantic Diction from A Rhetoric of Style by Barry Brummett

Style is not simply a matter of which shirt one puts on but is the transcendent ground in which the social is formed in late capitalism. When something is transcendent, it uses as much as we use it. As I hope to show, the question of the extent to which style is intentional is tricky.

These few lines occur in A Rhetoric of Style. The purpose of quoting these lines here is to show how the style in the language is formed which forces the writers to use a specific type of diction. It all depends on the objective of the writer and his situation.

Example # 5

Colloquial Diction from One Flew over Cuckoo’s Nest by Ken Kesey

“Well, when she asks one of those questions, why don’tyou tell her to up and go to hell?”
“Yeah,” Cheswick says, shaking his fist, “tell her to upand go to hell.”
“So then what, Mack? She’d just come right back with
‘Why do you seem so upset by that par-tik-uler question, Patient McMurphy?’ ”
“So, you tell her to go to hell again. Tell them all to go to hell. They still haven’t hurt you.”

This conversation between Mack and Cheswick happens in Kesey’s novel, One Flew over Cuckoo’s Nest. It shows the use of informal and colloquial language as both of them try to decipher the situation they are placed in. The novelist has carefully recorded this conversation.

Example # 6

Poetic Diction from “A Married State” by Katherine Philips

A married state affords but little ease

The best of husbands are so hard to please.

This in wives’ careful faces you may spell

Though they dissemble their misfortunes well.

A virgin state is crowned with much content;

It’s always happy as it’s innocent.

These lines from “A Married State” by Katherine Philips show the use of poetic diction. It has several figures of speech, concrete language, good meter, and a rhyming pattern. This shows how poetic poetic language is used in poetry.

How to Create Diction

When writing in a specific diction or creating a specific diction, these four points are very important.

  1. Writer
  2. Audience
  3. Objective
  4. Situation

That is the very reason that technical writing experts always ask for the writer’s situation, audience, types of audiences, real objectives, and real situations in which the diction is going to be used.

Benefits of Using Diction

  1. The type of diction suits the writer, the occasion, and the audience.
  2. Diction makes the writers’ style distinct.
  3. It helps the readers reach out to the writer to understand his objective through his message.
  4. It helps the readers understand the personality of the writer and take his message seriously.

Literary Device of Diction in Literary Theory

  1. Diction is very important in formalism as it helps critics to critique the conflict based on the type of diction the writers use.
  2. It helps in all other theoretical perspectives or literary theories to understand the ontological situation in that the writers or the critics place their characters to understand the social reality.
  3. Every literary theory has a specific diction having specific features as pointed out in keywords in every literary theoretical perspective.
  4. Postmodernism and post-truth use diction to hoodwink the readers. Therefore, both literary theories show the use of different types of diction mainly informal, pidgin, and colloquial.

Suggested Readings

Abrams, Meyer Howard, and Geoffrey Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning, 2014. Print.

Genette, Gérard. Fiction & Diction. Cornell University Press, 1993. Print. Underwood, Ted, and Jordan Sellers. “The Emergence of Literary Diction.” Journal of Digital Humanities 1.2 (2012): 1-2.

Characterization

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Etymology and Meanings of Literary Device of Characterization

Etymologically, characterization has been derived from a Medieval Latin term, characterizare, which means to put a sign of some specific feature on something. In Greek, it exists as kharakterizein which has the same meanings. However, in English, it seems to have emerged in 1744 with the meaning of giving special feature to something or some person.

Grammatically, it is a noun with plural characterizations. In fiction, it is considered the construction of different characters having human qualities.

Definition of Literary Device of Characterization

As a literary term, characterization means the presentation of the characters or persona appearing in narratives, plays, or even poetry. It also means the presentation of everything that could be considered a character. Interestingly, it is considered an integral element of fiction and movies rather than plays.

Process of Characterization

Writers and authors need to focus on the following points when teaching, learning, or drawing characters in narratives or poetry.

  1. Physical features
  2. Good qualities
  3. Bad qualities
  4. Future prospects
  5. Thinking capacity
  6. Major roles in the storyline

Literary Examples of Characterization

Example # 1

From All Quiet on the Western Front by Erich Maria Remarque

“Close behind us were our friends: Tjaden, a skinny locksmith of our own age, the biggest eater of the company. He sits down to eat as thin as a grasshopper and gets up as big as a bug in the family way; Haie Westhus, of the same age, a peat-digger, who can easily hold a  ration-loaf in his hand and say: Guess what I’ve got in my fist; then Detering, a peasant, who thinks of nothing but his farm-yard and his wife; and finally Stanislaus Katczinsky, the leader of our group, shrewd, cunning, and hard-bitten, forty years of age, with a face of the soil, blue eyes, bent shoulders, and a remarkable nose for dirty weather, good food, and soft jobs.”

This passage has been borrowed from All Quiet on the Western Front, a phenomenal novel by Remarque. It shows how Paul Baumer presents his friends Tjaden, Haie Westhus, Detering, and Katczinsky. He associates every one of them with one specific feature and moves to the next to state that war tied all together. Each character shows one specific feature with their age to demonstrate how they are strong and united.

Example # 2

From Black Boy by Richard Wright

I was a drunkard in my sixth year, before I had begun school. With a gang of children, I roamed the streets, begging pennies from passers-by, haunting the doors of saloons, wandering farther and farther away from home each day. I saw more than I could understand and heard more than I could remember. The point of life became for me the times when I could beg drinks. My mother was in despair. She beat me; then she prayed and wept over me, imploring me to be good, telling me that she had to work, all of which carried no weight to my wayward mind.

Although this passage is a simple narrative of Richard Wright’s Black Boy when he was just six years, he is aware of how children never went to school in the area where he was a student. This description presents the characters of his friends as well as his mother. This characterization shows Wright’s powerful observation as well as his strong memory.

Example # 3

From Of Mice and Men by John Steinbeck

They had walked in single file down the path, and even in the open one stayed behind the other. Both were dressed in denim trousers and in denim coats with brass buttons. Both wore black, shapeless hats and both carried tight blanket rolls slung over their shoulders. The first man was small and quick, dark of face, with restless eyes and sharp, strong features. Every part of him was defined: small, strong hands, slender arms, a thin and bony nose. Behind him walked his opposite, a huge man, shapeless of face, with large, pale eyes, and wide, sloping shoulders; and he walked heavily, dragging his feet a little, the way a bear drags his paws. His arms did not swing at his sides, but hung loosely.

This passage from Of Mice and Men presents the character of George and Loonie, showing their physical features and costumes. Steinbeck presents them as if they are twins yet they have a strong difference as he lists them as the first man and the second man. These physical features show the power of characterization of Steinbeck.

Example # 4

From The Color Purple by Alice Walker

My mama dead. She die screaming and cussing. She scream at me. She cuss at me. I’ big. I can’t move fast enough. By time I git back from the well, the water be warm. By time I git the tray ready the food be cold. By time I git all the children ready for school it be dinner time. He don’t say nothing. He set there by the bed holding her hand an cryin, talking bout don’t leave me, don’t go.

These words of Celie show how Alice Walker has used her characterization skills in this novel. It also shows that Alice Walker has used Celie as the first-person narrator. She tells about her mother, her physical feature of being a big lady, her weakness of screaming, her own situation, and how she used to do work.

Example # 5

From To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee

Aunt Alexandra fitted into the world of Maycomb like a hand into a glove, but never into the world of Jem and me. I so often wondered how she could be Atticus’s and Uncle Jack’s sister that I revived half-remembered tales of changelings and mandrake roots that Jem had spun long ago. These were abstract speculations for the first month of her stay, as she had little to say to Jem or me, and we saw her only at mealtimes and at night before we went to bed. It was summer and we were outdoors. Of course, some afternoons when I would run inside for a drink of water, I would find the living room overrun with Maycomb ladies, sipping, whispering, fanning, and I would be called: “Jean Louise, come speak to these ladies.”

This characterization of Aunt Alexandra and her status in Maycomb shows how Harper Lee has used her skill of creating living characters. However, this characterization has less description and more narration about her relations, her power of weaving stories, and how Jean Lousie sees all this.

How to Create Characterization

  1. Planning a character beforehand.
  2. Think about character traits.
  3. Outline the motives, features, and implications of character traits.
  4. Plan antagonists and protagonists.
  5. Think about setting and conflict based on features.
  6. Write descriptions to create peculiarities.

Benefits of Using Characterization

  1. Characters become personas for teaching moral lessons.
  2. Characterization makes characters lifelike and real.
  3. Characterization helps describe figures with clarity.
  4. Characterization helps the readers and the audiences to sync or equate their own character traits with the person and understand human nature.
  5. It helps the readers and the audiences build a narrative.

Literary Device of Characterization in Literary Theory

  1. Characterization in Narratology: The literary device of characterization is the bedrock of a literary piece. Although characters differ in perception, observation, and description, they are almost the same in every other narrative. In narratology, they are very important as a character could be a focuser or a narrator, or even an actor. This depends on the author as well as the readers and how they interpret the authors’ words about the characters.
  2. Characterization in Formalism Literary Theory: In formalism, however, they are an integral part, for figurative language mostly works when great characters are used. The reason is that to make readers perceive characters as living beings, the author has to use figurative language using metaphors, similes, and other literary terms.
  3. Characterization in Postcolonialism Literary Theory: In postcolonialism, good characterization is necessary to show power relations, subjectivity, identity, and hybridity of the characters. In fact, it requires highly diverse skills to show indigenous, tribal, racial, and even familial characters from different locations and different nationalities which have undergone colonialism.
  4. Characterization in Psychoanalytic Literary Theory: To explain id, ego, and superego in a better way, the authors need to present characters having all of these and other attendant features to show the psychoanalytic side of the culture.
  5. Characterization in Postmodernism, Indigenous Critical Theory, and Critical Race Theory: Even in postmodernism and other critical theoretical perspectives, the authors present characters in their respective cultural settings to show how they evince the relevant features such as survivance, discourses of pathology, fractured figures, mentally deranged persons, identities, indigenous practices, and indigenous epistemological issues. Almost the same is the case of characterization in other theoretical perspectives such as the queer theory or readers’ response theory.

Suggested Readings

Baldick, Chris. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford University Press, 1996. Print.

Margolin, Uri. “Characterization In Narrative: Some Theoretical Prolegomena.” Neophilologus 67.1 (1983): 1-14. Wellek, Rene, and Austin Warren. Theory of Literature. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1956. Print.

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