Month: September 2023

Negritude in Literature & Literary Theory

Negritude, as a theoretical term, refers to a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged in the 20th century, primarily among writers and thinkers of African and Afro-Caribbean descent.

Etymology of Negritude

Negritude originated in the early 20th century, particularly within the context of the African diaspora and the quest for racial and cultural identity. Aimé Césaire, a Martinican poet and politician, coined the term. Later, it was later popularized by Leopold Senghor, a Senegalese poet and statesman, during the 1930s.

The term itself is a fusion of “negre,” the French word for “b**ck,” and the suffix “-itude,” which denotes a quality or state of being. Negritude was a literary and philosophical movement aimed at celebrating and affirming b**ck identity, culture, and heritage, challenging the prevailing racism and colonialism of the era.

It played a pivotal role in fostering unity and pride among people of African descent and in promoting the idea that b**ck culture and history were both rich and deserving of recognition.

Meanings of Negritude
AspectDescription
Cultural IdentityIt represents a celebration and affirmation of b**ck cultural identity and heritage, emphasizing the significance and value of African and Afro-Caribbean traditions, languages, and customs.
Anti-ColonialismNegritude served as a response to colonialism and racial oppression, advocating for the decolonization of African and Caribbean nations and the rejection of European cultural dominance.
Unity and SolidarityIt promoted unity and solidarity among people of African descent worldwide, fostering a sense of shared history and culture as a means to combat racism and discrimination.
Artistic and Literary MovementNegritude was a literary and artistic movement that encouraged the creation of literature, poetry, music, and visual art that reflected the experiences and aspirations of b**ck individuals and communities.
Political AdvocacyIt played a significant role in advocating for civil rights, self-determination, and independence for colonized African and Caribbean nations, contributing to the broader struggle for social and political justice.
HumanismNegritude underscored the common humanity of all people, challenging racial stereotypes and prejudices while emphasizing the need for equality, respect, and dignity for individuals of African descent.
Definition of Negritude as a Theoretical Term

Negritude, as a theoretical term, refers to a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged in the 20th century, primarily among writers and thinkers of African and Afro-Caribbean descent. It emphasizes the celebration of b**ck cultural identity, the rejection of colonialism, and the promotion of solidarity among people of African heritage.

It is a critical framework that encompasses cultural, political, and literary dimensions, serving as a means to assert the value of African heritage and challenge racial oppression.

Negritude: Origin, Theorists, Works, and Arguments
Origin:
  • It emerged in the early 20th century as a cultural and literary movement primarily among b**ck intellectuals and artists in French-speaking Africa and the Caribbean.
Key Theorists:
  1. Aimé Césaire (1913-2008):
    • Hailing from Martinique, Césaire was a prominent Negritude theorist.
    • Notable Work: His poetic masterpiece, Notebook of a Return to the Native Land (Cahier d’un retour au pays natal), is a seminal text.
    • Arguments: Césaire emphasized the importance of reclaiming African heritage, resisting colonialism, and celebrating b**ck identity.
  2. Léopold Sédar Senghor (1906-2001):
    • A Senegalese philosopher and statesman, Senghor played a pivotal role.
    • Notable Work: His poetry collection “Chants d’ombre” and the essay “Negritude and Humanism” are foundational to the movement.
    • Arguments: Senghor’s Negritude philosophy focused on the harmonious integration of African and European cultural elements, promoting cultural diversity and racial equality.
  3. Léon Damas (1912-1978):
    • Hailing from French Guiana, Damas was another key figure in this movement.
    • Notable Work: His collection of poems, “B**ck-Label,” contributed significantly to this literature.
    • Arguments: Damas advocated for the acknowledgment of the pain and struggles of b**ck people, using poetry to voice their experiences and aspirations.
Key Arguments:
  • Negritude celebrates and affirms b**ck cultural identity and heritage, emphasizing African and Afro-Caribbean traditions, languages, and customs.
  • It serves as a response to colonialism and racial oppression, advocating for the decolonization of African and Caribbean nations and the rejection of European cultural dominance.
  • Negritude promotes unity and solidarity among people of African descent worldwide, fostering a sense of shared history and culture to combat racism and discrimination.
  • It encourages the creation of literature, poetry, music, and visual art that reflect the experiences and aspirations of b**ck individuals and communities.
  • Negritude plays a significant role in advocating for civil rights, self-determination, and independence for colonized African and Caribbean nations, contributing to the broader struggle for social and political justice.
  • It underscores the common humanity of all people, challenging racial stereotypes and prejudices while emphasizing the need for equality, respect, and dignity for individuals of African descent.
Negritude and Literary Theories
TheoryDetail of Relevance
PostcolonialismIt is foundational in postcolonial literary theory, addressing the impact of colonialism on African and Caribbean cultures, power dynamics, and resistance.
Identity StudiesIt explores the celebration and construction of b**ck cultural identity, making it pertinent to the study of identity in literature.
Cultural StudiesNegritude’s emphasis on African and Afro-Caribbean traditions aligns with cultural studies, offering insights into cultural elements and representation.
African LiteratureIt originated in Africa and significantly influenced African literature, addressing themes of identity, colonialism, and cultural reclamation.
Poetry StudiesSeveral theorists and writers, such as Aimé Césaire, are renowned poets, making it relevant to the analysis of poetic techniques and language in literature.
Critical Race TheoryNegritude challenges racial stereotypes and promotes equality, aligning with the principles of critical race theory, which examines race and racism in literature.
Comparative LiteratureIts global influence and cross-cultural connections make it relevant to comparative literature, enabling comparisons with other literary traditions.
Literary ActivismIts dual role as a literary and political movement highlights its significance in literature as a tool for social change and advocacy.
Negritude in Literary Criticism
  1. “Notebook of a Return to the Native Land” by Aimé Césaire: In this poem, Negritude celebrates and affirms b**ck cultural identity. The poem expresses the reclamation of African heritage and resistance to colonialism, aligning with the core themes of Negritude. It explores the emotional and cultural journey of the speaker as they confront their identity and the impact of colonization on their homeland.
  2. “The Man Who Sold His Shadow” by Léon Damas: Léon Damas, another Negritude poet and writer, often explores themes of identity and cultural heritage in his works. In “The Man Who Sold His Shadow,” the story reflects the broader struggle for self-determination and cultural preservation within a colonial context through the protagonist’s actions and decisions.
  3. Cannibal by Safi Faye: Safi Faye’s novel Cannibal is set in a Senegalese village and deals with issues of cultural assimilation and the clash between traditional beliefs and Western influence. Applying Negritude, the novel portrays the tensions between preserving African cultural traditions and the forces of cultural domination, echoing the Negritude resistance to colonialism.
  4. “The B**ck Hermit” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o: “The B**ck Hermit” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o is a play that explores the challenges of identity and cultural assimilation in post-colonial Africa. Negritude serves as a critical framework to analyze how the characters grapple with their African heritage and the pressures to conform to Western norms, highlighting the ongoing struggle for cultural autonomy and self-expression.

In each of these literary works, Negritude is a fundamental lens through which to examine themes related to African identity, resistance to colonialism, and the celebration of African culture. It provides a framework for analyzing the characters, plot, and symbolism in the context of the broader Negritude movement.

Suggested Readings

  1. Césaire, Aimé. Notebook of a Return to the Native Land. Translated by Mireille Rosello, Wesleyan University Press, 2001.
  2. Dash, Michael J. The Other America: Caribbean Literature in a New World Context. University of Virginia Press, 1998.
  3. Diagne, Souleymane Bachir. African Art as Philosophy: Senghor, Bergson, and the Idea of Negritude. University of Seagull, 2011.
  4. Irele, Abiola. The African Imagination: Literature in Africa and the B**ck Diaspora. Oxford University Press, 2001.
  5. Mudimbe, V. Y. The Invention of Africa: Gnosis, Philosophy, and the Order of Knowledge. Indiana University Press, 1988.
  6. Okuyade, Ogaga. Negritude and Literary Criticism: The History and Theory of ‘Negro-African’ Literature in French. University Press of America, 2000.
  7. Williams, Patrick, and Laura Chrisman, editors. Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory: A Reader. Columbia University Press, 1994.

Hermeneutics in Literature

Hermeneutics in literature plays a significant role by providing a fundamental framework for the interpretation of literary texts.

Significance of Hermeneutics in Literature

Hermeneutics in literature plays a significant role by providing a fundamental framework for the interpretation of literary texts. It highlights the importance of historical context, encouraging readers and scholars to consider the cultural backdrop, authorial intent, and social milieu in which a work was written.

Through its emphasis on careful textual analysis, hermeneutics enables a deeper exploration of symbolism, metaphor, and narrative structures, enriching the understanding of a text’s hidden meanings.

This approach fosters a dynamic dialogue between the text, the author, and the reader, acknowledging that interpretation is an evolving and collaborative process. Overall, hermeneutics enhances the appreciation of the intricacies within literature, making it an invaluable tool for literary analysis and appreciation.

Critics of Hermeneutics in Literature:
  1. Subjectivity and Relativism: Critics argue that hermeneutics can lead to overly subjective interpretations since it acknowledges the role of the reader’s perspective. This subjectivity can result in a lack of objective standards in literary analysis.
  2. Challenges in Determining Authorial Intent: Some critics contend that determining the author’s original intent, a central aspect of hermeneutics, is often impossible or speculative, especially when the author is no longer alive to clarify their intentions.
  3. Cultural and Historical Bias: Hermeneutics’ focus on historical and cultural context can sometimes lead to an overemphasis on these aspects, potentially obscuring other valuable interpretations that transcend historical boundaries.
  4. Limitations in Addressing Intertextuality: While hermeneutics acknowledges intertextuality, some critics argue that it may not adequately address the complexities of how texts interact with one another, especially in contemporary literature where intertextuality can be more intricate.
  5. Neglect of Formalist Analysis: Critics contend that hermeneutics may overlook the formal aspects of literature, such as literary devices, style, and structure, which are essential for a comprehensive analysis.
  6. Lack of Universality: Critics question the universality of hermeneutical methods, suggesting that what works for one text or culture may not apply to others, limiting its adaptability in cross-cultural literary analysis.
  7. Incomplete Objectivity: Despite its claims of objectivity, hermeneutics cannot entirely eliminate the interpreter’s subjectivity, leading some critics to argue that it falls short in achieving a truly objective understanding of texts.
  8. Overemphasis on Tradition: Hermeneutics’ emphasis on the influence of tradition in interpretation may be seen as a constraint, potentially discouraging innovative or unconventional readings of literary works.

It’s important to note that these criticisms represent ongoing debates within the field of literary analysis, and hermeneutics continues to be a valuable approach, despite these challenges.

Examples of Hermeneutics in Literature
WorkHermeneutic Critique
Shakespeare’s HamletHermeneutics illuminates the complex character of Hamlet and the various themes and symbols in the play. By examining the historical and cultural context of the play, as well as Shakespeare’s own background and experiences, hermeneutics sheds light on the author’s intended meaning and how it is received by different readers.
Toni Morrison’s BelovedHermeneutics aids in understanding the many layers of meaning in Morrison’s Pulitzer Prize-winning novel Beloved. Examining the author’s background, along with the historical context of slavery and its legacy in the United States, hermeneutics reveals the complex relationships between the characters and the symbols and motifs that pervade the novel.
Emily Dickinson’s poetryHermeneutics uncovers her unique use of language and her preoccupation with death, nature, and spirituality in Dickinson’s poetry. Examining the historical and cultural context in which Dickinson lived, as well as her personal background and experiences, hermeneutics sheds light on the meanings of her poems and how they are interpreted by different readers.
James Joyce’s UlyssesHermeneutics unravels the many layers of meaning in Joyce’s notoriously difficult novel Ulysses. By examining the author’s background, along with the historical and cultural context of the novel, hermeneutics reveals the multiple levels of symbolism and allusion present in the text.
Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. DallowayHermeneutics applies to Woolf’s modernist novel Mrs. Dalloway, illuminating its complex narrative structure and its exploration of themes such as identity, memory, and time. By examining the author’s background and experiences, along with the historical and cultural context in which the novel was written, hermeneutics reveals the ways in which Woolf challenges traditional notions of narrative and representation.

These explanations illustrate how hermeneutics, in the present tense, serves as a critical approach to gain deeper insights into the meaning and interpretation of these literary works.

Keywords in Hermeneutics Literary Theory

Here are some keywords associated with Hermeneutics Literary Theory:

  1. Interpretation: Hermeneutics is concerned with the process of interpretation, especially as it applies to understanding texts.
  2. Understanding: Hermeneutics emphasizes the importance of understanding, as opposed to mere knowledge, in the process of interpretation.
  3. Meaning: Hermeneutics is concerned with the nature and possibility of meaning in texts, and how it is constructed through the act of interpretation.
  4. Context: Hermeneutics in literature places great emphasis on the role of context in interpretation, including historical, cultural, and social context.
  5. Subjectivity: Hermeneutics in literature acknowledges the role of the reader’s subjectivity in interpretation, and how it can influence the meaning that is derived from a text.
  6. Dialogue: Hermeneutics emphasizes the importance of dialogue and conversation in the process of interpretation, including the dialogue between reader and text, and among readers themselves.
  7. Fusion of Horizons: Hermeneutics proposes a process of “fusion of horizons,” in which the reader’s horizon of understanding is merged with that of the text, leading to a deeper level of understanding.
  8. Authorial Intent: Hermeneutics places importance on understanding the author’s intent in writing a text, but acknowledges that this can be difficult to discern and that the meaning of a text can evolve over time.
  9. Reader-Response: Hermeneutics acknowledges the importance of the reader’s response to a text, and how it can influence the meaning that is derived from it.
  10. Ethics: Hermeneutics has ethical implications, as it recognizes the importance of respecting the autonomy and integrity of the text, as well as the reader’s own autonomy in the process of interpretation.
Suggested Readings
  1. Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and Method. Translated by Joel Weinsheimer and Donald G. Marshall, Bloomsbury Academic, 2013.
  2. Iser, Wolfgang. The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1978.
  3. Palmer, Richard E. Hermeneutics: Interpretation Theory in Schleiermacher, Dilthey, Heidegger, and Gadamer. Northwestern University Press, 1969.
  4. Ricoeur, Paul. The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies in the Creation of Meaning in Language. Translated by Robert Czerny, University of Toronto Press, 1977.
  5. Steiner, George. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation. Oxford University Press, 1975.
  6. Vanhoozer, Kevin J. Is There a Meaning in This Text? The Bible, the Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge. Zondervan, 1998.
  7. Vico, Giambattista. The New Science. Translated by Thomas Goddard Bergin and Max Harold Fisch, Cornell University Press, 1984.

Hermeneutics in Literature & Literary Theory

Hermeneutics is not primarily a literary theory; rather, it is a philosophical and interpretive approach that deals with the theory and methodology of interpretation.

Introduction To Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics is not primarily a literary theory; rather, it is a philosophical and interpretive approach that deals with the theory and methodology of interpretation. It seeks to understand and interpret various forms of communication and expression, including literature, historical texts, art, and everyday conversations, aiming to uncover their deeper meaning, context, and intention.

Etymology and Meanings of Hermeneutics
  • Origin: Ancient Greek word “hermeneutikos”
  • Derived from “hermeneuein” meaning “to interpret” or “to explain”
  • Associated with the Greek god Hermes, the messenger and interpreter of the gods
  • Evolved to encompass principles and methods of interpreting texts and communication
  • Became a philosophical discipline for understanding the deeper meaning of expressions in various contexts
Meanings of Hermeneutics
  1. Textual Interpretation: Uncovering deeper meanings in literary works, including symbolism, metaphor, and narrative structure.
  2. Historical and Cultural Context: Understanding a text within its historical and cultural setting.
  3. Reader-Response Theory: Recognizing that readers bring their perspectives to interpretation.
  4. Hermeneutic Circle: An iterative process where parts and the whole inform each other in interpretation.
  5. Dialogue and Conversation: Encouraging discussions for diverse interpretations.
  6. Literary Theory: Used in conjunction with various literary theories for analysis.
  7. Applied Hermeneutics: Extending interpretation to other forms of communication and media.
Hermeneutics: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments
Origin:
  • Hermeneutics has its roots in ancient Greece, with the term “hermeneutics” originating from Hermes, the messenger of the Greek gods. It initially referred to the art of interpretation and was associated with the interpretation of religious texts.
Key Theorists:
  1. Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834):
    • Notable for his work on hermeneutics in theology.
    • Emphasized understanding the author’s intentions and capturing the “spirit” of a text.
    • His work laid the foundation for modern hermeneutics.
  2. Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911):
    • Extended hermeneutics to encompass the interpretation of human sciences (Geisteswissenschaften).
    • Emphasized the role of empathy (Einfühlung) in understanding the historical and cultural context of texts.
  3. Martin Heidegger (1889-1976):
    • Applied hermeneutics to philosophy.
    • Introduced the concept of the “hermeneutical circle” and the idea that understanding is always situated in a historical context.
  4. Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-2002):
    • Wrote Truth and Method (1960), a seminal work in hermeneutics.
    • Stressed the fusion of horizons and the idea that every interpreter brings their own biases and prejudices to the text.
Notable Works:
  • On the Different Methods of Translating by Friedrich Schleiermacher: In this work, Schleiermacher discussed the various methods of translating texts and the challenges of preserving their meanings.
  • Truth and Method by Hans-Georg Gadamer: This influential book explores the nature of understanding, the fusion of horizons, and the role of tradition in interpretation.
Fundamental Arguments:
  • The Fusion of Horizons: Hermeneutics emphasizes that interpreters bring their own historical and cultural horizons to the act of interpretation. Understanding a text involves merging these horizons with the text’s context.
  • Historical and Contextual Understanding: Hermeneutics stresses the importance of understanding texts within their historical and cultural contexts. This includes considering the author’s intentions, the audience, and the cultural milieu in which the text was produced.
  • Interpretive Process: Hermeneutics recognizes that interpretation is an ongoing, circular process where understanding deepens with each engagement with a text. The hermeneutical circle highlights the interdependence of parts and the whole of a text.
  • Dialogical Nature: Interpretation is seen as a dialogue between the interpreter, the text, and the tradition from which the text arises. Gadamer argued that this dialogue shapes our understanding.

Hermeneutics has evolved over centuries and continues to influence various fields, including literature, philosophy, theology, and the social sciences, providing a framework for understanding and interpreting texts and human experiences.

Principles of Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics is a philosophical approach to interpretation that seeks to understand how we interpret meaning from texts. Here are some of the key principles of hermeneutics:

PrincipleExplanation
Historical ContextUnderstanding the historical and cultural background of a text is crucial for accurate interpretation. This includes knowledge of the author’s time, language, social norms, and traditions.
Author’s IntentionHermeneutics emphasizes the importance of discerning the author’s original intent or purpose behind the text. This involves considering the author’s worldview, beliefs, and objectives.
Textual AnalysisCareful examination of the text’s language, grammar, and structure helps uncover the meaning and significance of individual words, phrases, and passages.
Horizon of UnderstandingRecognizing that both the interpreter and the text have their own horizons of understanding (experiences, beliefs, biases), and the goal is to merge these horizons to achieve a more comprehensive understanding.
Contextual CoherenceInterpreting a specific passage within the broader context of the entire text helps maintain consistency and coherence in understanding.
Application of TraditionHermeneutics acknowledges the influence of tradition on interpretation. Understanding how a text has been interpreted throughout history can provide valuable insights.
Text-Reader InteractionInterpretation is a dynamic process that involves an active engagement between the reader and the text. The reader’s experiences and perspectives influence the interpretation.
The Hermeneutic CircleThis principle recognizes that understanding parts of a text requires knowledge of the whole, and understanding the whole requires insight into the parts. It involves a circular movement between the parts and the whole.
Suspension of PrejudiceInterpreters should strive to set aside personal biases and preconceptions as much as possible to avoid distorting the meaning of the text.
Interdisciplinary ApproachHermeneutics often draws from various disciplines, such as linguistics, history, philosophy, and literary studies, to enrich the interpretation process.
IntertextualityHermeneutics considers the interconnectedness of texts, acknowledging that a text is influenced by and can reference other texts, which can enhance the understanding of the current text.
Application to Contemporary ContextThe insights gained from hermeneutics should be applicable to contemporary situations, allowing the text’s wisdom to be relevant and transformative in the present.

These principles reflect the complexity and richness of the hermeneutic approach to interpretation, which has evolved over centuries of philosophical and theological inquiry.

Suggested Readings
  1. Gadamer, Hans-Georg. Truth and Method. Continuum, 2004.
  2. Heidegger, Martin. Being and Time. Harper Perennial Modern Thought, 2008.
  3. Ricoeur, Paul. The Rule of Metaphor: Multi-Disciplinary Studies of the Creation of Meaning in Language. Routledge, 2004.
  4. Smith, James K. A. The Fall of Interpretation: Philosophical Foundations for a Creational Hermeneutic. InterVarsity Press, 2000.
  5. Steiner, George. After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation. Oxford University Press, 1998.
  6. Taylor, Charles. The Ethics of Authenticity. Harvard University Press, 1992.
  7. Thiselton, Anthony C. Hermeneutics: An Introduction. Eerdmans, 2009.
  8. Vanhoozer, Kevin J. Is There a Meaning in This Text? The Bible, the Reader, and the Morality of Literary Knowledge. Zondervan, 1998.

The Odyssey and The Iliad: Fundamental Values

The Odyssey and The Iliadshow values like every book of a civilization does and these values come to the fore through its people, their celebrations, their religious beliefs, and their literary pieces

Introduction to the Greek Code of Honor in The Odyssey and The Iliad

The Odyssey and The Iliadshow values like every book of a civilization does and these values come to the fore through its people, their celebrations, their religious beliefs, and their literary pieces. As Greeks lived too far in the past, it is only the literary masterpieces that the world has found in order to evaluate the excellence of their civilization and their ways of life. As Homer is the most popular Grecian poet, as well as the most popular classic figure on account of his famous epics, it is through epics The Odyssey and The Iliad that their values, they used to live by, could be evaluated. Those values form the core of their civilization and way of life, and it was considered an honor to abide by them. Several of those values go totally against the topical charters, but several of them surprise the modern reader that they existed more than 2,800 years earlier in Greece. From the reading of The Odyssey and The Iliad, several values and moral codes can be observed which form their Grecian honor code. Some of them go against their Greek norms, but some of them conform to the Greek civilization. Almost all the heroes of the Greek era abides by those values in order to win the honor and respect of the people. The values that set their code of honor are arête, means physical and mental power and ingenuity, ergon, which means manual labor, time, means the ability to take away a gift, war booty or a trophy, kleos, which means to win public opinion, xenia orhospitality or guest friendship, loyalty to the land and the people and above all the prevailing religious belief.

Best Quality in The Odyssey and The Iliad

The term used by Homer for pointing out the best quality in human beings is arête, which is one of the best examples in the Homeric epics. It has been translated in several ways but the best way in which it could be defined is that it is a personal trait where an individual uses his best potential to the maximum to achieve the best results. It has been, however, closely associated with mental agility, bravely, strength, courage, and even deceptiveness is included in it. Both have been given in The Odyssey and The Iliad. It means it involves all human faculties and abilities that he could use to his advantage. For example, Odysseus himself says about Achilles in The Iliad Book-I that “To your health, Achilles, for a generous feast” (1,229) which shows that a good health is the first point in arête, which clearly shows that Achilles is far above all other Greeks including Odysseus in strength. That is the very reason that he is a respected figure among all others. Odysseus himself is no less strong and the best proof is provided by the Phaeacian Prince Alcinous when he says, “Come, my friends, / let’s ask our guest…He’s no mean man, not with a build like that …/ Look at his thighs, his legs, and what a pair of arms—his massive neck, his big, rippling strength! (8, 326-329). However, this is not the only quality: a hero or a good person must have the mental faculty sharper than others to win the respect he desires. Odysseus, in this respect, excels Achilles who is far stronger than Odysseus. He displays this quality on several occasions during his decade long itinerary he undertook to reach home. However, its best display is shown when he along with his comrades is trapped in the cave of one-eyed monster, Polyphemus, who asks his name in response to which he says “Nobody” adding ““Cyclops, you asked about my famous name. / I’ll tell you. Then you can offer me a gift, / as your guest. My name is Nobody. / My father and mother, all my other friends—/ they call me Nobody.’  (8, 484-488). When he, along with his surviving comrades, hatches a plot to blind him and succeeds in it, Polyphemus blurts out; “Nobody is killing me, my friends, / by treachery, not using any force.” (6, 539-540). When he sees that they are out of the harms’ way and that monster cannot do anything to harm them he boast over this quality addressing Polyphemus ““Cyclops, if any mortal human being / asks about the injury that blinded you / tell them Odysseus destroyed your eye”(8, 662-667). This implies that the common Greeks see their entire world as the one in which a person demonstrates his supreme importance in the face of difficulties and conflicts and arête is the only yardstick to measure his success or failure. It became the ideal of the excellence of a person and quickly became a yardstick to measure the effectiveness of a leader. Bravery and mental faculty were not enough; wit and courage were also its fundamental elements. To say that my name is “Nobody” and then when the Cyclops says that “Nobody is killing me” shows how witty Odysseus is. Even deceptiveness is also allowed on occasions when it is necessary to save the lives of comrades and Odysseus displays this when he is in Phaeacia and listening to the tales of blind Demodocus regarding the Trojan Horse. He could not control his emotions saying “I am Odysseus, son of Laertes, / well known to all for my deceptive skills—my fame extends all the way to heaven” (9, 225-228 ).

Comparison of Persuasion in The Odyssey and The Iliad

And Achilles is no less deceptive as he rallies the whole army, when Agamemnon demands a prize he replies “And where do you think, son of Atreus, / You greedy glory-hound, the magnanimous Greeks / Are going to get another prize for you” (1, 130-133) which shows both his power to respond, persuade as well as win public support. Odysseus does the same when he returns from the journey and meets his old servant to check his loyalty with him and then Telemachus to check what is happening in his land. However, there are two other values included in the Greek arête which are kleos or sense of glory and other is aidos or sense of duty. As far as glory is concerned, even deceptive skills are allowed to seek glory and win public opinion as stated by the speech of Achilles who accuses Agamemnon of running after glory but he himself is seeking the same. However, whereas the sense of duty is concerned, it was taken by the Greeks very seriously. Achilles asks Calchas to predict what is there in store and he says “I live / And look upon this earth, no one will lay a hand / On you here beside these hollow ships, not even “Agamemnon, who boasts he is the best of the Achaeans.” (1, 193-196). This is makes him even more respected and honorable in the eyes of his soldiers that he is on the one hand, berating his enemy and displaying here is his sense of responsibility as a hero. Odysseus also feels this burden of duty and saves his comrades from any mishap during his journey and also feels the same about his nostos – the reason that he says; “But still I wish, / each and every day to get back home, / to see the day when I return.” (5, 268-276). However, the best of the arête is that which is praised by the enemy himself as Sarpedon asks his friend about Greeks and specifically Achilles that “They are strong, and fight with our best, / Ah my friend, if you and I could only /  Get out of this war alive and then?” (12, 320-323) which they know that they cannot. However, if they can, it means that they would be considered immortal like gods, for it was not a mean feat to hoodwink Achilles and escape. Sometimes even the heroes do not abide by the code set by society or they violate it due to a weakness in character or to achieve some end or deliberately due to some other reason. Sometimes honor is showered after the hero is compared to his opponent such as Ajax who relates another story about the blood price saying “a man accepts compensation” (9.652) which means that the forgiver stays in the same town but shows restrain which Achilles should have shown towards Agamemnon.

Hard Work in The Odyssey and The Iliad

The other value that a society values high in a person is the ability and the will to do manual hard work more than all others do. This is called ergon. The concept about hard work is that gods and men hate the person who leads an idle life and live like a parasite. All Greek heroes have displayed some manual skills as Odysseus is a skilled woodworker (4, 311-340) while Priam himself has built the palace. Time or the material possession of a trophy and prize is also a Greek value that is honored in a hero or even a simple individual. That is why Achilles says “I am not going to be the only Greek without a prize” (1, 127) adding to ask Menelaus that “now you’re threatening to take away the prize / that I sweated and the Greeks gave me” (1, 171-172). It is the threat of losing a prize that actually spurs a war between both the heroes; Agamemnon and Achilles. The major objective is that it is through gifts and prizes that they used to sway public opinion in their support. However, there must be one thing cleared that sometimes these gifts have no value but it is the value that is associated with these gifts by the people that counts.

Virtues in The Odyssey and The Iliad

Another value regarded highly among the Greeks was hospitality. It is considered a great virtue to befriend a guest and extend proper honor to him. In Homeric language, it is called xenia which is closely associated with the value of the sense of duty or responsibility. Hence, it was a duty of a good Grecian to respect his guest. The Odyssey shows several examples of bad hosts and bad guests such as Penelope’s suitors are very bad guests, while Polyphemus is a bad host along with good hosts such as the Phaeacians, who honored Odysseus. However, it also involves connectedness or association with a friend such as Achilles shows with Patroclus and with his death, he feels deep anguish saying to his mother that he thinks himself “a dead weight on the earth” (18, 109). It means that sometimes heroes consider several other issues and welfare of their near and dear ones which prompt them to demonstrate arête.

Loyalty in The Odyssey and The Iliad

Loyalty to the land, people and faith was also considered another character trait honored well. Achilles and Odysseus both are half-divine and half human being. Hence, there is no doubt about their having inherited religious touch and hence they pay proper respect as Achilles says, “When you two speak, Goddess, a man has to listen / No matter how angry” (1, 225-226) which shows how religious entities were regarded high in the Greek culture. Even his depression and sorrow over the death of his friend Patroclus is also a show of deep loyalty while Odysseus shows the same thing to his wife, his people and his land when he states that “I myself know very well Penelope / although intelligent, is not your match” (1, 268-269) which he says to Circe when he is trapped. Even Zeus also supported his yearning to go home which is due to his loyalty to the religious order, his wife and above all his people. Even Achilles pays proper homage to the religious entities despite his victories.

Conclusion

In short, the Greek civilization, as depicted by Homeric epics The Odyssey and The Iliad, has several values which were to be adopted by the heroes and the common lot alike in order to win the respect, honor, and homage of the whole nation. All Homeric heroes have almost all of these qualities though sometimes they may have displayed some slight defiance but it is human nature to be strayed away. The value that has set the code of honor of the Greeks of the Homeric era were arête which is interpreted as the holistic ability of mind and body of a person to display during trying times. It also includes manual hard work, the ability to get away with his prize or booty, hospitality, and loyalty towards the nation as well as the religious order. Even when Odysseus or Achilles violated these values, they are reprimanded either by the religious entities or by the people themselves in order to keep them on the right track and they both understand the importance of this code of honor. Therefore, The Odyssey and The Iliad demonstrate the code of honor that the Grecians have set for themselves and for their heroes in order to win respect and lead the nation.

Works Cited
  1. Homer. The Odyssey. Xist Publishing, 2015.
  2. Lattimore, Richmond, ed. The Iliad of Homer. CUP Archive, 1962.
  3. Kowalczyk, Kamila. “Poetic Inspiration in Homer’s ‘Iliad’ and ‘Odyssey’.” Scripta Classica, vol. 6, 2009, pp. 9-14.
Relevant Questions about The Odyssey and The Iliad: Fundamental Values of The Grecian Code of Honor
  1. How do the actions and decisions of Achilles in The Iliad and Odysseus in The Odyssey reflect and evolve in relation to the Grecian code of honor, and what lessons about honor can we draw from their respective journeys and character developments?
  2. In both The Odyssey and The Iliad, how do the protagonists, Odysseus and Achilles, exemplify or challenge the concept of kleos (glory or fame) as a fundamental value in the Grecian code of honor, and what is the significance of their pursuit of kleos in the context of these epic narratives?
  3. The themes of xenia (hospitality) are prominently featured in both The Odyssey and The Iliad. How do these epics portray the importance of xenia as a vital component of the Grecian code of honor, and what insights do they provide into the expectations of hosts and guests in ancient Greek society?

Sissy Jupe: A Paragon of Humanism

Without Sissy Jupe, the novel Hard Times by Charles Dickens seems to be a harsh criticism on the rise of capitalism and industrialization.

Introduction to Sissy Jupe

Without Sissy Jupe, the novel Hard Times by Charles Dickens seems to be a harsh criticism on the rise of capitalism and industrialization of the society of that time. Not only Dickens has pictured very harsh conditions of the industrial centers but also presented harsh situations and treatments that the different characters have to go through. The matter of fact is that some of the characters have been named in a way that they show the seamy side of reality of capitalism and its impacts. The proliferation of industry and consequential financial prosperity has divided the society into classes where the hands (the laborers) are facing the worst of the social ills in the shape of unemployment, exploitation and even outright expulsion from the social fabric. The hard shackles of the capitalism and industrialization has wrested the society of its moral and spiritual heritage.

Sissy Jupe Among Other Characters

Another important thing is that there is no room for personal and individual development which is amply shown by Charles Dickens through his two female characters which stand in contrast to each other. Although the system does not support the left-over people such as Sissy Jupe, Thomas Gradgrind and Mr. Choakumchild take up the responsibility in Coketown, an emblem of the worst sort of industrialized city. It also is a fact that the atmospheric pleasantness of the novel comes through Cecilia or Sissy Jupe who enters the scene and spreads a fresh wave of happiness. Sissy Jupe, though comes from the circus and left by her family, has had her influence that not only impacts the entire novel but also the very household where she lives. Symbol of better times, she stands in contrast to Louisa Gradgrind, the dear but mathematically measured daughter of Mr. Gradgrind.

Sissy Jupe and Louisa

If Sissy is to be understood as a fresh wave of happiness, it is imperative to create a binary of her character with some other characters of her age. Here Louisa Gradgrind immediately comes to mind. She is the major female character in whose shadow Sissy Jupe emerges yet prevails her when the novel reaches its end. Also, Sissy Jupe does not receive attention that she deserves. In fact, it is the difference of upbringing. Louisa has been brought up in a purely utilitarian atmosphere of Gradgrind where only mathematical and monetary value rules the roost. She knows only the value of money and of hard facts. However, as compared to her, Sissy Jupe is the child of nature despite the fact that she has been from almost a broken family, as she was left by her father to live on herself.

Sissy Jupe and Gradgrinds

Moreover, Sissy Jupe lives with Gradgrinds, as her father leaves her. She is taken by Gradgrind for her upbringing. Hence, Mr. Gradgrind is keeping her at home to help Mrs. Gradgrind in her domestic work. Dickens has beautifully contrasted both of them, Louisa and Sissy, in slightly ambivalent terms such as “No little Gradgrind had ever learnt the silly jingle” (Dickens 4). However, Sissy Jupe has obviously learned all these things in her circus life. As a daughter of the clown, she is left and has to compromise everything to make Gradgrind agree to keep her at her home. This contrast makes Louisa, a daughter of the fortune, imprisoned in the facts of Mr. Gradgrind. Actually, it is Sissy Jupe’s experience that makes her to stand apart from Louisa Gradgrind. This standing apart brings a fresh wave of feelings and passions in the readers.

Impact of Sissy Jupe

The second argument is about her impacts that she has at home and on the other characters. It comes in the shape that Louisa Gradgrind entirely starts loving her and alleges that her father’s utilitarian upbringing has brought her to her doom. She clearly tells her father that it is his education that has not done any good to her. Even Sissy makes her realize that she loves Louisa and that Louisa wants to know it too (247). This means that Sissy knows what love is and that Louisa, in contrast to her, does not know anything about such passions. However, she also sees that Jane, her sister, too, knows it better than her, as she has lived in the company of Sissy who has taught her what love is. She is quite happy and even more than Louisa, her real sister. Jane tells her that it is Sissy who has made her happy (243), so much better is her impact on Jane that it wins the hearts of Louisa. This may have awakened in Louisa a sort of loathsomeness for the hard and harsh rules and regulations of Mr. Gradgrind and increased her love for Sissy.

The other impact of Sissy Jupe is on the events of the novel. Sissy, though, is strictly told to stay in facts and rules of Mr. Gradgrind, starts spreading the impacts of her happiness and loveable nature in the atmosphere. In the midst of the hard and mechanized life, she is a representative of Victorian feminine quality. Her positive character traits come into play from the very start when she does not accuse her father of leaving her, saying, “You are gone away for my sake, I am sure” (10). This positivity stays with her at other times when she is with Louisa or even with Mr. Gradgrind. She has shone like a light when the moments are dark. Despite becoming a “girl number twenty” (11), she never ever makes realized Mr. Gradgrind of his faults how he treated her in the past. In fact, with the passing of time, she becomes a mature and confident girl in a way that she even saves Louisa from the likely ruin of Mrs. Sparsit’s bad intentions of linking her to Mr. Harthouse.

Sissy Jupe and Gradgrindian Philosophy

However, another interesting fact about her life is that whether she has learned something from Gradgrind house or not. This is very important as she has been taken to Gradgrind as a young girl, and she becomes quite mature and adult lady over there, having the courage of her convictions. Although she teaches Louisa much, she also learns many things like facts and other Gradgrindian philosophy of the utility of things. However, it is the act of teaching Louisa about fantasies that she has learned in her child that works wonders, and in turn Louisa, through her own example, teaches her how Gradgrindian philosophy destroys a person. What Sissy learns is that her childhood and upbringing and above all positive thinking is of more value than the utilitarian working of Gradgrind house. Both, Louisa and Sissy, learns kindheartedness form each other, Sissy acknowledges that Louisa knows too much “and I knew so little” (245). This means that she has the courage to acknowledge that she is deficient in something, and this is what she learns. Learning to have some deficiency is a way to progress, and she progresses in this connection.

Influence of Sissy Jupe

As the influence of her maturity is concerned, she has not only saved Louisa but has done a wonderful job of convincing Mr. Harthouse that he should leave Louisa and not slander her. She has demonstrated her confidence in facing him. He is rather impressed by the gentleness of her manners that he seems quite “defeated” (255), which means that she can manage things well, and this is her learning. In fact, her strength lies in her gentle behavior and positive attitude. It is not a sort of simple action, but an action full of confidence. Also, the question of whether it is her nature or nurture looms large on the horizon of her character. Leaving aside this debate, it is clear that she has the courage to be gentle and she has become gentle despite having learnt several things from the Gradgrinds for the first time. There are two other important actions that show her maturity and great heart. She saves Tom from arrest by sending him to the circus and arranging his departure from the country. Despite Mr. Gradgrind’s bad treatment to her, she does not exact any revenge; rather she shows him a better part of her character. The second episode is that of helping Rachel, the wife of Mr. Blackpool after his death. In both of these cases, she demonstrates that her kindness is matchless and limitless. However, it is very interesting if it is compared with Mr. Gradgirnd’s notion of the circus that a girl from circus helps his son and his daughter though he used to loathe the circus world and has never allowed his children to visit the circus. The bad influence of the circus that he has envisaged has come to his house in the shape of Sissy, and saves his entire household from the pernicious impacts of capitalism.

Conclusion

Furthermore, although Sissy Jupe seems a side character and acts or seems to act as a foil to Louisa, her influence on readers, too, is very impactful and striking. She seems to be living and loving character who comes to save the heroin when she needs such a person the most. She is full of jubilation and life. She is compassionate despite belonging to a low family. However, it seems that she has not only learned valuable lessons but also taught very mature and adult lessons to others. For Louisa, she has been a fresh wave of deliverance, who releases her from the clutches of harsh capitalistic mindset. She has taught Mr. Harthouse the lesson how to stick to morality when the situations are changing. Sissy Jupe is a representative of a good world where people love each other and feel compassion for each other. Positive thinking is the hallmark of Sissy Jupe that evinces through every act of her. She not only comes to help Tom and Louisa but also helps all others when the situation becomes gloomy such as Rachel. Moreover, if she is placed in contrast to Louisa, she seems more prominent and towering despite the fact that she is considered lowly due to her relation with the circus world.

Works Cited

Dickens, Charles. Hard Times. Feedbooks. Ebook. Online, 2014.

Relevant Questions about Sissy Jupe: A Paragon of Humanism in the Midst of Capitalism
  1. How does Sissy Jupe’s character in “Hard Times” embody the values of humanism, and what qualities or actions set her apart from other characters who are influenced by the prevailing capitalist mindset in the story?
  2. In what ways does Sissy Jupe’s compassion and empathy for others challenge the dehumanizing effects of industrial capitalism as depicted in the novel, and how do her interactions with other characters illustrate this contrast?
  3. How does Sissy Jupe’s presence in the narrative serve as a commentary on the moral and ethical implications of a capitalist society, and what broader messages does her character convey about the importance of human connection and compassion in such a context?

Sibling Relations in Frankenstein

Sibling relations in Frankenstein, a novel by Marry Shelly, show it as full of gregarious social relations with a tinge of a mild rivalry

Introduction to Sibling Relations in Frankenstein

Sibling relations in Frankenstein, a novel by Marry Shelly, show it as full of gregarious social relations with a tinge of a mild rivalry. In fact, the typical family setup started eroding during the Romantic Period where the roles of siblings changed with the change of sexual orientation, more education and liberalization of ideas.  Although relations between different siblings given in the novel seem genuine, sometimes these relations also touch the border of love that two opposite genders could have. As siblings often prove concerned for the welfare of each other, specifically sisters take care of brothers and brothers see sisters as their responsibilities, the novel also shows this amply. At the same time, nobody can live in complete solitude. If he discovers or finds something, he needs other siblings to share with and enjoy. If he suffers from some pain, he needs somebody else to share it. No outside of the family can share joys or provide comfort in pain. Siblings given by Mary Shelley in Frankenstein not only provide much needed love to each other, but also provide a mini society within a family to share joys and sorrows, while bringing harmony and balance in each other’s lives.

Brother-Sister Sibling Relations in Frankenstein

The brother-sister sibling relations is often fraught with love. The same happens in Frankenstein in all the brother-sister cases. Walton writes to his sister about whatever he sees and observes during his expedition. It is clear from his letters that Mrs. Saville has been worried about his adventures the reason that he writers her, “You will rejoice to hear that no disaster has accompanied the commencement of an enterprise which you have regarded with such evil forebodings” (Shelley 1). This clearly shows a sister’s love for her brother. Walton writers to his sister that he needs some friend who could show his concern for him, and be a friend in his loneliness which he finds in Victor. This is actually a love of a sibling for another sibling. He then tells her that his like his brother. Similarly, Victor’s siblings, Elizabeth who plays the role of his sister as well as wife when on deathbed, fulfills the duties of a sibling, as he looks upon at her, “to protect, love and cherish” (30). He cares and nurses her during illness. Same goes for his brother William whose death heralds terrible consequences of Victor’s experiment. He is greatly bereaved when his father writes him a letter of his death by the hands of monster. This is the need of love that he feels for him. This clearly shows that siblings love each other to make each other feel that there is somebody to take care of. That is the very reason that Victor thanks Walton for friendship but says, “Can any man be to me a Clerval was; or any women be another Elizabeth?” (262), which is an expression of love for sibling relations in Frankenstein.

First Cousin Sibling Relations in Frankenstein

Siblings also form first social relations during childhood. Victor does not agree to marry his adopted sister Elizabeth, until he is clarified by her, she demands his love and tells him about the will of his mother. Walton writes to his sister to keep in touch to have a social relations. He wants Victor to be his friend and brother only to have social relations. In fact, social relations with siblings make a person able to live in a society. Monster also longs to have some siblings, so that he could live a perfect life, as Mary says that the monster “gained knowledge, of brother, sister, and all the various relationships which bind one human being to another in mutual bonds” after he observes the poor family living a good life with their siblings Agatha and Felix (142). The same goes to Walton that he seeks social relation, as loneliness and alienation makes him feel estranged. That is why he passionately tells his sister about his friendship with Victor, showing sibling relations in Frankenstein.

Harmon, Balance and Sibling relations in Frankenstein

Relations of siblings, as described by Marry, in some cases, create harmony, balance and rhythm in the family life as well as individual life. When the monster sees the poor family, he hopes to join this family to see himself living happily in perfect harmony. However, the family leaves and his hopes end in smoke. He sees Agatha and Felix and thinks that, “their feelings were serene and peaceful, while mine became every day more tumultuous” (156). He wants to bring harmony to keep his feelings in check and serene. That is why he desires for siblings, or wants at least acceptance of his creator, Victor. It is also that Walton writes to his sister to bring harmony in his life, when he is away from his home. Victor, himself loses this harmony, when he comes to know that his brother is killed by the monster. This harmony is lost, as he states it that when he enters the graveyard to see their graves, and the leaves “were gently agitated by the wind” which shows a sort of restlessness in his heart lost by the death of his siblings (249). It means that Mary Shelley’s vision about sibling relations in Frankenstein is that they bring comfort, peace and above all harmony in one’s life.

Conclusion

In short, amid the confusions and ambiguities of shifting trends in relations and transformation of passions, Mary Shelley has cleared that the role of siblings in sibling relations in Frankenstein that is not only to provide much needed love in loneliness, but also to provide a small society in which they act their part, play their roles and provide love, social relations and harmony to each other. This is a balanced life that a person realizes after his interaction with his siblings. Mary Shelley wants to prove that if this balance is lost in the ambiguities as Victor has, this leads to creations such as the monster and relations such as Victor feels by the end of the novel. Therefore, her idea that siblings not only provide much needed love, but also relationship models and harmony is an example that she wants to set in her period by showing it in her novel, Frankenstein.

Works Cited
  1. Shelley, Mary Wollstonecraft. Frankenstein. Free Planet Ebooks. n. d. Web. 18 Feb. 2022.
Relevant Questions Siblings Relations in Frankenstein
  1. How do the relationships between Victor Frankenstein and his siblings, particularly his brother William and his adopted sister Elizabeth, shape the narrative and Victor’s character development? What role do these sibling bonds play in motivating or influencing Victor’s actions throughout the story?
  2. The monster created by Victor Frankenstein longs for a companion and even demands that Victor create a female companion for him. How does the monster’s desire for a sibling-like relationship contrast with Victor’s earlier abandonment of him? How does this desire for companionship among characters underscore the theme of isolation and loneliness in the novel?
  3. Elizabeth’s relationship with her adoptive family, particularly Victor, is central to the story. How does her bond with Victor differ from his relationships with his biological family members? How does her presence and her fate serve as a reflection of the broader themes of creation, responsibility, and the consequences of Victor’s actions?

Twelfth Night and A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Disguise and Deception

From Twelfth Night and A Midsummer Night’s Dream, researchers have examined the role of the disguise of different Shakespearean characters.

Introduction to Disguise and Deception in Twelfth Night and A Midsummer Night’s Dream

After reading the plays, Twelfth Night and A Midsummer Night’s Dream, researchers, having examined the role and nature of the disguise of different Shakespearean characters, and have diverse opinions regarding the disguise as well as the responses of the contemporary Elizabethan audience. Although this disguise and deception is mostly in comedies, all of the tragedies also have these features common among them – a requirement of the time when women were not permitted to take part in theatrical performances and acting on the stages in Elizabethan England, and their roles were played by women in disguise. The literature review, given here, presents not only disguise and deception from the point of view of the writer, but also from the contemporary audience’s point of view. The selected researchers, in this connection, have expressed various opinions regarding why, how, and where disguise and deception were used by different characters in Twelfth Night and A Midsummer Night’s Dream. They address the issue of the audiences’ response to (1) commonly accepted contemporary thought and belief about women’s performance, (2) theatrical impossibilities regarding the roles of women and future predictions about their independence, and (3) information for their audience about topical politics and giving them moral instructions.

Beliefs of Elizabethans

As far as the reactions of the contemporary audiences regarding their different thoughts and beliefs during Twelfth Night and A Midsummer Night’s Dream era are concerned, the pre-Shakespeare era was Puritan time, having no sense of gender, sex-equality or such other concepts, but where was awareness of the gender roles. In his essay, “Masculine Plots in Twelfth Night,” Goran V. Stanivukovic says that disguise is used to take control over women. It is because most of the narratives were presented from a masculine or patriarchal point of view where all actors were males, and women had little role to play or sometimes no role to play, as male members used to play female roles. It was actually a belief that women were too weak to perform such acts. He argues, “It is another instance of re-imagining masculinity in the romance” (123). Quoting Herbert as an analyst of spectators, Virgil Hutton states that the primary intention of Shakespeare was to see the reaction of the contemporary spectators to the performance of the male actors in female roles. Another point regarding beliefs was the presentation of fairies in disguise in, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, according to Hutton, “manifest the effort to bring the gods back to earth in an understandable and meaningful relationship with humans” (302). However, he states that this is a sort of a union that Hutton calls between man and nature or better to say a Homeric union, where gods or godly creatures are sent to the earth to help man. The issue is that these creatures were also represented by male characters as is clear from A Midsummer Night’s Dream. It shows that disguise and deception techniques were intended to hit the spectators of that time regarding their religious beliefs. It could be that this has been an attack on irrational thinking, as Hutton says that Shakespeare used the fragile human psyche to attack told beliefs or bring compliance to those ideas, perceptions, and beliefs. It was also a type of belief that women were not permitted to play the roles of women, which he attacked again and again through disguise and deception male actions adopted to play their roles in Twelfth Night and A Midsummer Night’s Dream.

Audience and Twelfth Night and A Midsummer Night’s Dream

It is, therefore, essential for the audience to be constantly on guard about the roles in disguises as well as about keeping their belief willingly suspended about fairies and other characters. The role of disguise in these seemingly impossible scenarios where fairies were to be represented by men rather gave free hand to Shakespeare. Peter Hayland argues that the “playwright reacted to the practical restrictions involved in the need for a change in or addition to a characters’ role by exploiting the theatrical possibilities” (82). Commenting on such roles assigned to males in his other article “Shakespeare’s Heroines: Disguise in the Romantic Comedies”, Peter Hayland further says that Shakespeare has been attracted to “girl-gap” device that means to use a girl for double roles. He calls it a representative of the audience on the stage, saying perhaps Shakespeare was the first to have used girls to “see the possibilities of a genuine distinction between primary and secondary personal to manipulate the distinction”, adding such characters can “speak the truth as a satirist or moralist”, making implicit warnings to the audience about acts performed in this way (28). However, this is done by winning the sympathy of the audience first and not by alienating them. The major function that he employs is for information and instructions of the audience, and not entertainment only.

Comparing Shakespeare’s use of disguise with Machiavelli’s Mathew Thomas Nilsson says;

“While Shakespeare employed a broader range of disguise devices in Twelfth Night than Machiavelli in The Mandrake Root, both Shakespeare and Machiavelli implemented “task-oriented,” means-to-an-end disguise devices into their plays” (Nilsson)”

In fact, there are several similarities as Nilsson argues saying that the major similarity is regarding the types of task-oriented devices, a technique used by the character. However, in Shakespeare, this disguise is broad, as its purpose is also entertainment and not only edification. In this connection, Nancy K. Hayles argues that this is actually a progression from the early plays to later plays in which he wants to use disguise as a “means to investigate, and eventually resolve, the disparity between appearance and reality” (115). This is clear from Hutton’s remarks also that Shakespeare wants to provide information to his audience first and then to entertain them by using disguises in his plays. Maurice Hunt says that Shakespeare has shown the concept of love and knowledge intertwined with knowledge or information. He says that disguise permits exposure of love in Twelfth Night, because the true nature of all the four characters Olivia, Malvolio, Viola, and Orsino is revealed. He argues that Orsino enjoys feminine beauty, while Cesario provides him an excuse for not recognizing the opposite (487). That is the very reason that Charles Casey has highlighted homosexual and heterosexual dynamics of characters and their gender changes in different disguises in his essay “Gender Trouble in Twelfth Night” (121).

Deception and Disguise in Twelfth Night and A Midsummer Night’s Dream

Although the literature reviewed above regarding the role of deception and disguise in Twelfth Night and A Midsummer Night’s Dream, is about orientating the audience about the contemporary beliefs, concepts, and thoughts, still a great care was taken by Shakespeare to keep the audience in sync with the message given through these techniques. Shakespeare, as a playwright had also to see theatrical impossibilities and warn the readers and the audiences of the future progression. There is not only entertainment but also information packed in different disguises the men played in the place of women, sometimes explicitly, because they had to be clear, while sometimes implicitly because the message was veiled in acting or language.

Works Cited
  1. Charles, Casey. “Gender Trouble in Twelfth Night.” Theatre Journal 49 (1997): 121-141.
  2. Hayland, Peter. “The Performance of Disguise.” Early Theatre 5.1 (2002). Web. 15 March 2016.
  3. —————–.”Shakespeare’s Heroines: Disguise in the Romantic Comedies.” UCAL. n. d. Web. 15 March 2016.
  4. Hayles, Nancy K. “Sexual Disguises in As You Like It and Twelfth Night.” Editor. Catherine M. S. Alexander. The Cambridge Shakespeare Library: Shakespeare criticism, Volume 2. Cambridge University Press. 2003. 115-128.
  5. Hutton, Virgil. “A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Tragedy in Comic Disguise.” Studies in English Literature 25 (1985). Web. 15 March 2016.
  6. Hunt, Maurice. “Love, Disguise and Knowledge in Twelfth Night.” CLA Journal 32 (1989): 484-493.
  7. Nilsson, Matthew Thomas. “Machiavelli and Shakespeare: Disguise as a Means to an End.” Binghamton University. n. d. Web. 15 March 2016.
  8. Stanivukovic, Goran V. “Masculine Plots in Twelfth Night.” Editor. James Schiffer. Twelfth Night: New Critical Essays. Routledge. New York. 2011. Print. 120-129.
  9. Howard, Jean E. “Crossdressing, the Theatre and Gender Struggle in Early Modern England.” Shakespeare Quarterly 39 (1988): 418-440.
Relevant Questions about Twelfth Night and A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Disguise and Deception
  1. How do the themes of disguise and deception contribute to the comedic elements in Twelfth Night and A Midsummer Night’s Dream? What role do mistaken identities and hidden truths play in creating humor and confusion in these plays?
  2. In “Twelfth Night,” Viola disguises herself as Cesario, and in “A Midsummer Night’s Dream,” Puck uses magic to create deception among the characters. How do these instances of disguise and deception impact the romantic relationships and love triangles in both plays? What insights do they provide about the nature of love and attraction?
  3. Shakespeare often uses disguise and deception as a means to explore social norms and gender roles. How does the theme of disguise challenge traditional gender roles and expectations in “Twelfth Night”? Similarly, in “A Midsummer Night’s Dream,” how does the use of magic and deception blur the lines between reality and fantasy, highlighting the idea of the irrational and unpredictable nature of love?

Metacriticism in Literature & Literary Theory

Metacriticism, as a theoretical concept in literary studies, involves critically assessing and reflecting upon the assumptions, methods, and theoretical frameworks used in literary and cultural criticism.

Etymology of Metacriticism

The term “metacriticism” originates from the fusion of two Greek words: “meta,” signifying “beyond” or “transcending,” and “kritikē,” meaning “critical judgment” or “criticism.”

In an academic context, metacriticism conveys a level of critical analysis that extends beyond traditional literary or cultural criticism. It entails the examination and assessment of the methods, assumptions, and theoretical frameworks used in various critical approaches.

Metacriticism seeks to evaluate the validity and limitations of these approaches, often by scrutinizing the underlying ideologies, biases, or epistemological foundations that underpin them.

This practice serves as a self-reflective and self-corrective tool within the realm of literary and cultural studies, enabling a deeper comprehension of the principles guiding critical inquiry and interpretation.

Meanings of Metacriticism
Aspect of MetacriticismMeanings
1. Critical Self-ReflectionMetacriticism involves critically analyzing and evaluating the assumptions, methods, and theoretical foundations of various literary and cultural criticism approaches.
2. Evaluation of Critical FrameworksIt examines the ideologies, epistemological foundations, and cultural contexts that underlie critical frameworks, offering insights into their broader implications.
3. Assessment of MethodologiesMetacriticism assesses the suitability and effectiveness of critical methodologies in literary and cultural studies.
4. Promoting Self-AwarenessIt encourages scholars to recognize and address their own biases and presuppositions, fostering more balanced interpretations.
5. Advancing ScholarshipMetacriticism contributes to the development and refinement of critical practices, enhancing the understanding of literature and culture.
Definition of Metacriticism as a Theoretical Term

Metacriticism, as a theoretical concept in literary studies, involves critically assessing and reflecting upon the assumptions, methods, and theoretical frameworks used in literary and cultural criticism. It aims to uncover implicit biases and cultural contexts that shape various critical approaches. Metacriticism promotes a deeper understanding of literary interpretation and contributes to the refinement and development of literary scholarship by fostering self-awareness and nuanced engagement with texts and their contexts.

Metacriticism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments
Theorists:
  • Terry Eagleton: In Marxism and Literary Criticism, Eagleton underscores the significance of materialist analysis in literary criticism, emphasizing how literature is intricately linked to economic and social conditions.
  • Fredric Jameson: Jameson’s The Political Unconscious advocates for a Marxist approach to literature, asserting that literary texts are deeply embedded in historical and material contexts, and that understanding these contexts is vital for comprehensive literary interpretation.
  • Franco Moretti: In Distant Reading, Moretti challenges traditional close reading by introducing quantitative methods. He argues that examining large datasets of texts can reveal hidden patterns and trends, offering new insights into literary studies.
  • Roland Barthes: In “The Death of the Author,” Barthes challenges the traditional concept of authorship, asserting that the focus of analysis should be on the text itself rather than the author’s intentions or biography.
  • Northrop Frye: Frye’s Anatomy of Criticism provides a systematic framework for understanding literary genres and archetypal patterns in literature, offering a structural approach to literary analysis.
Works:
  • Marxism and Literary Criticism by Terry Eagleton: This book explores the relationship between Marxism and literary criticism, emphasizing the materialist aspects of literature and the role of ideology in shaping literary works.
  • The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act by Fredric Jameson: Jameson’s book delves into the intersection of literature and politics, arguing for a Marxist approach to understanding narrative and ideology in literature.
  • Distant Reading by Franco Moretti: Moretti’s work introduces computational methods to literary analysis, challenging traditional close reading practices and offering new insights into the study of literature.
  • “The Death of the Author” by Roland Barthes: In this influential essay, Barthes argues for a shift in focus from the author to the text itself, questioning the author’s role in determining a text’s meaning.
  • Anatomy of Criticism by Northrop Frye: Frye’s seminal work provides a systematic framework for understanding literary genres and archetypal patterns in literature, contributing to the field of literary criticism.
Arguments:
  • Eagleton argues that literary works are influenced by socio-economic factors and that critically analyzing these material conditions is essential for a thorough interpretation of literature.
  • Jameson’s argument centers on the idea of the “political unconscious,” contending that literature contains concealed ideological meanings that require Marxist analysis to uncover.
  • Moretti’s argument in Distant Reading challenges conventional close reading methods and advocates for distant reading, which involves the analysis of large datasets to reveal literary patterns and historical trends.
  • Barthes’ argument in “The Death of the Author” questions the authority of the author in determining a text’s meaning, highlighting the significance of reader interpretation.
  • Frye’s argument in Anatomy of Criticism provides a comprehensive framework for understanding and categorizing literary genres and archetypal patterns, contributing to the field of literary criticism.
Metacriticism and Literary Theories
TheoryRelevance
Marxist Literary TheoryIn the context of Marxist literary theory, metacriticism helps assess and critique the underlying economic and social assumptions of different critical approaches. It examines how literary criticism itself can be influenced by or resist prevailing capitalist ideologies.
Feminist Literary TheoryWithin feminist literary theory, metacriticism is valuable for analyzing the gender biases inherent in traditional critical methods and for promoting more inclusive and gender-aware approaches to literary analysis.
Postcolonial Literary TheoryMetacriticism can be employed in postcolonial literary theory to scrutinize the colonial legacies present in various critical paradigms and to highlight the importance of decolonizing the process of literary interpretation.
Psychoanalytic Literary TheoryIn the realm of psychoanalytic literary theory, metacriticism aids in evaluating the unconscious biases and assumptions that can underlie critical interpretations, encouraging self-awareness and introspection in the analysis of literary texts.
Poststructuralist Literary TheoryMetacriticism aligns with poststructuralist literary theory by emphasizing the deconstruction of established critical methodologies and the exploration of the power dynamics inherent in various interpretive practices.
Reader-Response Literary TheoryIn reader-response literary theory, metacriticism encourages a focus on the act of reading itself and how different interpretive communities shape literary meaning, thus enriching the understanding of how readers engage with texts.
Cultural StudiesMetacriticism is pertinent to cultural studies by highlighting the ways in which cultural biases and power structures can influence critical perspectives, facilitating a more comprehensive analysis of literature within its cultural context.
DeconstructionIn deconstructionist literary theory, metacriticism aligns with the philosophy of questioning established norms and hierarchies within literary criticism, thereby challenging dominant interpretations and revealing the instability of meaning.
New HistoricismMetacriticism complements new historicism by encouraging a critical reflection on how historical contexts shape the methods and interpretations employed in the study of literature, fostering a deeper engagement with historical narratives.
Queer TheoryWithin queer theory, metacriticism can be applied to uncover and challenge heteronormative assumptions in literary criticism, promoting a more inclusive and diverse perspective on sexual and gender identities in literature.
Metacriticism in Literary Criticism
  1. The Anxiety of Influence by Harold Bloom: Harold Bloom’s influential work The Anxiety of Influence exemplifies metacriticism. In it, Bloom critically examines how earlier poets influence and shape the work of subsequent poets. He reflects on the ways in which poets grapple with the literary “anxiety” of being influenced by their predecessors and how they strive to establish their unique voices in the face of literary tradition.
  2. The New Historicism by Stephen Greenblatt: Stephen Greenblatt’s essay The New Historicism serves as an example of metacriticism within the realm of literary theory. In it, Greenblatt reflects on the emergence of the new historicist approach to literature, which emphasizes the importance of historical and cultural context in literary analysis. He critiques the traditional approaches that prioritize formal analysis and argues for a more historically grounded interpretation of literature.
  3. The Death and Return of the Author by Seán Burke: Seán Burke’s book The Death and Return of the Author engages in metacriticism by revisiting the debates surrounding the role of the author in literary interpretation. Burke critically assesses the shifts in literary theory that challenge the author’s authority and argues for a more nuanced understanding of authorship within the context of postmodernism.
  4. The Anatomy of Influence by Harold Bloom: In The Anatomy of Influence, Harold Bloom engages in metacriticism once again, but this time he examines the influence of one writer on another. He explores how great writers are shaped by and engage with the works of their predecessors. This metacritical exploration delves into the intricate relationships between literary figures and their sources of inspiration.

These examples demonstrate how metacriticism involves critically reflecting on the nature of literary influence, the evolution of literary theories, and the role of the author in interpretation, ultimately enriching our understanding of the field of literary criticism.

Suggested Readings
  1. Burke, Seán. The Death and Return of the Author: Criticism and Subjectivity in Barthes, Foucault and Derrida. Edinburgh University Press, 1992.
  2. Bloom, Harold. The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry. Oxford University Press, 1973.
  3. Bloom, Harold. The Anatomy of Influence: Literature as a Way of Life. Yale University Press, 2011.
  4. Greenblatt, Stephen. The New Historicism and Other Old-Fashioned Topics. Princeton University Press, 1989.
  5. Jameson, Fredric. The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act. Cornell University Press, 1981.
  6. Rivkin, Julie, and Michael Ryan, editors. Literary Theory: An Anthology. 2nd ed., Blackwell, 2004.
  7. Ryan, Michael. Literary Theory: A Practical Introduction. Blackwell, 2007.
  8. Waugh, Patricia. Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction. Routledge, 1988.
  9. Wimsatt, W. K., and Monroe C. Beardsley. “The Intentional Fallacy.” In The Verbal Icon: Studies in the Meaning of Poetry, edited by W. K. Wimsatt, Harvard University Press, 1954.

Materialism in Literature & Literary Theory

Materialism, as a theoretical term, is a philosophical stance asserting that the physical world, composed of material substances, constitutes the fundamental and sole reality, thereby rejecting the existence of immaterial or supernatural entities.

Etymology of Materialism

The term “materialism” finds its origins in ancient Greece, with its etymology stemming from the Latin word “materialis,” signifying a connection to matter.

Materialism is a philosophical doctrine that upholds the primacy of physical matter, contending that all phenomena, including mental and spiritual aspects, could be comprehended through the lens of material substances and their interactions.

This concept gained currency during the Enlightenment period in the 17th and 18th centuries and has since undergone various philosophical and scientific adaptations.

And it still continues to shape discussions regarding the nature of reality, the consciousness, and the interplay between the physical and non-physical dimensions of existence.

Meanings of Materialism
AspectMeanings
Philosophical MaterialismA worldview that posits physical matter as the fundamental reality and seeks to explain all phenomena in material terms.
Historical MaterialismA Marxist concept linking societal structure, economics, and ideology, often used to analyze literary works.
Consumer MaterialismPreoccupation with material possessions and their perceived role in happiness and status, often explored in literary characters.
Materialistic SocietyA culture valuing material wealth and possessions, influencing values and behaviors in literature.
Materialism vs. IdealismA literary theme contrasting materialistic pursuits with idealistic values, serving as a central tension.
Materialistic CharactersLiterary figures primarily driven by material gain, contrasting with characters emphasizing other values.
Cultural MaterialismA literary approach examining how societal factors and power structures shape texts within their cultural and historical context.
Environmental MaterialismLiterary exploration of human-nature relationships, addressing ecological issues and consequences.
Critique of MaterialismLiterary works that critique materialistic values and their societal impact.
Materialism as a ThemeLiterature emphasizing materialistic values as a central theme, prompting reflection on priorities and values.
Definition of Materialism as a Theoretical Term

Materialism, as a theoretical term, is a philosophical stance asserting that the physical world, composed of material substances, constitutes the fundamental and sole reality, thereby rejecting the existence of immaterial or supernatural entities.

It emphasizes the reduction of all phenomena, including consciousness and thought, to physical processes and interactions, underlining the importance of empirical observation and scientific inquiry in understanding the universe.

Materialism has historically played a significant role in shaping various philosophical, scientific, and sociopolitical discourses, often influencing interpretations of human existence and the natural world.

Materialism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments
Theorists:
  • Karl Marx developed the concept of historical materialism, which analyzes how economic structures influence society and culture, with significant implications for literary analysis.
  • Friedrich Engels, a collaborator with Marx, contributed to the development of historical materialism and its application to understanding society and literature.
  • Georg Lukács applied historical materialism to literature in his work The Theory of the Novel, exploring how economic and social conditions influence the novel as a literary form.
  • Raymond Williams introduced the concept of cultural materialism, which emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between culture and literature, highlighting their influence on each other.
Works:
  • In The Communist Manifesto (Marx and Engels), the authors outline key principles of historical materialism and discuss its profound implications for restructuring society.
  • Capital by Karl Marx provides a comprehensive economic analysis of capitalism, offering insights that have significantly influenced Marxist literary criticism.
  • The Theory of the Novel by Georg Lukács applies historical materialism to the analysis of the novel as a literary form, demonstrating how economic and social factors shape its development.
  • In Marxism and Literature by Raymond Williams, the author delves into the intricate relationship between Marxism and literature, introducing the concept of cultural materialism.
Arguments:
  • Historical materialism argues that economic and social structures are fundamental drivers of historical change, profoundly influencing the themes and representations found in literature.
  • Materialist perspectives frequently critique capitalist systems, as portrayed in “Capital,” for perpetuating materialistic values and exacerbating class disparities.
  • Materialism asserts that the material conditions of society, such as class struggle and economic factors, significantly shape literary works and their underlying themes.
  • Cultural materialism, as discussed in Marxism and Literature, posits that culture and literature are shaped by material conditions and social factors, offering a comprehensive approach to literary analysis that considers their interconnectedness.
Materialism and Literary Theories
TheoryRelevance of Materialism
Marxist Literary Theory– Materialism is foundational in Marxist theory, emphasizing socioeconomic and material conditions as the driving force behind literature.
– Literature reflects class struggle, economic disparities, and historical material realities.
– It provides a lens for analyzing class conflict, exploitation, and the impact of economic systems in literary works.
Cultural Materialism– Cultural materialism extends materialist analysis to culture and language, considering culture and literature as products of material and historical circumstances.
– Relevant for examining how literature reflects and shapes cultural values, norms, and ideologies within specific historical contexts.
– Investigates how material conditions influence language and discourse in literary texts.
Historical Materialism– Historical materialism applies Marxist principles to literary analysis, viewing literature as a product of material and historical conditions.
– Literature reflects societal changes and struggles related to class, economic structures, and power dynamics.
Eco-Criticism– Eco-criticism examines literature in the context of environmental concerns, intersecting with materialism by considering the physical impact of human actions on the natural world.
– In eco-criticism, it allows analysis of how literature addresses ecological issues, resource exploitation, and the consequences of human material consumption.
Feminist Literary Theory– Materialism is relevant in feminist theory discussions of gender, economics, and power. – Examines how material conditions affect the lives of women and marginalized groups in literature. – Explores the intersections of gender and class within literary works.
Postcolonial Theory– Postcolonial theory explores the impact of colonialism, imperialism, and globalization on societies and literature.
– In postcolonial theory, it is used for analyzing how literature reflects the material consequences of colonization, including economic exploitation and cultural transformation.
Materialism in Literary Criticism
  1. Death of a Salesman by Arthur Miller: In this classic American drama, the character of Willy Loman epitomizes aspirations of the American Dream. Willy believes that success and happiness are directly tied to material wealth and professional success. However, his relentless pursuit of material success ultimately leads to his downfall, illustrating how a materialistic mindset can result in personal tragedy and disillusionment.
  2. Madame Bovary by Gustave Flaubert: Flaubert’s novel follows the life of Emma Bovary, a woman who is dissatisfied with her provincial life and becomes obsessed with the pursuit of materialistic pleasures and social status. Emma’s materialistic desires lead her into financial ruin and a tragic end, serving as a critique of the emptiness of a life centered around material consumption.
  3. American Psycho by Bret Easton Ellis: Ellis’s novel delves into the extreme materialism and consumerism of the 1980s Wall Street culture. The protagonist, Patrick Bateman, is a wealthy investment banker who obsessively indulges in material possessions, but he is also a psychopathic murderer. The novel explores the moral bankruptcy that can result from a society overly focused on material gain.
  4. The Road by Cormac McCarthy: In this post-apocalyptic novel, materialism is juxtaposed with survival. The story follows a father and son as they navigate a harsh, desolate world where basic needs like food, shelter, and safety take precedence over material possessions. The novel underscores the fragility of materialism in the face of existential challenges.
  5. The House of Mirth by Edith Wharton: Wharton’s novel examines the materialistic society of early 20th-century New York. The protagonist, Lily Bart, is a socialite whose life revolves around her quest for wealth and social status. Her relentless pursuit of material success ultimately leads to her downfall, highlighting the superficiality and cruelty of a materialistic society.

In these works, materialism is portrayed as a complex and often destructive force that can lead to moral decay, personal tragedy, and the erosion of human values. Each author critiques the materialistic values of their respective societies, emphasizing the need for a more meaningful and balanced approach to life beyond the pursuit of material wealth and possessions.

Suggested Readings
  1. Eagleton, Terry. Marxism and Literary Criticism. Routledge, 2002.
  2. Foster, Hal. The Art-Architecture Complex. Verso, 2013.
  3. Jameson, Fredric. Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism. Duke University Press, 1991.
  4. Leavis, F.R. The Great Tradition. New York University Press, 1960.
  5. Marx, Karl, and Friedrich Engels. The Communist Manifesto. Penguin Classics, 2002.
  6. Moretti, Franco. Distant Reading. Verso, 2013.
  7. Orwell, George. 1984. Signet Classics, 1961.
  8. Williams, Raymond. The Country and the City. Oxford University Press, 1975.
  9. Wood, Ellen Meiksins. The Origin of Capitalism: A Longer View. Verso, 2002.
  10. Zola, Émile. The Ladies’ Paradise (Au Bonheur des Dames). Penguin Classics, 2015.

Logocentrism in Literature & Literary Theory

In its philosophical and literary context, logocentrism emerged as a concept associated with structuralist and poststructuralist thought.

Etymology of Logocentrism

The term logocentrism has its roots in Greek and Latin etymology. It combines “logos,” a Greek word meaning “word” or “reason,” and “centrism,” derived from the Latin word “centrum,” meaning “center.”

In its philosophical and literary context, logocentrism emerged as a concept associated with structuralist and poststructuralist thought. It refers to a belief in the central and privileged position of language and reason in human cognition, where language is seen as the ultimate source of meaning and authority.

Poststructuralist thinkers, notably Jacques Derrida, critiqued logocentrism, arguing that it overlooks the inherent instability and ambiguity of language and challenges the assumption of a fixed and central source of meaning.

Meanings of Logocentrism
MeaningExplanation
Primacy of LanguageIt is a belief in language as the central source of meaning.
Binary OppositionsIt uses opposing pairs to establish hierarchical meaning.
Fixed MeaningsIt supports the assumption that words have stable, accurate meanings.
Hierarchical StructuresCreation of authority-based language hierarchies.
Critique in Literary TheoryPoststructuralists challenge to logocentric ideas in literature.
DeconstructionIt is about the movement to reveal contradictions in language and text.
Emphasis on the Written WordPriority is given to written language over spoken language.
Challenges to AuthorityIt subverts traditional language structures and meanings.
Questioning Stable MeaningIt is the exploration of fluidity and ambiguity of language in literature.
Definition of Logocentrism as a Theoretical Term

Logocentrism is a theoretical term that refers to the philosophical and linguistic belief in the inherent centrality and primacy of language, particularly written language, in shaping and representing human thought, meaning, and reality.

It posits that words and language possess stable and fixed meanings, often overlooking the inherent ambiguity and fluidity of linguistic signs. Logocentrism has been a subject of critique in literary theory, especially within poststructuralism, which challenges the assumption of a central, authoritative source of meaning in texts and language.

Logocentrism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments
Theorists:
  • Jacques Derrida: Derrida is a prominent figure who critiqued logocentrism in his work, particularly in Of Grammatology. He argued that language is inherently unstable and that there is no ultimate source of meaning, challenging the idea of a central, fixed signifier.
  • Ferdinand de Saussure: Saussure’s structuralist linguistics played a foundational role in discussions of logocentrism. His distinction between signifier and signified contributed to the exploration of how language operates in constructing meaning hierarchies.
Works:
  • Of Grammatology by Jacques Derrida: This seminal work by Derrida is a key text in which he deconstructs the logocentric assumptions of Western philosophy and linguistics. He introduces the concept of “différance” to illustrate the inherent instability of language and the absence of a fixed center.
  • Course in General Linguistics by Ferdinand de Saussure: Saussure’s work, posthumously published, outlines his structuralist theories on language and semiotics, which have been influential in discussions of logocentrism.
Key Arguments:
  • Challenges to Fixed Meaning: Logocentrism has been critiqued for overlooking the complexities of language and the multiple interpretations that can arise from a single text. Critics argue that it fails to acknowledge the fluidity and diversity of meanings that language can convey.
  • Deconstruction as a Response: Many literary theorists, influenced by Derrida’s deconstructive approach, have used deconstruction to challenge logocentric assumptions in literary analysis. They emphasize the instability of language and the interplay of multiple interpretations.
  • Poststructuralism: Logocentrism is a central target of poststructuralist literary theory, which seeks to dismantle hierarchical structures of meaning and question the idea of a central, authoritative source of signification in texts.
Logocentrism and Literary Theories
Structuralism:
  • Logocentrism plays a role in structuralist literary theory by highlighting the role of language in constructing meaning. Structuralists examine how binary oppositions and linguistic structures contribute to logocentric hierarchies within texts. For example, they analyze how certain terms or concepts are privileged over others based on linguistic structures.
Deconstruction:
  • Deconstruction, often associated with Jacques Derrida, is a response to logocentrism. It challenges logocentric assumptions by revealing the instability and ambiguity of language. Deconstructionists emphasize that language lacks a fixed center of meaning, leading to multiple interpretations. Derrida’s work, such as Of Grammatology, deconstructs logocentric notions by introducing concepts like “différance” to disrupt the idea of a central signifier.
Poststructuralism:
  • Poststructuralist literary theory builds on the deconstructive critique of logocentrism. It questions the idea of a central, authoritative source of meaning in texts and highlights the role of language in constructing multiple, contingent interpretations. Poststructuralists explore how power dynamics, ideology, and cultural context shape logocentric hierarchies within literature.
Feminist Theory:
  • In feminist literary theory, logocentrism is relevant in discussions of gendered language and its impact on literature. Feminists critique logocentric structures that may reinforce patriarchal norms and privilege male perspectives. They examine how language constructs gender identities and may marginalize women’s voices.
Queer Theory:
  • Queer theorists engage with logocentrism by exploring non-normative experiences of gender and sexuality. They challenge logocentric ideas that may reinforce heteronormative conventions and explore how language constructs and deconstructs queer identities and desires.
Narrative Theory:
  • In narrative theory, logocentrism can be relevant when examining the role of language in constructing narrative structures and meaning. Scholars analyze how logocentric hierarchies within a narrative shape the reader’s interpretation and engagement with the text.
Cultural Studies:
  • Cultural critics within cultural studies use logocentrism to critique societal norms and values depicted in literature. They explore how texts may reinforce or challenge logocentric assumptions within specific cultural contexts, shedding light on power dynamics and ideologies.
Logocentrism in Literary Criticism
  1. Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys:
    • In Wide Sargasso Sea, logocentrism is explored through the character of Bertha Mason, who is the Creole wife of Mr. Rochester from Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre. Rhys deconstructs the logocentric representation of Bertha in the original text, providing her with a voice and agency. This challenges the hierarchical structures of colonial and patriarchal discourse present in Jane Eyre and questions the fixed meanings associated with Bertha’s character.
  2. The Bluest Eye by Toni Morrison:
    • Morrison’s The Bluest Eye challenges logocentrism by deconstructing the traditional standards of beauty and identity in literature. The novel explores how language and societal norms construct the concept of beauty as fixed and central, particularly concerning race and gender. Through her characters, Morrison questions the logocentric ideals that underlie such constructs.
  3. The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner:
    • Faulkner’s modernist masterpiece, The Sound and the Fury, employs multiple narrative perspectives and a fragmented structure to deconstruct logocentrism. The novel challenges the idea of a singular, central narrative voice and highlights the limitations of language in representing subjective experiences. The characters’ internal monologues reveal the instability of meaning and the absence of a fixed center in their individual narratives.
  4. Kindred by Octavia E. Butler:
    • In Kindred, Octavia Butler engages with logocentrism through the narrative’s exploration of time and history. The protagonist, Dana, time-travels between the 20th century and a pre-Civil War plantation. This temporal liminality challenges logocentric historical narratives by exposing the fluidity and complexity of history and its representation. The novel raises questions about the authority of historical texts and the instability of historical meaning.
Suggested Readings
  1. Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
  2. Saussure, Ferdinand de. Course in General Linguistics. Edited by Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye, Translated by Wade Baskin, McGraw-Hill Education, 2011.
  3. Culler, Jonathan. On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism. Cornell University Press, 1983.
  4. Norris, Christopher. Deconstruction: Theory and Practice. Routledge, 2002.
  5. Wolfreys, Julian. Derrida: A Guide for the Perplexed. Continuum, 2008.
  6. Johnson, Barbara. The Critical Difference: Essays in the Contemporary Rhetoric of Reading. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985.
  7. Hartman, Geoffrey H. Saving the Text: Literature/Derrida/Philosophy. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981.
  8. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. Outside in the Teaching Machine. Routledge, 1993.
  9. Kamuf, Peggy. Signature Pieces: On the Institution of Authorship. Cornell University Press, 1991.
  10. Gasché, Rodolphe. The Tain of the Mirror: Derrida and the Philosophy of Reflection. Harvard University Press, 1986.