September 23, 2023 - English Studies

Comparative Literature Courses

Introduction to Comparative Literature Courses

Comparative Literature courses are academic programs that explore the interdisciplinary study of literature, emphasizing the analysis of literary texts from diverse cultures, languages, and historical contexts. These courses equip students with critical skills to examine commonalities, differences, and interactions between literary traditions, employing various theoretical frameworks and fostering an appreciation for cultural diversity.

Additionally, Comparative Literature courses promote the contextualization of literature within broader historical, social, and global perspectives, encouraging intellectual engagement and the development of research and analytical writing skills.

Elements of Comparative Literature Courses

Element	Explanation
Multilingual Literature Study	– Explanation: This element involves analyzing literary works in their original languages and their translated versions. It allows students to gain insights into the nuances of language, cultural context, and the challenges and opportunities of translation in comparative analysis.
Cross-Cultural Analysis	– Explanation: Comparative Literature courses emphasize the examination of texts from different cultures and languages to identify common themes, differences, and the ways in which literature reflects diverse cultural traditions. Students explore the universal and unique aspects of literary expressions.
Literary Theory Application	– Explanation: Students learn to apply various literary theories, such as formalism, structuralism, and postcolonial theory, to analyze and interpret texts critically. This element deepens their understanding of the theoretical frameworks that shape literary analysis in a comparative context.
Historical Contextualization	– Explanation: Placing literature within its historical and cultural contexts is essential. It enables students to appreciate how societal and cultural forces influence literary production and interpretation. This contextualization enriches their analysis and comprehension of texts.
Comparative Methodology	– Explanation: Comparative methodology involves the systematic comparison and contrast of literary texts, exploring similarities and disparities between them. It equips students with the skills to conduct rigorous comparative analyses and identify patterns across texts.
Interdisciplinary Approaches	– Explanation: Comparative Literature often draws from other disciplines such as history, anthropology, and philosophy to gain a comprehensive understanding of texts. Students engage in interdisciplinary dialogues, expanding their perspectives and analytical tools for literary analysis.
Critical and Theoretical Debates	– Explanation: Courses delve into key critical and theoretical debates within Comparative Literature. Students engage in discussions and critical thinking exercises, exploring contemporary issues and evolving perspectives in the field. This fosters intellectual engagement and critical analysis.
Postcolonial and Global Perspectives	– Explanation: Comparative Literature courses explore postcolonial literature and global perspectives in literary analysis. Students examine the impact of colonialism, globalization, and diaspora on literary production, enriching their understanding of cultural dynamics and literary representation.
Cultural Diversity and Inclusivity	– Explanation: Promoting the study of literature from diverse cultures and voices is central. Students are encouraged to appreciate the richness of global literary traditions, fostering intercultural understanding, and recognizing the importance of inclusivity and diverse perspectives in literary analysis.
Research and Writing Skills	– Explanation: Developing research and analytical writing skills is a fundamental aspect. Students learn to conduct scholarly research, analyze texts critically, and communicate their findings effectively through academic writing. These skills are essential for producing high-quality comparative literary analysis.

Criticism Against Comparative Literature

While Comparative Literature is a widely respected and valuable field of study, there are some criticisms that have been leveled against it. Here are a few examples:

Eurocentrism and Cultural Bias: Critics argue that Comparative Literature has historically been Eurocentric, focusing primarily on Western literary traditions. This bias can marginalize non-Western cultures and fail to represent a truly global perspective.
Lack of Defined Methodology: Some critics contend that Comparative Literature lacks a consistent and well-defined methodology, making it challenging to establish standardized approaches to literary analysis across cultures.
Reductionism and Oversimplification: Comparative Literature can sometimes oversimplify complex cultural and historical contexts, reducing literary works to mere textual comparisons without fully considering the intricacies of their origins and interpretations.

Ethnocentrism and Stereotyping: Critics assert that Comparative Literature courses may inadvertently perpetuate stereotypes and ethnocentric viewpoints, especially when analyzing works from non-Western cultures, leading to misrepresentations and biases.
Relevance and Practicality: Skeptics question the practicality and relevance of Comparative Literature in today’s rapidly changing academic landscape, suggesting that it may struggle to address contemporary global issues and interdisciplinary demands effectively.

It’s important to note that these criticisms are not universally accepted and that Comparative Literature continues to evolve and address these concerns as the field develops.

Examples of Comparative Literature Courses

Comparative Literature Survey: A foundational course that provides an overview of major literary traditions, movements, and theories from different cultures and time periods. Students analyze texts from various regions and examine cross-cultural themes.
World Literature in Translation: This course explores significant literary works from around the world, typically focusing on texts translated into a common language. It allows students to delve into global literature while emphasizing translation issues.
Postcolonial Literature and Theory: This course examines literature from former colonized regions and explores postcolonial theory. Students analyze how colonialism and decolonization have shaped literary production and representation.

Literary Genres Across Cultures: Courses in this category focus on a particular genre, such as the novel, poetry, drama, or short story, and compare how it has evolved in different cultures and literary traditions.
Literature and Film Comparative Analysis: Combining literature and film, this course explores how literary works are adapted into films. Students analyze both the written and visual narratives, considering the challenges and opportunities of adaptation.
Literature and the Environment: Comparative Literature courses may delve into the intersection of literature and the environment, exploring how different cultures and literary traditions represent and engage with ecological issues.

Gender and Sexuality in Comparative Literature: These courses examine representations of gender and sexuality across cultures, addressing themes such as feminism, LGBTQ+ literature, and gender identity in diverse literary contexts.
Classical Literature Comparative Studies: Courses in classical literature might compare ancient Greek, Roman, Chinese, Indian, or other classical traditions, highlighting the enduring impact of classical works on global literature.
Multilingual Poetry Workshop: Practical courses may focus on creative writing and translation,

Examples of Literary Works in Comparative Literature Courses

One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez: This novel is frequently studied because it combines elements of magical realism with a deep exploration of Latin American history and culture. It allows students to analyze how a unique literary style can convey complex themes and historical narratives, making it a prime example for cross-cultural analysis.
The Odyssey by Homer: An ancient epic that forms a foundational text for Western literature, The Odyssey is often included to illustrate the enduring impact of classical literature on global storytelling. Comparative Literature courses use it to explore themes of heroism, adventure, and the journey in various cultural contexts.
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe: This novel is a significant work in postcolonial literature and is included to examine the effects of colonialism on African societies. It serves as a starting point for discussions on cultural identity, imperialism, and the clash of cultures, making it an essential text for comparative analysis.

The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka: Kafka’s work is a prime example of existential literature and surrealism. Comparative Literature courses often include it to explore the portrayal of alienation, identity, and absurdity in different cultural and linguistic contexts.
Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes: This classic novel is studied to examine the themes of chivalry, madness, and self-delusion. It is included in Comparative Literature to demonstrate how a single work can be interpreted and reinterpreted across cultures, illustrating the global reach of a literary masterpiece.

Keywords in Comparative Literature Courses

Cross-Cultural Analysis: The examination of literary texts from different cultures to identify commonalities and differences, often focusing on how cultures influence and reflect each other through literature.

Multilingualism: The recognition of the importance of studying and appreciating literature in multiple languages, including both original and translated texts.
Interdisciplinarity: The incorporation of insights from various academic disciplines, such as history, anthropology, and philosophy, to gain a comprehensive understanding of literary texts and their contexts.
Global Perspective: The recognition of literature within a global context, emphasizing the interactions and influences between different literary traditions and cultures.

Comparative Methodology: The systematic comparison and contrast of literary texts and their contexts, aiming to identify similarities, differences, and interactions between texts.
Cultural Diversity: The appreciation of diverse literary traditions and the study of literature from various cultures and languages, fostering intercultural understanding and dialogue.
Literary Theory: The utilization of various theoretical frameworks (e.g., formalism, structuralism, postcolonial theory) to analyze and interpret literary texts.

Contextualization: The emphasis on placing literary texts within their historical, cultural, and social contexts, recognizing that literature is shaped by societies and cultures.
Critical Analysis: The in-depth analysis of formal, thematic, and stylistic elements of literary texts, considering historical and cultural forces that shape the texts.
Postcolonial Literature: The examination of literary works from formerly colonized regions, often exploring themes related to colonialism, identity, and cultural representation.

Comparative Literature

Comparative Literature is an interdisciplinary field centered on analyzing and comparing literary texts from various languages and cultures.

Introduction to Comparative Literature

Comparative Literature is an interdisciplinary academic field centered on analyzing and comparing literary texts, typically from various languages and cultures. Its primary goal is to examine common themes, motifs, and aesthetic principles that transcend national and linguistic boundaries, showcasing the interconnectedness of literary traditions and the influence of cultural exchange on literary creation. Comparative Literature scholars utilize cross-cultural examinations to gain insights into the broader human condition and the rich diversity of human experiences.

Features of Comparative Literature

Feature	Explanation
Interdisciplinary Study	Comparative Literature is an interdisciplinary field that combines elements of literary analysis, cultural studies, linguistics, and more.
Cross-Cultural Analysis	It involves the comparison of literary texts from different cultures and languages to identify commonalities and differences.
Exploration of Themes	Comparative Literature examines shared themes, motifs, and aesthetic elements present in literature across cultures.
Cultural Exchange	It highlights the influence of cultural exchange on literary production and how literature reflects interactions between cultures.
Human Experience	The field seeks to gain insights into the broader human condition and the diversity of human experiences through the study of literature.
Global Perspective	It offers a global perspective on literary works, emphasizing the importance of multilingualism and multiculturalism in literary analysis.
Transcending Boundaries	Comparative Literature transcends national and linguistic boundaries, promoting a broader understanding of literature as a global phenomenon.

Comparative Literature: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin:

Emerged in the 19th century as an academic discipline.
Rooted in the European tradition of studying literature from multiple languages and cultures.

Prominent Theorists:

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Notable for his interest in world literature and early comparative approaches, making him an influential figure in the field.
Leo Spitzer: Known for his work on literary stylistics and the concept of literary morphology.
Erich Auerbach: Renowned for his book Mimesis, which explores the representation of reality in Western literature.

René Wellek and Austin Warren: Authors of Theory of Literature, a foundational text in the field.
Edward Said: Pioneered the study of post-colonial literature and introduced the concept of Orientalism.
Franz Fanon: Known for his influential works on post-colonialism and identity.

Significant Works:

Mimesis by Erich Auerbach: Examines the representation of reality in literature from ancient to modern times.
Theory of Literature by René Wellek and Austin Warren: Discusses the nature of literature, criticism, and theory.
Orientalism by Edward Said: Critiques Western representations of the East in literature and culture.

The Wretched of the Earth by Franz Fanon: Addresses the psychological effects of colonialism and the struggle for liberation.
Faust by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: A seminal work that explores universal themes and serves as a rich source for comparative analysis.

Key Arguments:

Cross-Cultural Analysis: Comparative Literature involves the examination of literary texts from different cultures and languages to identify common themes and differences.

Literary Morphology: Leo Spitzer’s concept of literary morphology suggests recurring patterns and structures in literature across cultures.
Post-Colonial Critique: Edward Said’s work encourages the critical examination of colonial and post-colonial literature to understand power dynamics and cultural representations.
Identity and Liberation: Franz Fanon’s writings highlight the complex intersections of identity, colonialism, and the struggle for independence in post-colonial societies.

Globalization: Contemporary Comparative Literature addresses the challenges and opportunities posed by globalization, including digital technologies and multiculturalism.

Principles of Comparative Literature

Comparative Literature is an interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on the analysis of literary texts and their cultural, historical, and social contexts. The principles of Comparative Literature include:

Principal	Explanation	Example
Cross-Cultural Analysis	Cross-Cultural Analysis involves the examination of literary works originating from diverse cultures, languages, and genres. Its purpose is to discern the influences, interactions, and reflections of distinct literary traditions on one another.	For instance, a cross-cultural analysis might entail a comparative exploration of themes of love and honor in William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet and the Persian epic Layla and Majnun, offering insights into the diverse cultural expressions of romance.
Comparative Methodology	Comparative Methodology encompasses the systematic comparison and contrast of literary texts along with their respective historical and cultural contexts. Its aim is to identify both commonalities and disparities, fostering a deeper understanding of the texts and their interplay.	An illustrative example involves an analysis of symbolism in Herman Melville’s Moby-Dick and Yann Martel’s Life of Pi, examining how authors employ symbolic elements to convey intricate layers of meaning.
Literary Theory	Literary Theory entails the utilization of various theoretical frameworks such as formalism and structuralism to analyze and interpret literary texts.	For instance, the application of postcolonial theory to scrutinize Chinua Achebe’s works, including Things Fall Apart, offers insights into the repercussions of colonialism on African literature.
Multilingualism	Multilingualism underscores the importance of acquiring proficiency in multiple languages and encourages the exploration of literature in its original and translated forms. It places value on the insights derived from multilingualism and intercultural exchange.	An exemplification of this principle involves reading Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s Cien años de soledad in its original Spanish, facilitating a nuanced understanding of language intricacies and cultural contexts.
Interdisciplinarity	Interdisciplinarity entails the engagement with various academic disciplines, such as history, anthropology, and philosophy, to attain a comprehensive grasp of literary works and their contextual underpinnings. It recognizes the interrelatedness of different fields of knowledge.	A practical application involves the incorporation of historical analysis to examine Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist, illuminating its resonance with the socio-cultural milieu of Victorian England.
Contextualization	Contextualization underscores the significance of situating literary texts within their historical, cultural, and social contexts, acknowledging that literature is profoundly shaped by the societies and cultures in which it emerges.	For instance, a contextualization approach might entail an examination of Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart within the backdrop of Nigerian colonial history and the profound impact of European imperialism.
Critical Analysis	Critical Analysis entails the comprehensive scrutiny of formal, thematic, and stylistic elements within literary texts, taking into consideration the historical and cultural forces that shape them.	An illustrative case involves the analysis of symbolism in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlet Letter, delving into its allegorical representations of Puritan society and its cultural context.
Cultural Diversity	Cultural Diversity emphasizes the recognition of the importance of diverse cultures and the appreciation of various literary traditions. It encourages the study of literature emanating from a multitude of cultures and languages, fostering intercultural understanding and dialogue.	Exploration of works by poets like Pablo Neruda and Rabindranath Tagore exemplifies the richness and diversity of Latin American and South Asian literature, contributing to a broader appreciation of global literary traditions.
Global Perspective	Global Perspective acknowledges literature within a worldwide context, aiming to comprehend the interactions and influences among diverse literary traditions. It places value on the insights gained from a global viewpoint.	An investigative approach might involve an exploration of the impact of Japanese haiku poetry on the evolution of American imagist poetry during the early 20th century, demonstrating the significance of global literary perspectives.
Intellectual Engagement	Intellectual Engagement places importance on active participation in literary seminars, conferences, and discussions, promoting critical thinking, creativity, and curiosity. It recognizes the value of lifelong learning and the pursuit of knowledge.	Participating in scholarly dialogues and debates, as well as engaging in discussions during literary seminars and conferences, exemplifies intellectual engagement, fostering the exchange of ideas and the cultivation of critical thinking skills among scholars and peers.

Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Indigenous Critical Literary Theory is an analytical approach that centers on the literature and narratives produced by Indigenous authors and communities.

Introduction to Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Indigenous Critical Literary Theory is an analytical approach that centers on the literature and narratives produced by Indigenous authors and communities. It seeks to deconstruct and challenge colonial representations and stereotypes in literary works, aiming to highlight Indigenous voices, perspectives, and cultural nuances.

This theory emphasizes the importance of respecting Indigenous storytelling traditions and promoting Indigenous self-expression within the realm of literature.

Indigenous Critical Theory and Indigenous Disciplines

Indigenous Disciplines	Indigenous Critical Theory
Recognition of Indigenous knowledge systems	Deconstruction of colonialism and colonial narratives
Decolonization of academic disciplines	Recognition of the ongoing effects of colonization
Incorporation of traditional Indigenous methodologies	Empowerment of Indigenous peoples and communities
Respect for Indigenous protocols and ethics	Critique of Western epistemologies and knowledge production
Emphasis on community collaboration and engagement	Analysis of power structures and systemic oppression
Reclamation and revitalization of Indigenous languages and cultural practices	Intersectionality and understanding of the interconnectedness of various forms of oppression
Centering Indigenous perspectives, experiences, and voices	Advocacy for self-determination and sovereignty
Addressing power imbalances and promoting equity in research and education	Reclaiming and preserving Indigenous languages, cultures, and identities
Valuing holistic and interconnected approaches to knowledge	Challenging Eurocentric frameworks and paradigms
Emphasizing land-based and place-based learning	Development of alternative frameworks for social, cultural, and political analysis from Indigenous perspectives

Criticism Against Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Essentialism: Some critics argue that Indigenous Critical Literary Theory can be essentialist in its emphasis on the unique perspectives and experiences of Indigenous peoples. They argue that this emphasis on identity can obscure the diversity and complexity of Indigenous communities and reinforce a static notion of Indigenous identity.

Lack of generalizability: Because Indigenous Critical Literary Theory centers on Indigenous perspectives and experiences, some critics argue that it may not be generalizable to other contexts or communities. They argue that this focus on Indigenous knowledge and experience may not be relevant to other groups or communities.
Limited engagement with non-Indigenous frameworks: Some critics argue that Indigenous Critical Literary Theory can be insular and isolated from other academic frameworks, particularly those developed in non-Indigenous contexts. They argue that this can limit the potential for cross-cultural dialogue and understanding.
Political bias: Some critics argue that Indigenous Critical Literary Theory is inherently political and biased, and that it lacks the objectivity and neutrality that is valued in other academic disciplines. They argue that this can undermine the legitimacy of Indigenous Critical Theory as an academic framework.

Lack of practical solutions: Some critics argue that Indigenous Critical Literary Theory can be overly focused on critique and analysis, and that it may not offer practical solutions to the challenges faced by Indigenous peoples. They argue that this can limit the potential for Indigenous Critical Theory to effect real change.

Examples of Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Work and Author	Literary Example with Features of Indigenous Critical Literary Theory
*Ceremony* by Leslie Marmon Silko	*Ceremony,* a novel by Leslie Marmon Silko tells the story of a young Laguna man named Tayo who returns home from World War II with post-traumatic stress disorder. The novel is often analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens, with scholars exploring the ways in which Silko centers Laguna Pueblo perspectives and experiences, challenges colonialism and racism, and elevates Indigenous knowledges and ways of knowing.
*Monkey Beach* by Eden Robinson	**Monkey Beach, a novel by Eden Robinson,** tells the story of a young Haisla woman named Lisa who returns to her ancestral village in British Columbia to search for her missing brother. The novel is often analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens, with scholars exploring the ways in which Robinson centers Haisla perspectives and experiences, challenges colonialism and cultural imperialism, and advocates for Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination.
*Tracks* by Louise Erdrich	Tracks, a novel by Louise Erdrich, tells the story of two Anishinaabe families in North Dakota in the early 20th century. The novel is often analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens, with scholars exploring the ways in which Erdrich centers Anishinaabe perspectives and experiences, challenges colonialism and racism, and elevates Indigenous knowledges and ways of knowing.
“Eulogy for a Native” by Sherman Alexie	Sherman Alexie is a Spokane/Coeur d’Alene writer and poet whose work often explores the experiences of contemporary Indigenous peoples in the United States. “Eulogy for a Native,” a poem, honors the life of a Native American man who has died of alcoholism and challenges the cultural and historical forces that have contributed to his struggles. The poem can be analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens to explore how Indigenous peoples have been impacted by colonization, cultural genocide, and systemic oppression.
“My Heart is a Phoenix” by Louise Bernice Halfe	Louise Bernice Halfe is a Cree poet from Canada whose work often explores the experiences of Indigenous women. “My Heart is a Phoenix,” a poem, uses imagery from Cree culture to explore the themes of survival and resilience. The poem can be analyzed through an Indigenous Critical Theory lens to explore how Indigenous women have been impacted by colonialism, racism, and gender-based violence, and to celebrate the strength and resistance of Indigenous women.

Keywords in Indigenous Critical Theory Literary Theory

Decolonization: It is the process of undoing the cultural, political, and economic impacts of colonialism, and reclaiming Indigenous knowledges, identities, and ways of being.
Sovereignty: It means the right of Indigenous peoples to govern themselves and determine their own futures, free from outside interference and domination.

Indigenous epistemologies: It means the ways of knowing and understanding the world that are rooted in Indigenous cultures, languages, and histories, and that challenge Western ways of knowing and understanding.
Cultural imperialism: It mans the process by which dominant cultures impose their values, beliefs, and practices on subordinate cultures, often leading to the erasure or marginalization of Indigenous cultures and identities.
Positionality: It means how an individual’s social, cultural, and historical location shapes their experiences, perspectives, and understandings.

Resilience: It means the ability of Indigenous peoples to resist and survive the impacts of colonialism and oppression, often through the revitalization and reclamation of Indigenous knowledges, languages, and practices.
Oral tradition: It means the transmission of cultural knowledge and history through spoken word, often through storytelling, song, or ceremony.
Indigenous futurisms: It means the imagining of Indigenous futures that are rooted in Indigenous knowledges, languages, and cultures, and that challenge Western notions of progress and development.

Intersectionality: It means the recognition that multiple forms of oppression (e.g. racism, sexism, colonialism) intersect and reinforce each other, and that an individual’s experiences are shaped by multiple and overlapping identities.
Land-based knowledges: It means the ways of knowing and being that are rooted in Indigenous relationships with the land, and that challenge the Western separation of humans from nature.

Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis

Every literary piece has a multiplicity of meanings, a quality that makes it popular and deeper such as the case of Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis.

Introduction to Comparison of Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis

Every literary piece has a multiplicity of meanings, a quality that makes it popular and deeper such as the case of Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis. The readers and the audiences extract their own meanings, each one thinking he is right. Joseph Conrad and Franz Kafka both have lived apart. There is nothing common between them. Even their works do not have any common theme. However, what they have highlighted in their respective novellas is that there are always deeper meanings behind the surface, which are not only different but also sometimes highly contradictory. These are hidden behind literary devices such as metaphors, symbols, allegories, and even the characters themselves. Both the stories, Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis show the deeper and seamy side of everyday life, and actions and intentions wrapped up in different motives. Although there are thousands of perceptions and theories written to explain the ideas lying in both novellas, the major themes deal with the modern issues of imperialism and the nothingness or absurdity of life. Whereas Heart of Darkness highlights how human beings hide their real motives behind their carnal desires and vices, The Metamorphosis shows how human beings adjust or not adjust to the circumstances without going deeper to find out the real reasons to address the issue.

Desire in Heart of Darkness

As far as the question of real motives hidden behind carnal desires and other moral vices in Heart of Darkness is concerned, Marlow gives hints to these desires and vices through his description using different specific words such as savages, savagery, darkness, and mystery. At one place, Marlow, the mouthpiece of Conrad says, “Land in a swamp, march through the woods, and some inland post feel the savagery…all that mysterious life of wilderness” (Conrad 7). The important point here is that Conrad is presenting a simple journey of Marlow to Congo, exposing the real and destructive motives of the white man though the surface motive is that the entire Europe has gone there to teach civilization to those savage Congolese natives. This is the imperialism hidden under the garb of spreading the blessings of civilization. It is the extraction of minerals and other resources which in the case of Heart of Darkness is ivory. Several trade companies are involved in this racket. They are committed atrocities against the locals, showing in Europe how they were doing a noble deed of teaching the basics of civilized ways to the local brutes and savages. In this connection the exploitation is running rampant in Congo which is not the same in both, Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis.

Personal Experience in Heart of Darkness

Conrad has beautifully presented the personal experience of Marlow, his fascination of Kurtz, the role of Kurtz in the company’s profit, and Kurtz’s excellent exploitation of the natives for his greed. Marlow’s statement, “The conquest of the earth, which mostly means taking it away from those who have a different complexion or slightly flatter noses than ourselves, is not a pretty thing when you look into it too much. What redeems it is the idea only” is a reflection of how the idea of civilizing the brutes has turned into plundering their natural resources and killing them en masse (8). The entire enterprise revolves around ivory and getting to the other resources important for the industrial progress of Europe. This was the imperialism of the worst order, but it was painted as if it was the burden of the white people to educate those black savages. Therefore, the deeper meanings of Heart of Darkness are lying in the spiritual journey of Marlow that he not only experiences the limits of human spirit and its working but also of twists and turns of motives and their propagation.

Transformation in Metamorphosis

In the same way, Franz Kafka, in his phenomenal novella, The Metamorphosis, has presented his character Gregor Samsa in a unique situation where he is transformed into a despicable insect. The Metamorphosis is an attempt to see human beings how they adjust to the new situation without going deeper into the causes behind the problem and trying to fix it. For example, when Samsa is transformed into a giant insect, neither does he, nor does his father or mother or even sister try to evaluate the major reason behind his physical transformation. Even Gregor himself does not know or try to find out why he is transforming at night in the first place. All of them seem to be adjusting themselves to the new routine of finding ways to earn after the absence of the working hand. For example, instead of visiting a physician or psychic, Gregor only says, “How about if I sleep a little bit longer and forget all this nonsense” a usual way of putting things into oblivious (Kafka 8). However, this does not work, and he is permanently transformed. Also, when nobody tries to find out the reason, there is no solution. However, in this case, both Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis are different.

Characters and Transformation of Gregor in The Metamorphosis

This is what happens in The Metamorphosis, for nobody is trying to find out the major reason behind the transformation of Gregor Samsa.That is why nobody has paid attention to what will ensue. They only face the situation on a daily basis and try to address the incoming issues. It is because when a person faces an issue, and finds out its reason, he finds it easy to go for the solution. However, in the case of Samsa, the entire family faces the dilemma of his sudden transformation, but there is no try from any character except a little sympathy from his sister. Even that finishes with the passage of time. Therefore, this story goes deeper to find out the absurdity of human life and the absurd response of human beings to some natural happenings. It is not the same in Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis if both are compared.

Conclusion of Deepr Meanings in Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis

In short, each of these novellas has very deeper meanings. Heart of Darkness argues the sordid side of imperialism, human greed and features of commercialism wrapped in good intentions, the spread of religion and civilization. Marlow finds it out during his spiritual journey to the Congo, that the savageness is being committed and the plunder is being wreaked in the name of the spread of civilization. This shows the seamy side of imperialism. In the same way, the story of Gregor Samsa in Metamorphosis is a fictional narrative of a person having transformed physically into a giant insect. But it tells how absurd human life is and how irrational attitude of a person becomes when facing such situations. It clearly concludes that a person can change is situation consciously, if he wants. However, the problem is that nobody thinks on these lines as is shown by Kafka in Metamorphosis. Therefore, it is clear that both the novellas, Heart of Darkness and Metamorphosis, have deeper meanings than the just surface stories of Marlow or Gregor Samsa. These deeper meanings have been displayed through the use of different literary devices couched into the very language of the stories.

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis

How do the themes of darkness and transformation in Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis symbolize deeper societal and psychological issues in the respective narratives?
In Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis, how do the central characters, Kurtz and Gregor Samsa, grapple with their internal transformations and the moral darkness within themselves? What do these struggles reveal about the human condition?

What parallels can be drawn between the exploration of the Congo in Heart of Darkness and Gregor’s isolation within his own home in The Metamorphosis? How do these settings symbolize deeper existential and colonial themes in the two works?

Chorus in Antigone

This choral ode falls after the second episode and is full of praise for human beings when it comes to analyzing the role of the chorus in Antigone.

Introduction to Chorus in Antigone

This choral ode falls after the second episode and is full of praise for human beings when it comes to analyzing the role of the chorus in Antigone. It dilates upon the achievements of human beings saying that man has tamed everything that nature has offered to him, everything is in reference to Antigone by Sophocles. However, the point of contention is between different translators, as far as I can see, for some have used the word “strangest” such as Fitzgerald, some others as “frightful or terrible” and George Theodoridis has used “wonder” but coming out of this polemics, the play Antigone supports all the reasons given in the ode even the last one that is the opinion of the democratically minded public of the city of Thebes. The points that the play supports through this chorus in Antigone are the inventiveness of human wisdom and language, his growth as a social animal, and his capricious nature of having the ability to commit both good and evil acts.

Wisdom and Chorus in Antigone

The ode dilates upon the wisdom of man starting from “Wonders abound in this world yet no wonder is greater than man. None! / Through the wild white of a frenzied sea and through the screaming northerlies beneath him and through all the furious storms around him, through all this, man can pass!” (Antigone 332-335) that enumerates further how he has harvested the sea, catches the net and this is only because of the skillfulness of man. It further elaborates how man’s wisdom have done wonders in this world and this is what the blind seer Tiresias supports “What I’m trying to tell you, Creon, is that man’s best endowment is wisdom” (1042) at the end when he asks Creon to be reasonable and control his emotions under his intellectual capability so that he could be inventive about his own nature. Chorus also supports this point presented by Tiresias that we should use wisdom in these arguments. Above all it is the speech and thought that the man has learnt to use in each case. For example, just see how Creon has changed from Oedipus the King to Antigone. In Oedipus the King, he is patient. He uses every word not before carefully weighing the implications they might have. However, here he is not only rash but also impatient and uses whatever he wants to say not considering the height of his emotions. Just see his inventiveness in that he gives his own command respect that should be given to divine laws and he calls his command a divine law and consent of the gods that Antigone is not ready to accept as she states “Hades, however seeks similar laws for all” (529) where she wants equal laws in this world as well and he very masterly amalgamates it within the divine ambit saying “Whereas he who violates the laws of the gods and his city, or wants to command its leaders, will never gain my respect” (666) which is a sign of his wisdom that according to the chorus in Antigone he has achieved as it says;

“And man has learnt speech and thought, swifter than the wind he mastered

And learnt to govern his cities well.”

And the laughing matter is that he does not care who violates the law though he himself is violating the golden principle of moderation. He is going to the extremes in both ways in reasoning as well as in using his own speech to attribute it to the god. This he is doing to avoid death of his son, his own downfall in the city. Hence, he turns against Antigone but when Chorus also sides her argument, how cunningly comes to the point to save his son as ode points it out;

“And though his wisdom is great in discovery -wisdom beyond all imaginings!

Yet one minute it turns to ill the next again to good.” (352-354)

And this is the view of the populace to which the chorus is representing here.

Social Growth of Mankind and Chorus in Antigone

The next argument is human social growth as how the city of Thebes has turned into a civic society with divine laws at work as given in the chorus in Antigone. The word law has been repeated several times with different connotations. The command Creon issues to put Antigone to death and refuses for the burial rights to her brother that the ode refers to “But whoever honors the laws of his land and his sworn oaths to the gods, he’ll bring glory to his city” 374) also becomes law. This is the right path that he insists he is on until the end when he says “I am afraid! It’s best to live by ancient laws, the laws which apply to all!” (1115) Although there is a difference in interpretations that he makes and Antigone and the chorus makes. The choral ode does not accept his interpretation here as claims by Creon and this is the same point that Antigone insists on when she states that “These are the laws our Lord Creon has decreed for us two, Ismene! “ (32). She carries on; “Yes, because this was not a law decreed by Zeus, nor by Zeus’ daughter, Justice, who rules with the gods of the Underworld. Nor do I believe that your decrees have the power to override those unwritten and immutable laws decreed by the gods. These are laws which were decreed neither yesterday nor today but from a time when no man saw their birth; they are eternal! How could I be afraid to disobey laws decreed by any man when I know that I’d have to answer to the gods below if I had disobeyed the laws written by the gods after I died? I knew that my death was imminent, of course I did and even if it came sooner, I would still think it a good thing because when one lives in such a dreadful misery why should he not think death to be a good thing?” (449-463). Even she is not alone in thinking this. The chorus is afraid of the commands of the king and that is why does not say explicitly what she is saying but says it in the ode clearly. This is the same arrogance that led Oedipus to devastation and this is the same path that Creon has chosen here which is quite contrary to the social evolution of the society but of course, it is the ingenuity of the human mind that he mixes it up into the divine laws. The glory does not lie in obeying the king the chorus in Antigone says, but evolution and progressing evolution lie in the laws inherent in the holiness of the divine blessings.

Human Nature and Chorus in Antigone

The third point is the capriciousness of human nature that has both abilities to commit errors. First, there is a clear reference to Oedipus when Tiresias comes and he points out the mistake committed by Creon who berates him for behaving in an arrogant manner. The chorus comments on this by saying “The arrogant man, on the other hand, the man who strays from the righteous path is lost to his city. / Let that man never stay under the same roof as me or even be acquainted by me!” (370-372). The veiled reference is to the arrogance of Creon in insisting that what he says has divine blessings. It is what the laws of the land say. He states, “We must obey those whom the city has ordained to be its leaders. / We should obey them, unquestioningly, in all things, minor or great, those we agree with and those we oppose” (668-670) and again states the same thing “Yet, it’s impossible to understand the soul, the mind, the wisdom of any man before he’s tested by the great power and laws” (181-183). However, it does not mean that there is no evolution in the common man as the chorus states again “You said it yourself quite rightly: he who thinks that he’s the only one with a brain or a tongue or a soul, if you open him up you’ll find that he’s a hollow man. On the contrary, it is no shame for even a wise man to continue learning” (694-697) using words cautiously that a man is in the process of learning despite making so much progress and there is no shame in it but this is the arrogance and the pride in having power that obstructs this learning. This is an endorsement of the theory by Sophocles that man has found ways to defy gods through amalgamating his own words within the divine laws and interfering with the holiness of the laws. However, it could also be interpreted as free will by which a man comes to his own downfall like Creon whose arrogance in stating that what he says is good and not evil leads to his own downfall, death of his son and his wife. He has done the same as Oedipus has done after reaching the zenith. In one way, this is also a critique of human life that could go up by good deeds and come to downfall by the evil deed committed by the same person. In fact, chorus is also witness to the downfall of Oedipus from such a great height and now of Creon for the same reason. Hence, the ode is a sequel to the final ode of Oedipus the King exactly a la chorus in Antigone.

Works Cited

Sophocles. Antigone. Trans. George Theodoridis. 2004. Web. 19 April 2014 < http://www.poetryintranslation.com/PITBR/Greek/Antigone.htm>

Relevant Questions about the Chorus in Antigone

What is the role and function of the chorus in “Antigone,” and how does it contribute to the overall structure and dramatic impact of the play?

How does the chorus’s perspective on the events and characters in “Antigone” evolve throughout the play, and what does this evolution reveal about the shifting moral and political dynamics in the story?
Can you identify any specific choral odes or moments in “Antigone” where the chorus’s commentary or reflections on the actions of the characters provide insight into the deeper themes and conflicts of the play?

Interpellation in Literature & Literary Theory

Interpellation, as a theoretical term in literature and cultural studies, refers to the process through which individuals are hailed or called upon by societal norms and ideologies to adopt specific social roles and identities.

Etymology of Interpellation

The term “interpellation” has its origins in French and Latin. It derives from the French word “interpellation,” which means “to question” or “to challenge.” This French word, in turn, has its roots in the Latin word “interpellare,” where “inter” means “between” and “pellare” means “to summon” or “to call.”

In its etymological essence, interpellation conveys the act of interrupting or questioning someone, often in a formal or authoritative manner, to elicit a response or clarification.

In the realm of literary and cultural theory, “interpellation” has taken on a specialized meaning, referring to the process by which individuals are hailed or called upon to assume specific social roles and identities through ideological and societal norms.

Philosopher Louis Althusser explored this concept in his work on ideological state apparatuses.

Meanings of Interpellation

Meaning	Explanation
Social Identity Construction	In literature and literary theory, interpellation refers to the process through which individuals are hailed or called upon by societal norms and ideologies to adopt specific social roles and identities. It is a concept used to analyze how literature can reinforce or challenge societal expectations related to identity, class, gender, and more.
Reader Engagement	In the context of literature, interpellation can be observed in the way texts address and engage with readers. Authors often employ narrative techniques and rhetorical strategies to interpellate or “hail” readers, inviting them to identify with certain characters, ideologies, or themes within the text. This engagement can significantly shape readers’ interpretations and emotional responses.
Narrative Perspective	Interpellation is relevant to narrative theory as it plays a crucial role in determining the narrative perspective and positioning of the reader within the story. For example, the choice between a first-person or third-person narrator can interpellate readers differently, either encouraging them to align closely with a character’s point of view or adopt a more objective stance.
Ideological Critique	Literary critics often use the concept of interpellation to analyze how texts reflect and reinforce societal ideologies. By examining how characters are interpellated within a narrative, critics can uncover the underlying ideological messages and power dynamics at play in a literary work.
Subversion and Resistance	Interpellation isn’t limited to reinforcing dominant ideologies; it can also be a site of resistance and subversion in literature. Some literary works challenge or disrupt interpellation by offering alternative perspectives or critiquing established societal norms, encouraging readers to question and reflect on established identities and power structures.
Psychological Impact	Interpellation can have profound psychological effects on both readers and characters within a narrative. It can shape their sense of self, belonging, and agency, often leading to complex character development and emotional resonance in literature.
Postcolonial and Feminist Analysis	In postcolonial and feminist literary analyses, interpellation often takes center stage. These critical perspectives examine how texts interpellate characters based on factors like race, gender, or colonial status. Such analyses shed light on the power dynamics inherent in identity construction, offering deeper insights into literary works.
Intertextual Connections	The concept of interpellation can also be explored through intertextual connections between literary works. Authors may interpellate characters from other texts, invoking shared cultural or literary identities and enriching the reading experience by adding layers of meaning and context.
Cultural and Historical Context	The meaning and impact of interpellation in literature are deeply intertwined with the cultural and historical context of a work. Different time periods, settings, and societal norms interpellate characters and readers in distinct ways, significantly influencing the themes and messages conveyed in literature.

Definition of Interpellation as a Theoretical Term

It encompasses the ways in which texts, ideologies, and narratives shape individuals’ understanding of themselves and their positions within broader societal structures. This concept, popularized by Louis Althusser, is central to the analysis of how literature and media reinforce or challenge prevailing norms and power dynamics.

Interpellation: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

Louis Althusser: Louis Althusser, a prominent Marxist philosopher, introduced the concept of interpellation in his essay “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.” He argued that individuals are subjected to ideological structures and institutions through interpellation, leading them to assume specific social roles and identities.
Stuart Hall: Stuart Hall, a cultural studies scholar, expanded on Althusser’s ideas and applied interpellation to the analysis of media and popular culture. He emphasized the role of media in hailing individuals into specific subject positions and shaping their identities.

Works:

“Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses” (1970) by Louis Althusser: In this influential essay, Althusser outlines the concept of interpellation and its role in the functioning of ideological state apparatuses. He argues that individuals are hailed by these apparatuses, which include education, religion, and media, and are thus interpellated into specific social roles.

“Encoding/Decoding” (1980) by Stuart Hall: In this work, Hall discusses the process of encoding and decoding messages in media. He introduces the idea of media interpellating audiences and highlights the agency of individuals in decoding media messages, which may not always align with the intended interpellation.

Arguments:

Power Dynamics and Control: The concept underscores how power dynamics are perpetuated in society. The argument is that those in control of ideological structures can interpellate individuals into roles that serve their interests, reinforcing existing power structures.
Resistance and Agency: Some arguments emphasize that it is not a one-sided process; individuals can also resist or reinterpret it, asserting their agency and challenging dominant ideologies.

Media Influence: Scholars argue that media plays a significant role in interpellating individuals into certain subject positions. Media texts, through framing and representation, can shape how individuals perceive themselves and others within societal contexts.
Intersectionality: Interpellation is often analyzed in the context of intersectionality, considering how individuals may be subject to multiple interpellations simultaneously based on factors such as race, gender, class, and more. This argument highlights the complexity of identity formation.
Cultural and Historical Specificity: Arguments stress the importance of considering the cultural and historical context when analyzing interpellation. Different cultures and time periods interpellate individuals differently, leading to variations in identity construction.

These theorists, works, and arguments collectively contribute to our understanding of how interpellation functions in society and within the realm of media and cultural studies.

Interpellation and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Marxist Literary Theory	Interpellation aligns with Marxist theory’s focus on ideology and class struggle. It reveals how literature can interpellate characters into specific class roles and reinforces or critiques the dominant socioeconomic order.
Feminist Literary Theory	Interpellation is crucial for understanding how literature enforces or challenges gender norms and roles. It sheds light on how female characters are interpellated into patriarchal constructs and their potential for resistance.
Postcolonial Theory	Interpellation is central to postcolonial theory’s examination of colonial power dynamics. It helps analyze how literature interpellates colonized and colonizer characters, highlighting the complexities of identity, race, and cultural hegemony.
Reader-Response Theory	In reader-response theory, interpellation is relevant as it underscores the active role of readers in the interpretive process. Readers are interpellated into specific reading positions, affecting their engagement with and interpretation of texts.
Narrative Theory	Narrative theory explores how interpellation shapes narrative perspectives. The choice of a narrative voice interpellates readers into particular viewpoints, influencing their understanding of the story.
Queer Theory	Interpellation is pertinent to queer theory’s analysis of sexuality and identity. It examines how literature interpellates characters into heteronormative roles and how LGBTQ+ characters may resist or subvert these interpellations.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Psychoanalytic theory can use interpellation to delve into characters’ subconscious and psychological development. It explores how characters’ interpellation into societal roles relates to their inner conflicts and desires.
Structuralism and Semiotics	Interpellation aligns with structuralist and semiotic approaches, as it focuses on how signs and symbols in literature interpellate readers into specific interpretations. This theory examines how language and symbols construct meaning.
Postmodernism	In postmodern literature, it is often subverted or questioned, challenging the stability of identities and narratives. It highlights the blurring of authorial and reader roles, inviting readers to critically engage with texts.
New Criticism	New Criticism emphasizes close reading and the autonomy of the text. It is relevant for understanding how texts interpellate readers into specific interpretive approaches, such as formal analysis and close reading.

Interpellation in Literary Criticism

“The Yellow Wallpaper” by Charlotte Perkins Gilman:
- Interpellation: In this novel, the protagonist’s descent into madness due to her confinement in a room with yellow wallpaper can be seen as an interpellation into the societal norms of women’s roles and mental health during the 19th century. Her struggle against this interpellation reflects the broader issues of women’s autonomy and mental well-being.

“The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson:
- Interpellation: The townspeople’s participation in the annual lottery and their willingness to stone one of their own can be viewed as an interpellation into a blind adherence to tradition and conformity. The story highlights the dangers of unquestioningly accepting societal norms and practices.
1984 by George Orwell:
- Interpellation: The dystopian society depicted in “1984” interpellates its citizens into submission to a totalitarian regime, erasing individuality and critical thinking. The concept of “Newspeak” is a clear example of linguistic interpellation, as it limits the range of thought and expression.
“A Doll’s House” by Henrik Ibsen:
- Interpellation: In “A Doll’s House,” Nora Helmer’s interpellation into the role of a submissive wife and mother is central to the play’s themes. Her awakening to her own identity and her rejection of societal norms exemplify a break from interpellation and a quest for self-realization.

The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger:
- Interpellation: The novel follows the journey of Holden Caulfield, who rebels against the interpellation into the adult world and its perceived phoniness. His alienation and resistance to societal expectations serve as a commentary on the pressures placed on young adults to conform to conventional norms.

Implied Author in Literature & Literary Theory

The Implied Author, as a theoretical term in literary studies, refers to the hypothetical, constructed persona within a literary work that communicates the narrative’s style, tone, and perspective, separate from the actual author’s identity.

Etymology of Implied Author

The term “Implied Author” finds its origins in the realm of literary theory and was initially coined by Wayne C. Booth in his seminal work, “The Rhetoric of Fiction,” first published in 1961. T

his concept serves as a crucial distinction, highlighting the separation between the persona projected within a literary work, known as the Implied Author, and the living, breathing author. It underscores the notion that a text possesses its own unique authorial voice, stylistic elements, and perspective, which may not necessarily align with the personality or intentions of the real author.

Resultantly, the concept of the Implied Author provides a valuable framework for literary scholars and critics to dissect the intricate interplay of narrative voices and authorial presence within the world of literature.

Meanings of Implied Author

Meaning	Explanation
Narrative Persona	In literature and literary theory, it represents the narrative persona or voice constructed within a literary work, distinct from the real-life author.
Artistic Projection	It signifies the artistic projection of an authorial presence within the text, encompassing style, tone, and perspective.
Interpretive Tool	The concept serves as a valuable interpretive tool for understanding the text’s underlying intentions, values, and moral stance.
Separation from Real Author	It underscores the separation between it and the actual author, emphasizing that the text may convey a persona that differs from the author’s identity.
Reader Engagement	It influences reader engagement by shaping the reader’s perception of the text’s narrator and the message being conveyed.
Critical Analysis	Scholars employ this concept in literary criticism to explore the complexities of authorship, reader response, and narrative perspective.
Subjective Interpretation	Different readers and critics may have varying interpretations, leading to nuanced discussions in literary analysis.
Debates on Importance	It has sparked debates about the extent to which readers should consider the Implied Author in their interpretation, given its separation from the actual author.
Continued Relevance	Despite evolving literary theories, the concept remains a relevant and enduring tool for understanding the relationship between authors, texts, and readers in literary analysis.

Definition of Implied Author as a Theoretical Term

This concept allows scholars to analyze and interpret texts by considering the implied intentions, values, and moral stance presented through the narrative voice, highlighting the distinction between the author as a person and the author as a literary construct. It serves as a pivotal tool in understanding the complexities of authorship, narrative control, and reader engagement in the realm of literary theory and criticism.

Implied Author: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Wayne C. Booth: In his groundbreaking work The Rhetoric of Fiction (1961), Booth introduced the concept of the Implied Author, highlighting its significance in literary analysis. He argued that understanding the Implied Author is essential for comprehending the narrative persona and the authorial voice within a literary work, distinct from the actual author.

Wolfgang Iser: In The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response (1976), Iser explored the Implied Author‘s pivotal role in shaping how readers interpret and engage with texts. He emphasized that the Implied Author guides readers’ aesthetic responses, contributing to the meaning-making process.
Umberto Eco: Eco’s The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts (1979) explores the term the Implied Author from a semiotic perspective. He highlighted how readers actively participate in constructing the Implied Author through their interactions with the text, underscoring the collaborative nature of meaning creation.
E.D. Hirsch: Hirsch’s work, Validity in Interpretation (1967), focused on the relationship between the Implied Author and textual meaning. He argued that recognizing the Implied Author‘s intentions is crucial for valid interpretations, emphasizing the author’s role in determining a text’s significance.

Key Works:

The Rhetoric of Fiction (1961) by Wayne C. Booth: Booth’s groundbreaking work introduced the Implied Author as a key concept for analyzing narrative persona and authorial voice.
The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response (1976) by Wolfgang Iser: Iser’s book explores how the Implied Author influences reader responses and the aesthetic experience of literature.
The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts (1979) by Umberto Eco: Eco’s work discusses the Implied Author in the context of semiotics and reader participation in constructing meaning.

Validity in Interpretation (1967) by E.D. Hirsch: Hirsch’s book examines the Implied Author‘s role in determining the validity of interpretations and its connection to textual meaning.

Key Arguments:

Booth introduced the Implied Author as a fundamental concept for understanding the narrative persona, emphasizing its importance in distinguishing the authorial voice within the text from the actual author.
Iser highlighted the Implied Author‘s influence on reader interpretation, emphasizing how it guides readers’ aesthetic responses and contributes to the construction of meaning.

Eco’s perspective emphasized the active role of readers in constructing the Implied Author through their interactions with the text, underscoring the collaborative nature of meaning-making.
Hirsch argued that recognizing its intentions is essential for valid interpretations, emphasizing the author’s role in determining a text’s significance and meaning.

Implied Author and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Reader-Response Theory	The concept of the Implied Author is relevant to reader-response theory as it underscores the role of the reader in constructing the implied authorship. Readers actively engage with the text and contribute to shaping the Implied Author, making it a dynamic component in the reader’s interpretive process.
Authorial Intent Theory	In the context of authorial intent theory, the Implied Author holds significance as it reflects the author’s intended narrative voice and perspective. This theory emphasizes the need to consider the Implied Author to understand the author’s purpose and meaning behind a work.
Narrative Theory	Within narrative theory, it is central to analyzing the narrative structure and point of view. It helps scholars examine how the implied authorial presence influences the storytelling techniques, character development, and narrative choices in a text.
Deconstructionism	In deconstructionist literary theory, the concept is a construct that deconstructionists question and challenge. It serves as a point of contention regarding the stability of meaning and the extent to which the implied author’s intentions can be discerned.
Semiotics and Structuralism	In the realm of semiotics and structuralism, the Implied Author aligns with the focus on sign systems and codes. It represents the authorial code within the text, providing a means to explore how signs and symbols shape meaning in literature.
Reception Theory	Reception theory considers the role of the reader in interpreting and receiving a text. The Implied Author is relevant here because it influences how readers perceive and engage with the text, affecting the reception and interpretation process.
Postcolonial Theory	In postcolonial theory, it is examined for its potential reflection of colonial or postcolonial perspectives. It becomes relevant when exploring how literature may carry implicit ideological positions related to colonialism and its aftermath.
Feminist Literary Theory	Within feminist literary theory, the Implied Author can be analyzed for its portrayal of gender roles and perspectives. Examining the implied authorship helps in understanding how gender-related themes are constructed and conveyed in literature.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Psychoanalytic theory can use the Implied Author to explore subconscious elements in a text. It can reveal how the implied authorial presence might reflect the author’s psychological motivations and unconscious influences on the narrative.
Postmodernism	In the context of postmodernism, the Implied Author is relevant because it challenges the notion of a fixed, authoritative authorial voice. Postmodernist literature often blurs the boundaries between author and narrator, making the concept of the Implied Author a subject of inquiry.
Marxist Literary Theory	In Marxist literary theory, it is studied for its reflection of class relations, ideology, and social critique. It is relevant for examining how literature may implicitly convey or contest Marxist perspectives.
New Criticism	The Implied Author aligns with the principles of New Criticism, which emphasize close reading and the text’s autonomy. New Critics often analyze the implied authorial presence to understand how a work creates meaning within itself.
Queer Theory	In queer theory, the Implied Author can be explored for its representation of LGBTQ+ identities and experiences. It is relevant for examining how literature may implicitly engage with or challenge heteronormative norms.
Structuralist Linguistics	In structuralist linguistics, the Implied Author can be related to the linguistic structures within a text. Analyzing the implied authorial presence aids in understanding how language functions as a system in literature.

Implied Author in Literary Criticism

The Bonfire of the Vanities by Tom Wolfe (1987): Wolfe’s satirical novel offers a wealth of material for examining the Implied Author’s perspective on the excesses of the 1980s and the characters navigating the social milieu of New York City. Literary critics often explore how Wolfe’s authorial voice influences the reader’s perception of the story’s themes.

The Remains of the Day by Kazuo Ishiguro (1989): Ishiguro’s novel shows the themes of memory, repression, and the role of the past in shaping identity. Literary analysis of this work often considers how the Implied Author’s narrative choices affect the reader’s understanding of the protagonist’s introspective journey.
The Things They Carried by Tim O’Brien (1990): O’Brien’s collection of interconnected short stories about the Vietnam War invites examination of the Implied Author’s role in conveying the emotional and psychological burdens carried by soldiers. Critics often explore how O’Brien’s narrative voice influences reader empathy and engagement.
The Blind Assassin by Margaret Atwood (2000): Atwood’s novel is notable for its layered narrative structure and intertextuality. Literary critics often analyze how the Implied Author constructs multiple narrative voices and explores themes of storytelling and truth.

Interpreter of Maladies by Jhumpa Lahiri (1999): Lahiri’s collection of short stories demonstrates themes of cultural identity and human connection. Critics often examine how the Implied Author’s narrative style and perspectives shape the reader’s understanding of the characters’ experiences in a foreign land.

Intertextuality in Literature & Literary Theory

Intertextuality, in theoretical terms, is the concept that highlights the interconnectedness of literary works and cultural artifacts. It signifies that texts are in constant dialogue with those that came before, shaping and influencing one another.

Etymology of Intertextuality

The term “intertextuality” has its etymological roots in the Latin word “textus,” which means “text” or “fabric.” The prefix “inter-“ denotes the idea of “between” or “among.”

Therefore, “intertextuality” essentially conveys the notion of texts being interwoven or interconnected, reflecting how literary works often reference, borrow from, and engage with other texts. It creates a complex web of textual relationships.

This term underscores the dynamic and dialogical nature of literature. In this way, it shows how texts are not isolated entities but part of a broader literary fabric.

Meanings of Intertextuality

Key Points	Description
Interconnected Literary References	Authors incorporate elements, themes, or phrases from earlier works, creating rich literary connections.
Dialogues Between Texts	Texts respond to, critique, or reinterpret each other, enriching the reader’s experience through exploration of connections and contrasts.
Cultural and Contextual Significance	Literature reflects cultural and historical context by commenting on social norms, values, and ideologies of the time.
Reader Engagement and Interpretation	Readers actively engage with texts by recognizing and deciphering references, deepening their understanding through exploration of layers of meaning.
Postmodern Deconstruction of Authorship	Challenges traditional notions of authorship and originality, blurring the lines between author, text, and reader by emphasizing collaborative creation.
Poststructuralist Analysis	Reveals the decentered nature of language and meaning, highlighting the shaping influence of diverse texts and discourses.
Intertextual Strategies in Postcolonialism	Empowers marginalized voices by referencing and subverting colonial texts, allowing them to challenge dominant narratives.
Critical Examination of Influence and Authority	Prompts critical analysis of power dynamics in literature, questioning the authority of certain texts or voices and their impact on cultural discourse.
Literary Creativity and Innovation	Serves as a source of literary innovation, enabling authors to reinterpret and transform existing narratives, contributing to the evolution of literary traditions.

Definition of Intertextuality as a Theoretical Term

This perspective emphasizes how authors draw from, reinterpret, or challenge existing texts to enrich their works and convey deeper smeaning. It challenges traditional notions of originality and authorship, emphasizing the dynamic and collaborative nature of textuality within broader cultural contexts.

Intertextuality: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Julia Kristeva:

Work: Desire in Language: A Semiotic Approach to Literature and Art

Argument: Kristeva introduced the term as part of her semiotic approach, emphasizing the interplay of signs and the continual referencing of other texts within a literary work.

Roland Barthes:

Work: The Death of the Author
Argument: Barthes questioned the authority of the author and highlighted how readers actively contribute to the meaning of a text through intertextual connections and interpretations.

Mikhail Bakhtin:

Work: Problems of Dostoevsky’s Poetics
Argument: Bakhtin’s concept of “dialogism” emphasizes the multi-voiced nature of texts and the ongoing dialogue between different texts, contributing to intertextual analysis.

Kristeva’s Intertextuality Theory:

Work: Word, Dialogue, and Novel

Argument: Kristeva’s theory explores the idea of the “intertext,” where texts intersect and generate new meanings through their interactions.

Postmodern Intertextuality:

Works: Various postmodern literature
Argument: Postmodern authors often engage in playful intertextuality, blurring the lines between high and low culture and challenging conventional narrative structures.

Intertextuality in Postcolonial Literature:

Works: Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, Jean Rhys’s Wide Sargasso Sea
Argument: Postcolonial literature uses intertextuality to reframe and subvert colonial narratives, giving voice to marginalized perspectives.

Intertextuality and Adaptation:

Works: Film adaptations of literary classics

Argument: Adaptations in different media, such as film, engage in intertextuality by referencing and reinterpreting source texts, offering new insights and perspectives.

These theorists, works, and arguments collectively contribute to our understanding of how intertextuality operates in literature, theory, and cultural discourse.

Intertextuality and Literary Theories

Theory	Relevance
Structuralism and Semiotics	Structuralism and semiotics explore the underlying structures and signs within texts. Intertextuality is relevant as it highlights how texts are connected through a network of signs and references, emphasizing the role of signs in creating meaning.
Poststructuralism and Deconstruction	Poststructuralism challenges the fixed meanings of texts and emphasizes the fluidity of language. Deconstruction, a part of poststructuralism, deconstructs texts to reveal their multiple meanings and contradictions. Intertextuality is relevant as it underscores how texts are continually deconstructed and reconstructed through their connections with other texts.
New Historicism and Cultural Studies	New Historicism and Cultural Studies examine the cultural and historical context in which texts are produced. Intertextuality is relevant as it shows how texts engage with and reflect the cultural and historical influences of their time by referencing other works.
Postcolonialism	Postcolonialism explores the effects of colonialism on colonized cultures. Intertextuality is relevant in postcolonial literature as it often involves the reappropriation and subversion of colonial texts, providing a voice to marginalized cultures.
Feminist Theory	Feminist theory, particularly in postcolonial contexts, examines how women’s voices are silenced or appropriated in literature. Intertextuality is relevant as it is used to analyze how women writers engage with and reinterpret male-dominated literary traditions.
Reception Theory	Reception theory focuses on how readers interpret and receive texts. Intertextuality is relevant as it highlights how readers actively engage with texts by recognizing intertextual references, contributing to the diverse interpretations of a work.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Psychoanalytic theory delves into the psychological aspects of characters and authors. Intertextuality is relevant as it is used to analyze how authors’ personal experiences and traumas may be reflected in intertextual references within their works.
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theory emphasizes the role of the reader in constructing meaning. Intertextuality is relevant as it invites readers to actively engage with texts by recognizing references, impacting their interpretation and response.

Intertextuality in Literary Criticism

Work	Intertextuality Critique
The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood (1985)	Atwood’s use of intertextuality enriches the narrative significantly. She skillfully references religious texts, historical events, and feminist literature, which deepens the exploration of an oppressive patriarchal society. By reinterpreting biblical stories, particularly the story of Rachel and Leah, Atwood highlights the subjugation of women. Furthermore, her references to feminist literature of the 1970s, such as “The Second Sex” by Simone de Beauvoir, effectively delve into themes of female oppression and resistance. This meticulous intertextuality adds layers to the narrative, resonating with readers and provoking critical reflection on contemporary social and political issues.
Beloved by Toni Morrison (1987)	Morrison’s intertextual elements from African American history, folklore, and the slave narrative tradition contribute profoundly to the narrative. Her references to historical events like the Middle Passage and the incorporation of the ghostly presence of the titular character, who symbolizes the trauma of slavery, create a haunting and emotionally resonant story. Moreover, Morrison’s interweaving of elements from African folklore, such as the concept of “rememory,” strengthens the connection between personal and collective histories of African Americans. This deliberate use of intertextuality underscores the importance of remembering and acknowledging the past.
The Things They Carried by Tim O’Brien (1990)	O’Brien’s intertextuality, drawn from war literature and his own experiences as a soldier in the Vietnam War, significantly enhances his stories. His references to historical accounts and other war literature, such as Hemingway’s “In Another Country” and Joseph Conrad’s “Heart of Darkness,” add authenticity and emotional depth to his narratives. By blurring the lines between fiction and reality through these intertextual references, O’Brien masterfully explores the complexities of truth and storytelling, especially within the context of war.
White Noise by Don DeLillo (1985)	DeLillo’s satirical novel is intricately connected to consumer culture, media, and popular culture of the 1980s through intertextuality. His references to advertisements, television shows, and consumer products serve as a poignant critique of the superficiality and alienation prevalent in contemporary society. Furthermore, the incorporation of elements of postmodernism, reminiscent of works by Thomas Pynchon and J.G. Ballard, adds depth to the narrative. DeLillo’s deliberate intertextual references highlight the absurdity of consumer-driven culture and its profound impact on individual identity. The novel’s intertextual layers effectively comment on the overwhelming influence of mass media and technology in the modern world.

Candide: Themes, Elements, & Issues

Candide by Voltaire is a typical fictional work having elemental value on the basis of thematic strands that seem to have surpassed generations and civilizations.

Introduction to Candide

Candide by Voltaire is a typical fictional work having elemental value on the basis of thematic strands that seem to have surpassed generations and civilizations. This fiction written during the eighteenth century not only shows the importance of wealth in social relations and social setups but also shows the work of religion, human desires, and civilizational clashes through its protagonist Candide, and other characters associated with him. The ancient controversies and dialectics about the existence of God, the creation of the world, the role of power and money, and religious dogmas in shaping human lives and cultures have been kept engaged not only by philosophers like Voltaire but also by other figures. Shown through his character such as Pangloss whose mantra of “For, everything having been made for a purpose, everything is necessarily for the best purpose” (Voltaire 4) to complete pessimism of Martin that he has never met goodness (53) when replying to Candide, Voltaire has touched upon the fundamental issues concerning human life. In fact, comprises how religion sometimes becomes a source of solace and at other times a source of persecution for those who hold different views. Therefore, some of the themes about the role of wealth, human lust and love, religion and its misuse, and civilizational clash are elements that can resonate with contemporary audiences.

Wealth in Candide

As far as the role of wealth in concerned, the initial chapter about Baron Thunder-ten-trenconckh and the description of his castle, his farmyard, and his living style show that he is called “Your Lordship” on account of his wealth (03). Candide soon comes to know that he has no means to pay his corner (05). Ken Ewell in his book, Travelling with Philosophes, says that Candide gets a lot of wealth from El Dorado but when he sees that it is all lost, he is unable to locate Cunegonde and his associate as he has no means to bribe the officials in Turkish land (252). It means that he has pointed out the importance of wealth. In fact, wealth plays an important part in the officials as well as the private world. In the official world, it works when Candide thinks of meeting the governor to buy Cunegonde, his former beloved (252). Although Ken Ewell has associated it with his philosophy that he learns from Pangloss the mention of wealth is very much there, as it makes him easy to travel and buy freedom for his mentor and beloved. In other words, wealth still has a significant role in the lives of people for traveling, purchasing amenities of life, and even buying officials to freedom. It even works when an individual wants to fulfill his desires.

Human Desire in Candide

In fact, human desires, in Candide, have been shown responsible for bringing trouble as well as showing the future of the characters. Candide is forced to leave the castle of Baron when he is caught flirting with Cunegonde (Voltaire 05). Desires may comprise lust or love or simply love for wealth as has been shown above, they drive the people away. Although Candide is forced to leave the castle, his heart is with Cunegonde. He is always after her when he is all right and has enough wealth to pursue his desire even if to go to Turkey(80-81). A desire-satisfaction theoretical perspective by Dale Dorsey highlights that although desires lead to temporal welfare or satisfaction, they hardly fulfill permanent satisfaction level (152-153) for it depends on the time, context, and various other factors springing up in the new research (152). Perhaps that is the very reason that the lust or desire for sex of Candide ends by the end of the novel when he sees ugly Cunegonde in Turkey and does not marry her though he does not budge from his earlier stand of marrying her. The same goes for human desires and emotions with the contemporary audience when they see the same things happening with characters on the screen in front of them.

Religion in Candide

Whereas religion is concerned, it has always led to wider fissures among human beings rather than filling the existing gaps. The whole episode of Candide with the Jesuits and his flip-flop to prove that he is with his captors (Voltaire 214) show that religious creed, indeed, plays an important part in the life of human beings, and it is still important in that every religious person holds that his religious is as true as the old man in El Dorado who speaks to Candide about it (Voltaire 44). However, the interesting thing about Candide coming to know such religious beliefs is that it forces one to reflect on his religious ideas which is metacognition as Mark Bracher has asserted with reference to Candide (73). It means that a person meets followers of other religions and comes to know about shortcomings in his own beliefs. The same goes for either acceptance or resistance of religious ideas and beliefs which show the clash of civilizations as is happening notoriously between Christianity and Islam in the Middle East though both sides are engaged in rapprochement in one or the other way.

Conclusion

All of these thematic strands, elements and events in Candide by Voltaire seem quite relevant to contemporary readers and audiences. They find relevant elements in them to think solutions to the problems they face and resolve them accordingly. That is why Candide is still popular among the masses as they see their fundamental desires, petty religious disputes, and civilizational clashes at work in the text and its presentation on the stage.

Works Cited

Bracher, Mark. Educating for Cosmopolitanism: Lessons from Cognitive Science and Literature. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013.

Dorsey, Dale. “Desire-satisfaction and Welfare as Temporal.” Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, vol, 16. no. 1 (2013): 151-171.
Ewell, Ken. Traveling with Philosophes. New York: iUniverse Inc. 2006.
Voltaire, Francoise. Candide and Other Stories. Trans. by Roger Pearson. New York: Oxford University Press, 2006.

**Relevant Questions about Candide: Themes, Elements, Or Issues**

How does Voltaire use satire and irony in Candide to critique and comment on the philosophical optimism of the Enlightenment era, and what is the impact of this critique on the overall themes of the novella?
In Candide, the character Pangloss embodies the idea that “all is for the best in the best of all possible worlds.” How does Pangloss’s philosophy evolve or change throughout the story, and what does this transformation reveal about the novel’s exploration of optimism and reality?
Voltaire tackles numerous societal issues in Candide, including religious hypocrisy, the nature of evil, and the corrupting influence of power. Can you provide examples from the text that illustrate Voltaire’s commentary on these issues and explain how they contribute to the novel’s overall message and themes?

The Book of the Dead by Ibrahim al-Faqih

This excerpt occurs in brahim al-Faqih’s book, The Book of the Dead, in which he presents the mental predicament of a Libyan school teacher.

Introduction to Part of The Book of the Dead

This beautiful short excerpt has been taken from Ibrahim al-Faqih’s book, The Book of the Dead, in which he presents the mental predicament of a Libyan school teacher, Abd al-Hafiz, which not only presents the whole Libyan patriarchal thinking, but also the status of women and role of men as custodian of the social norms and customs. Abd al-Hafiz is a primary school teacher in a some remote Libyan village. The Book of the Dead shows the school management appoints him as a religious education teacher to teach the students in a local school in this remote area, where there is no girls’ school. The girls are sent to their exclusive girl’s school in Libya. It happens that one day he enters the school, but does not meet the usual humdrum that he used to find the past. The students used to fight, and show vulgarity and bad manners whenever he used to enter the school. However, this time, there is no such humdrum and vulgarity. He is rather surprised at this queer silence. The first thinking that enters his mind is that the students are absent, but when he glances inside the classroom, he sees nothing. His second glance makes him wonder struck, as there is a young girl sitting with the boys whom he thinks is surely a demon. The most surprising thing is that the entire class is sitting in silence, as if nothing has happened to them. He considers it a conspiracy against him from the management to force him to resign, but he decides otherwise. The presence of the girl first makes him turn against her to provoke her through several tricks, but then one day she is absent, which gives him a feeling of remorse. When she comes again, he instantly falls in love with her despite being a married person, and a religious teacher. This situation of passionate love, however, conflicts with his ingrained religious and traditional ideas. He feels that somebody has done black magic on him and becomes hysterical by the end of the story. Through this story from The Book of the Dead, Ibrahim al-Faqih beautifully presents the improvement in the class situation by placing a female student among the unruly boys, the mental conflict that ensues in the religious teacher, and the local cultural setting that makes the religious teacher almost mad with agony.

Classroom Presentation from The Book of the Dead

Whereas the improvement in the classroom environment as presented in this part of The Book of the Dead is concerned, it is sure that it has improved except a first hiccup. The first sign of this improvement is witnessed when Abd al-Hafiz enters the school and walks toward his class. It is because his first glance returns empty. He is surprised that there is silence, and nobody is in the class. When he glances again, “much to his surprise, he discovered that they were all three…sitting properly in their seats” and “They behaved as if they had suddenly transformed into grown men” (al-Hafiz 43). This is not all. There is change in their manners, in their clothes, in their speaking and working style. They are sitting at the same place they have been made to sit since the first day of the year. Although they are the same students that al-Hafiz used to see every day, but today they are different. First, he attributes this eerie silence to the inspection team that used to come to check the teachers for coming late. He discovers immediately that this is not the case. The wall clock tells him that he has come on time. He checks the blackboard, the desk, and everything to see what is wrong with the classroom today. It then occurs to him that this is only because a girl is present over there in the classroom. It is another thing that he first considers it some spirit or a demon, and prays that it should not be so. But it is a fact that there is a girl sitting in the classroom, whose presence has made the classroom silent. Her presence has also impacted the students.

Abd al-Hafiz and The Book of the Dead

Despite this visible improvement that he has acknowledged with his first entry, he still does not like her presence as shown by this part of The Book of the Dead. His first thinking is that she should have been in the girls’ school which the place of “mystery and secrecy” (76). Despite being a father of some children and a husband of a wife, he does not consider it appropriate that a girl should be sitting among the boys. As he is a religious teacher, he thinks in the same way. This is against the “principles of decency and modesty” which in his views reflect a total lack of “shame and morals” (76). With these thoughts in his mind, he thinks this a ploy against him, so that he could resign. His first thought is to resign immediately, but then he sticks to his decision of not resigning and making life hell for the girl in the class, so that she could leave. However, another very strange thing happens in his mind too with this improvement in the class. It is perversion of his piety. He glances at her breasts and long hair and thinks her of a blossomed woman of married age. This perversion in his thinking is entirely against the silence and improvement in the classroom environment, but it is this mental conflict in him, which is present in the background of peace and calmness of the class.

The Mental Conflict in The Book of the Dead

This mental conflict rather makes a hell of noise in the mind of Abd al-Hafiz, instead of making him comfortable and peaceful in this part of The Book of the Dead. His first though is that it is a demon or some satanic spirit. It is because he is a religious teacher and his mental makeup does not allow him to let girls mix with the boys. He does not imagine that a girl can enter the school exclusively reserved for boys. In the Libyan educational system, girls have separate schools, while boys have separate school. He starts questioning himself how this girl has entered the school and sat with the boys defiantly despite restrictions on the girls’ entry. Her presence among the boys have made him wonderstruck and speechless. However, when he realizes the presence of the boys, he gathers himself and starts asking her name. His second thought about the girl is that the management is conspiring against him. He is of the view that the management and inspectors are against him. As they have already blocked his promotion and transfer, this is a new ploy from their side to trap him. This thinking takes hold of him so much so that he forgets what he is going to teach. He feels exhausted and weak. This mental consternation sends him into internal mental conflict. He thinks about his whole life that he has spent in piety. He thinks that he has always obeyed the decrees of God. He believes that women are “inviolable and must be protected, and that their place is in the home, far from the gaze of men” (81). However, there is a young and beautiful Zahra sitting among the boys in front of him, which means that Satan is also there, and if there is a majority of men, it means some catastrophe is at hand, “while the Judgement Day will be nigh.” (82).

Transformation in The Book of the Dead

A third transformation in his thoughts takes place that he tortures her in every way. He decides that she is obstinate and defiant. Therefore, he will be playing tricks on her, so that she should leave the class. Despite his animosity towards her, she is always calm and peaceful and never shows that he is unjust in his marking. Even this makes him feel consternation even more. In fact, this internal animosity in him is due to this feeling of patriarchal thinking that men are always superior, and they have every right to treat women in a way they think fit. He thinks that “He would neither yield nor scold, as the question was one of principle and dignity, life or death” (90). Despite his animosity and mental consternation, she takes a deep interest in lessons. She does her homework regularly and beautifully. She does not give al-Hafiz any opportunity to mistreat her, but he is always on the forefront in humiliating her. It is her calmness that makes him feel that she is also against him. He waits for that supposed catastrophe that never befalls on him or on the school, and he always finds her sitting in front of him with the boys. A fourth mental transformation takes place when one day she becomes absent. This is the first time that Abd al-Hafiz finds himself reflecting on his actions. He thinks that this is not a victory; rather it is unjust. He thinks that he has been mean in his treatment toward her. His thoughts about her as a demon, or Satan or a dragon are totally baseless, as “she was only a small, innocent child,” who has become a victim of his traditional thinking about women and girls (92). It makes him think that had he a girl, he would not have mistreated her. Now he turns to think positively. He realizes that her presence has made the class behave well and orderly. However, without her, it wears a deserted look and seems as if some spirit has haunted the boys. This makes him think that if she has left, he will visit her father and request him to send her again as shown in this excerpt from The Book of the Dead.

Love and The Book of the Dead

However, this absence of the girl makes him fall in love with her, a strange feeling for him in this excerpt from The Book of the Dead. He imagines her meeting at odd places. This further complicates his mental thinking, because he has never imagined to meet such a young girl even in his wild dreams. One the one hand, there is a young and beautiful girl to whom he loves, and on the other hand, he is a pious religious teacher who cannot imagine to think in such a way about a girl who is the age of his daughter. This situation ensues a battle of ideas in his mind. On the one side is his “inflamed passion”, while on the other side are his religious ideas (92). He thinks in a strange way about her, as if they are Adam and Eve, and have fallen on the earth, but then this thinking makes him ashamed of himself. Even his dreams are full of the meetings between Zahra and al-Hafiz which seem to him, “terrifying, sweet, horrible, beautiful and loathsome clash” (96). In fact, this is a clash in his ideas between what he has been harboring since childhood and the new situation in which he is placed. Therefore, this mental clash continues torturing him until the end of the story.

Cultural Setting in The Book of the Dead

The theme of the cultural setting has been beautifully woven in this part of the excerpt. This is the traditional Libyan cultural setting which is witnessing some transformation in which he Abd al-Hafiz is also entangled somehow. As Libya is an Islamic country, religion holds supreme over everything including education and educational administration. Boys and girls and men and women are not allowed to intermingle. If this happens, according to the strict religious teachings, Satan enters that place, and it means that some catastrophe is about to take place. That is why when he sees the girl in the class sitting with the boys, his first thought is that she is not a girl, but a demon, and he immediately senses some danger. His second thought is that it is a conspiracy, because traditionally women or girls are not allowed in the schools reserved only for boys. It is because girls have always separate schools in Libya. Therefore, this is against the traditional setup that a girl is sent to a school where only boys study. It is also a traditional patriarchal thought that he sees defiance on the face of Zahra and thinks of mistreating her to show her status she holds in the society, but then his reflection on his action makes him think about his unjust behavior. This is a sort of rebellion against the traditions, but the traditional thinking mixed up with religious ideas make him almost go mad. It is because he is already in an agony and to top it all, he falls in love with her. This is even torturing, because then he thinks that he is quite old, almost the age of his father. It is because in Libyan culture it never happens that such a man of more than forty years start loving a young girl, who is half of his age and that person is religious too. Therefore, these cultural customs, traditions and religions ideas put Abd al-Hafiz on the pedestal of mental agony in this excerpt from The Book of the Dead.

Conclusion

Concluding the analysis, it becomes clear that this story reflects the original cultural setting of the Libyan society where women are given a status lower than men in every way, even if it is an educational setting. Although this girl has been sent to this school of boys on the recommendation of the higher authorities, the religious faces not only mental dilemma but also physical shock over her presence in the class. He faces a mental agony where he displays contradictory feelings of hate, love, torture, religious fervor, piety and then hysteria. In fact, Ibrahim al-Faqih got his education in the United Kingdom and saw gender equality in the western society. He is fully aware of this fact that such things will create such a feeling of shock and mental conflict among the native Libyans. He has successfully portrayed such a character by placing a girl in the boys’ classroom.

Works Cited

al-Faqih, Ibrahim.”Excerpt from the Book of Dead.” Editors. Husni, Ronak & Daniel L. Newman. Modern Arabic Short Stories: A Bilingual Reader. SAQI. London. 2008. Print. 70-144.

Relevant Questions about “Excerpt from the Book of Dead”

What literary techniques or stylistic elements are prominent in the analyzed excerpt from “The Book of the Dead” by Ibrahim al-Faqih, and how do they contribute to the overall tone and theme of the work?
Could you provide insights into the historical and cultural context surrounding Ibrahim al-Faqih’s writing of “The Book of the Dead,” and how this context might influence the interpretation of the analyzed excerpt?
In the analysis of the excerpt from “The Book of the Dead” by Ibrahim al-Faqih, were there any specific symbols, motifs, or recurring themes that stood out, and how do they relate to the broader narrative or message of the book?

Introduction to Comparative Literature Courses

Elements of Comparative Literature Courses

Criticism Against Comparative Literature

Examples of Comparative Literature Courses

Examples of Literary Works in Comparative Literature Courses

Keywords in Comparative Literature Courses

Suggested Readings

Books:

Courses:

Introduction to Comparative Literature

Features of Comparative Literature

Comparative Literature: Origin, Theorists, Works and Arguments

Origin:

Prominent Theorists:

Significant Works:

Key Arguments:

Principles of Comparative Literature

Suggested Readings

Introduction to Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Indigenous Critical Theory and Indigenous Disciplines

Criticism Against Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Examples of Indigenous Critical Literary Theory

Keywords in Indigenous Critical Theory Literary Theory

Suggested Readings

Introduction to Comparison of Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis

Desire in Heart of Darkness

Personal Experience in Heart of Darkness

Transformation in Metamorphosis

Characters and Transformation of Gregor in The Metamorphosis

Conclusion of Deepr Meanings in Heart of Darkness and The Metamorphosis

Introduction to Chorus in Antigone

Wisdom and Chorus in Antigone

Social Growth of Mankind and Chorus in Antigone

Human Nature and Chorus in Antigone

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about the Chorus in Antigone

Etymology of Interpellation

Meanings of Interpellation

Definition of Interpellation as a Theoretical Term

Interpellation: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

Works:

Arguments:

Interpellation and Literary Theories

Interpellation in Literary Criticism

Suggested Readings

Etymology of Implied Author

Meanings of Implied Author

Definition of Implied Author as a Theoretical Term

Implied Author: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists:

Key Works:

Key Arguments:

Implied Author and Literary Theories

Implied Author in Literary Criticism

Suggested Readings

Etymology of Intertextuality

Meanings of Intertextuality

Definition of Intertextuality as a Theoretical Term

Intertextuality: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Julia Kristeva:

Roland Barthes:

Mikhail Bakhtin:

Kristeva’s Intertextuality Theory:

Postmodern Intertextuality:

Intertextuality in Postcolonial Literature:

Intertextuality and Adaptation:

Intertextuality and Literary Theories

Intertextuality in Literary Criticism

Suggested Readings

Introduction to Candide

Wealth in Candide

Human Desire in Candide

Religion in Candide

Conclusion

Works Cited

Relevant Questions about Candide: Themes, Elements, Or Issues

Introduction to Part of The Book of the Dead

Classroom Presentation from The Book of the Dead

Abd al-Hafiz and The Book of the Dead

**Relevant Questions about Candide: Themes, Elements, Or Issues**