April 2023 - English Studies

Epiphany

Etymology and Meanings of Epiphany

The word “epiphany” comes from the Greek “epiphaneia,” meaning “manifestation” or “appearance.” It originally referred to the manifestation of a deity or divine being to mortals, but later came to be used more broadly to describe any sudden realization or insight. In the Christian tradition, Epiphany is the celebration of the manifestation of Jesus Christ to the Magi, and marks the end of the Christmas season. The word “epiphany” is also commonly used in literature to describe a character’s sudden moment of insight or understanding.

Meanings:

The term “epiphany” is also commonly used in a more general sense to describe a sudden and profound understanding or realization. It can refer to a breakthrough moment in scientific research, a moment of clarity in personal growth, or a sudden realization of a solution to a problem. In literature, an epiphany can refer to a character’s sudden realization or insight that changes their perspective or understanding of a situation.

Epiphany in Grammar

Grammatically, “epiphany” is a singular noun, and when used in the context of a single event or concept, it should be paired with a singular verb, such as “was” or “is”. However, when the term is used in a more general sense to refer to multiple instances of sudden realization or insight, it can be paired with a plural verb, such as “have” or “occur”. For example, “The scientist had an epiphany about the nature of the universe” (singular), or “Epiphanies about the nature of the universe have occurred throughout history” (plural).

Definition of Epiphany

Epiphany is a literary device that refers to a sudden and profound realization or insight experienced by a character in a story. It is often used to create a dramatic turning point in the plot or to reveal deeper truths about the character or their situation. Epiphanies can be triggered by a variety of stimuli, such as a conversation, a moment of reflection, or a sudden event.

Types of Epiphanies

Here are some common types of epiphanies found in literature along with one example for each:

Emotional Epiphany: This is a type of epiphany that brings about a shift in a character’s emotional state, often leading to a moment of catharsis or release. An example of an emotional epiphany can be found in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby,” when the protagonist, Jay Gatsby, realizes that his romantic quest for Daisy is ultimately futile, leading to a profound sense of disappointment and loss.

Intellectual Epiphany: This type of epiphany is characterized by a sudden understanding or realization of a problem or situation that a character has been struggling to comprehend. An example of an intellectual epiphany can be found in Franz Kafka’s “The Metamorphosis,” when the protagonist, Gregor Samsa, realizes that he has been transformed into a giant insect and must adapt to a new way of living.
Spiritual Epiphany: This type of epiphany involves a moment of profound insight or enlightenment regarding a character’s relationship with a higher power or sense of purpose. An example of a spiritual epiphany can be found in Herman Melville’s “Moby-Dick,” when the protagonist, Ishmael, has a mystical experience while observing the vastness of the sea, leading him to question his place in the universe.
Social Epiphany: This type of epiphany involves a sudden understanding or realization regarding a character’s relationship with society or a particular social group. An example of a social epiphany can be found in Ralph Ellison’s “Invisible Man,” when the protagonist realizes that his attempts to conform to white society have led him to become invisible and marginalized, leading to a profound sense of disillusionment and rage.

Common Examples:

Here are some common examples of epiphanies:

Realizing the truth about a situation: This type of epiphany involves a sudden understanding or realization of the truth about a situation or relationship. For example, a character in a story may suddenly understand that someone they thought was trustworthy is actually deceiving them.
Understanding oneself better: This type of epiphany involves a sudden understanding or realization about one’s own personality or character. For example, a character may suddenly understand that their insecurities are holding them back from achieving their goals.

Overcoming a limiting belief: This type of epiphany involves a sudden realization that a limiting belief or mindset is holding one back from achieving their full potential. For example, a character may suddenly realize that their fear of failure has been preventing them from pursuing their dreams.
Gaining a new perspective: This type of epiphany involves a sudden shift in perspective that leads to a new understanding of a situation or relationship. For example, a character may suddenly understand that someone they disliked is actually a good person.
Discovering a new truth or idea: This type of epiphany involves a sudden realization or discovery of a new truth or idea that changes one’s understanding of the world. For example, a character may suddenly discover a new scientific fact that changes their understanding of a particular subject.

Literary Examples:

“A&P” by John Updike:

In this short story, the protagonist, Sammy, experiences an epiphany when he realizes the hypocrisy of his boss, Lengel, and the conformity of his society. It occurs when he sees his three young female customers being scolded by Lengel for wearing bathing suits in the store. Sammy realizes that he too is a part of the same system of social expectations and conformity, and that he cannot escape it. This moment of insight leads him to quit his job, but also makes him aware of the limitations of his rebellion.

The Metamorphosis by Franz Kafka:

In this novella, the protagonist, Gregor Samsa, experiences an intellectual and emotional epiphany when he realizes that he has transformed into an insect. The epiphany occurs when he sees his reflection in a mirror and understands the physical and psychological changes that have occurred. This realization leads him to a state of despair and isolation, as he becomes increasingly alienated from his family and society.

To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf:

In this novel, the character, Lily Briscoe, experiences a spiritual and intellectual epiphany when she realizes the importance of her art and the meaning of life. The epiphany occurs when she finishes her painting and understands the beauty and fragility of human existence. This moment of insight leads her to a sense of purpose and fulfillment, and also helps her to come to terms with her own sense of loss and grief.

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by James Joyce:

In this novel, the protagonist, Stephen Dedalus, experiences a series of epiphanies throughout his intellectual and spiritual development. The most notable epiphany occurs when he sees a young girl on the beach and realizes the sensual and emotional power of art and beauty. This realization leads him to pursue his own artistic vision, but also makes him aware of the conflicts and contradictions inherent in his own identity.

The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

In this novel, the protagonist, Jay Gatsby, experiences an emotional and intellectual epiphany when he realizes the futility of his romantic quest for Daisy Buchanan. The epiphany occurs when he sees Daisy’s true nature and understands that their relationship is based on illusions and nostalgia. This moment of insight leads him to a sense of despair and disillusionment, and ultimately to his tragic demise.

How to Create Epiphany in a Fictional Work

Creating an epiphany in a literary work involves a deliberate and strategic use of various literary techniques, such as imagery, symbolism, foreshadowing, and irony. Here are some tips on how to create an epiphany:

Build tension: Create tension and conflict in your story to create a moment of realization that is satisfying and impactful.
Use symbolism: Incorporate symbols that will lead the reader to a deeper understanding of the story and its themes.
Use foreshadowing: Plant clues and hints throughout the story that will lead the reader to the moment of realization.

Create a moment of crisis: Introduce a moment of crisis that will force the protagonist to confront their beliefs and assumptions.
Use irony: Use irony to create a contrast between what the character believes to be true and what is actually true.
Provide sensory details: Use sensory details to create a vivid and immersive experience for the reader, which will help them connect with the moment of realization.

Allow time for reflection: After the moment of realization, allow the character to reflect on their experience and its implications.

Benefits:

Epiphany can have several benefits both in literature and in real life, such as:

Increased self-awareness: Epiphany allows individuals to gain new insights into their own thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors, which can help them better understand themselves and their relationships with others.

Greater empathy: Epiphany can lead to a deeper understanding of other people’s perspectives, experiences, and emotions, which can help foster empathy and connection with others.
Personal growth: Epiphany can be a catalyst for personal growth and change, as it can help individuals to identify areas where they need to improve and make positive changes.
Improved problem-solving skills: Epiphany can help individuals to see problems and challenges from a new perspective, which can lead to more creative and effective solutions.

Enhanced creativity: Epiphany can inspire creativity and lead to new ideas, insights, and perspectives, which can be beneficial in various fields such as art, writing, and business.
Emotional catharsis: Epiphany can provide a sense of emotional release and relief, particularly in the context of literature or personal reflection.

Epiphany can have numerous positive effects on an individual’s personal and professional life, as well as contribute to their emotional and psychological well-being.

Epiphany and Literary Theory

In New Criticism, epiphany is used to uncover the underlying meanings of a text and its themes.
In Reader-Response Theory, epiphany is seen as a subjective experience that is unique to each individual reader.

In Post-Structuralism, epiphany is often viewed as a moment of destabilization or rupture, in which the reader’s assumptions and beliefs are challenged.
Epiphany can contribute to a deeper understanding of the text and its themes, regardless of the theoretical approach used.

Enjambment

Etymology and Meanings of Enjambment

The word “enjambment” comes from the French word “enjambement,” which is derived from the verb “enjamber,” meaning “to straddle” or “to stride over.”

The term was first used in English in the mid-19th century to describe a poetic technique in which a sentence or clause continues from one line of verse to the next without a pause or punctuation mark at the end of the line. This creates a sense of flow and continuity in the poem, and can add to the overall effect of the language and imagery.

The literal meaning of enjambment refers to the continuation of a sentence or clause from one line of poetry to the next, without a pause or punctuation mark at the end of the line. This technique is used in poetry to create a sense of flow and continuity, and to connect ideas and images across multiple lines. The word “enjambment” can also refer more broadly to any instance in which a sentence or clause carries over to the next line or sentence without a grammatical break, including in prose writing.

Enjambment in Grammar

Actually, the noun “enjambment” is typically used as a mass noun in English, which means that it does not typically have a plural form. While it is possible to use “enjambments” as a plural form in some contexts, this usage is relatively uncommon and may sound awkward or non-standard to some speakers. Instead, it is more common to use the term “instances of enjambment” or a similar phrase to refer to multiple examples of the technique in a given poem or literary work.

Definition of Enjambment

In literary terms, it is an incomplete syntax that occurs at the end of a line with meanings shifting to the next verse, having no punctuation at the end. When there is no Enjambment at the end of a line, it means it is end-stopped verse.

Literary Examples of Enjambment

Example # 1

From “The Waste Land” by T. S. Eliot

April is the cruellest month, breeding
Lilacs out of the dead land, mixing
Memory and desire, stirring
Dull roots with spring rain.
Winter kept us warm, covering
Earth in forgetful snow, feeding
A little life with dried tubers.

This is the very first stanza of “The Waste Land,” the most popular poem of T. S. Eliot. It shows that the poet has used enjambment in almost every other line except the fourth and the last line. They also show that the poet has shifted the meanings to the very next line such as mixing is closely occurring with “memory” in the next line and that the thought has not broken here.

Example # 2

From “Eldorado” by Edgar Allen Poe

But he grew old—
This knight so bold—
And o’er his heart a shadow
Fell as he found
No spot of ground
That looked like Eldorado.

This is the second stanza of the popular poem “Eldorado” by Edgar Allen Poe. He has used the enjambment successively in the third, fourth and fifth line, showing that there is no break in the though and no break in the verses. However, the last line is end-stopped verse.

Example # 3

From “I Being Born A Woman And Distressed” by Edna St Vincent Millay

Think not for this, however, the poor treason

Of my stout blood against my staggering brain,

I shall remember you with love, or season

My scorn with pity,—let me make it plain:

I find this frenzy insufficient reason

For conversation when we meet again.

These are the last verses of the popular sonnet of Edna St. Vincent Millay. She has beautifully used enjambments in the first, third, and the second last verse. The first line has been beautifully merged with the second and third with the fourth clearly showing that there is not break in the thought and hence no break in the line.

Example # 4

“Icarus” by Edward Field

Only the feathers floating around the hat
Showed that anything more spectacular had occurred
Than the usual drowning. The police preferred to ignore
The confusing aspects of the case,
And the witnesses ran off to a gang war.

Edward Field has used enjambments in the first three verses of this poem. The first two verses continue until there is a stop in the middle of the third verse and it continues with the fourth having a comma and the last having a period. This shows the thought continues in the first two verses, leaving no space for an end. That is why these two enjambments are highly effective here.

How to Create Enjambment

Enjambments often occur only in poetry or in black verses used for plays. Therefore, plan it earlier where, how and when to use it in your thought.
Carefully write the verse and leave it to continue the thought in the next verse.

Continue it with three or four verses and see how it impacts the overall reading.
Read it aloud to continue the though from two to four and more verses as it is done in the free verse poetry.

Benefits of Using Enjambment

Enjambments bring flow in the verses when there is no stop or end stop.
Enjambments complete the thoughts or ideas and given a complete information to the readers about the thought.
It completes abstract thoughts and clarify them.

It means reading poetry enjoyable and clear.

Enjambment in Literary Theory

Although enjambments are rarely used in literary theory, they are important when doing critique from formalistic literary theoretical point of view. It is because it is an important part of poetic devices and they are used to critique poetry.

Other than these, they could be used in poetic criticism or criticism of poetry disregard of literary theory.
They are also important for postcolonial and indigenous theory in critiquing poetry of such cultures.

Suggested Readings

Abrams, Meyer Howard, and Geoffrey Harpham. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Cengage Learning, 2014.

Bennett, Andrew, and Nicholas Royle. Literature, Criticism and Theory. Harlow, UK: Pearson, 2004. Tsur, Reuven, and Chen Gafni. “Enjambment–Irony, Wit, Emotion. A Case Study Suggesting Wider Principles.” Studia Metrica et Poetica 5.2 (2018): 7-28.

Deus Ex Machina

Etymology of Deus Ex Machina

The origin of the term “Deus Ex Machina” finds its history traced back to ancient Greek theater, where a mechanical device known as “mechane” used to lower actors portraying gods onto the stage. The term is derived from Latin, with “machina” being the Latin word for machine. Therefore, the term translates into “god from the machine.”

Meaning of Deus Ex Machina

In literature, “Deus Ex Machina” refers to a plot device where an unexpected, seemingly miraculous event or character is introduced to resolve a seemingly impossible situation. This device is often criticized for being contrived or unrealistic, as it feels like the author is taking an easy way out of a difficult plot. However, when used effectively, a Deus Ex Machina can be a powerful tool for creating a satisfying resolution to a complex story.

Deus Ex Machina in Grammar

In grammar, “Deus Ex Machina” is a Latin phrase that functions as a singular noun in English. Therefore, the plural form of the noun is “Deus Ex Machinae.” As a singular noun, it takes singular verbs, and as a plural noun, it takes plural verbs. However, in common usage, the term is often used as a collective noun, and the singular form is more commonly used even when referring to multiple instances.

Definition of Term Deus Ex Machina

Deus ex machina is a literary device used in plots in epics, stories, novels, plays and and theater where a apparently unsolvable problem suddenly and unexpectedly resolves through an intervention from an external force or character. The term literally means “god from the machine” in Latin, and refers to a theatrical device where a god would be lowered onto the stage by a crane to resolve the plot.

Types:

There are several types of Deus Ex Machina that can be used in literature, including:

Divine Intervention: This involves the direct involvement of a god or supernatural being to resolve a plot or conflict.

Coincidence: This involves an unlikely occurrence that happens to benefit the protagonist or resolve a conflict, often without any real explanation.
Contrivance: This involves the sudden introduction of a new element or character that conveniently resolves a plot or conflict, often without proper development or explanation.
Unexpected Power: This involves the protagonist suddenly discovering a new power or ability that helps them overcome a seemingly impossible situation.

Irony: This involves the unexpected outcome of a situation that is contrary to what was expected, often in a humorous or satirical way.

Common Examples:

Here are some common examples of Deus Ex Machina in literature and media:

In the Greek play “Medea,” the titular character is about to be captured by her enemies when she is saved by the appearance of a chariot sent by the sun god, Helios.

In the novel “The War of the Worlds” by H.G. Wells, the invading aliens are ultimately defeated by bacteria that they have no immunity to, which is an unexpected and convenient solution to the conflict.
In the TV series “Lost,” the characters are saved from a seemingly impossible situation by the sudden appearance of a previously unknown group of characters with a helicopter.
In the movie “The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King,” the main character Frodo is saved from the brink of destruction by the sudden appearance of the giant eagles, who conveniently swoop in to save the day.

In the play “The Birds” by Aristophanes, the main characters are saved from danger by the intervention of the birds, who provide them with a safe haven.

While these examples can be effective in resolving conflicts, they can also be criticized for being contrived or unrealistic. It is important to use Deus Ex Machina sparingly and with careful consideration to ensure that it feels satisfying and not forced.

Literary Examples:

The Iliad by Homer: In the epic poem, Achilles is about to kill Hector when the god Apollo intervenes and helps Hector escape. This is an example of Divine Intervention, where the gods directly intervene to change the outcome of the conflict.

“Then Phoebus Apollo, angered at his heart against him, addressed to him winged words: “Hector, why dost thou await Achilles’ onset, forgetting thy task of impelling thy men on to fight in defence of thy city?’“ (Book 22, lines 100-103)

Macbeth by William Shakespeare: In the play, Macduff is able to kill Macbeth because he was “not born of woman,” as he was born via Caesarean section. This is an example of an Unexpected Power, where a previously unknown or unanticipated power is introduced to resolve the conflict.

“Despair thy charm, And let the angel whom thou still hast served Tell thee, Macduff was from his mother’s womb Untimely ripp’d.” (Act 5, Scene 8, lines 19-22)

The Lord of the Rings by J.R.R. Tolkien: In the novel, Frodo and Sam are saved from the erupting Mount Doom by the sudden appearance of the giant eagles. This is an example of Contrivance, where a previously unknown or unexplained element is introduced to conveniently resolve the conflict.

“There came Gwaihir the Windlord, and Landroval his brother, greatest of all the Eagles of the North, mightiest of the descendants of old Thorondor, who built his eyries in the inaccessible peaks of the Encircling Mountains when Middle-earth was young.” (Book 6, Chapter 3, “Mount Doom”)

The Odyssey by Homer: In the epic poem, Odysseus is about to be killed by the suitors when his son Telemachus and a few loyal servants suddenly appear to help him. This is an example of Coincidence, where an unlikely occurrence conveniently resolves the conflict.

“Then, as they talked, Telemachus’ men brought in the armour that was in the house, and put it in the porch. They also brought wood for the fire, and set it on the hearth; moreover, they brought sheep and oxen and the fatlings of pigs, and set them up as a feast for the suitors.” (Book 16, lines 328-332)

The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins: In the novel, Katniss and Peeta are about to be killed by the mutated muttations when they are suddenly saved by the appearance of Cato, who is also being attacked by the muttations. This is an example of Coincidence, where an unlikely occurrence conveniently resolves the conflict.

“Just as I’m about to give up, I hear a hissing from the Cornucopia. It takes a moment to recognize it as Cato’s voice. ‘Katniss,’ he says. ‘I’m coming, too. You’re not leaving me alone with these mutts.’“ (Chapter 27)

How to Create Deus Ex Machina in Works

Establish the rules of your story’s universe: Before introducing a Deus Ex Machina, make sure you have established the rules and limitations of your story’s universe. This will help you avoid introducing elements that feel out of place or inconsistent with the story’s established world.
Foreshadow the solution: If you do plan to use a Deus Ex Machina, it’s important to foreshadow the solution in some way. This can be done through subtle hints, character dialogue, or other narrative devices. By foreshadowing the solution, you can make it feel less contrived when it is introduced.
Use it sparingly: Deus Ex Machina should be used sparingly and thoughtfully in your writing. Overusing it can make your story feel predictable, unrealistic, and unsatisfying to readers.

Make it feel organic: When introducing a Deus Ex Machina, try to make it feel organic to the story. This means introducing it in a way that makes sense within the narrative and doesn’t feel forced or out of place.
Have a good reason for using it: Finally, make sure you have a good reason for using a Deus Ex Machina. It should serve a clear narrative purpose and help to move the story forward in a meaningful way.

Benefits:

Surprise and excitement: A well-executed Deus Ex Machina can be a surprising and exciting twist that keeps readers engaged and interested in the story.

Conflict resolution: When used sparingly and thoughtfully, Deus Ex Machina can help to resolve conflicts in the story and provide a satisfying resolution for readers.
Symbolic meaning: A Deus Ex Machina can be used to convey a symbolic meaning or message in the story, adding depth and complexity to the narrative.
Empowerment of characters: Introducing a Deus Ex Machina can empower characters and give them agency in the story, as they may be able to use the unexpected element to their advantage.

Creation of memorable moments: A well-crafted Deus Ex Machina can create a memorable moment in the story that readers will remember long after they have finished reading.

Deus Ex Machina and Literary Theory

Here are some ways in which Deus Ex Machina can be analyzed through literary theories:

Structuralism: Structuralism emphasizes the underlying structures that shape the meaning of a text. In the case of Deus Ex Machina, structuralists might analyze the role of the unexpected element in the story’s structure, and how it shapes the narrative and themes of the text.

Post-structuralism: Post-structuralism challenges the idea that there is a fixed meaning in a text. Post-structuralists might analyze the use of Deus Ex Machina as a way of disrupting or subverting traditional narrative structures, and how this can create new and unexpected meanings.
Reader-response theory: Reader-response theory emphasizes the role of the reader in creating meaning from a text. Readers might interpret the use of Deus Ex Machina in different ways, based on their own experiences and perspectives.
Feminist theory: Feminist theory examines how gender roles and power dynamics are represented in literature. Feminist critics might analyze the use of Deus Ex Machina as a way of reinforcing or challenging traditional gender roles or power structures in the story.

Marxist theory: Marxist theory examines how class and economic structures shape society and culture. Marxist critics might analyze the use of Deus Ex Machina as a way of reinforcing or challenging dominant economic or social structures in the story.

Chiasmus

Etymology and Meanings of Chiasmus

Etymology of Chiasmus

The term “chiasmus” is derived from the Greek letter “chi” (Χ), which represents the cross-over pattern that occurs in this type of construction. The word itself comes from the Greek word “khiasmos,” which means “crossing” or “arrangement in the form of an X.”

The term “chiasmus” entered the English language in the 19th century, when it was adopted by scholars and grammarians studying ancient Greek and Latin literature. The earliest known use of the term in English dates back to the 1820s, when it was used by the British classicist and literary critic Henry Nettleship in his work on the Greek poet Aeschylus. Since then, the term has become a standard part of the English lexicon, used by writers, scholars, and students alike to describe the rhetorical device of repeating a phrase in reverse order

Meanings of Chiasmus

The literal meaning of chiasmus is “crossing” or “criss-crossing.” This is because the term is derived from the Greek letter “chi” (Χ), which looks like an “X” and represents the cross-over pattern that occurs in this type of construction. The word “chiasmus” is often used to describe a specific type of rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are structured in a criss-cross pattern, with the second clause mirroring the first but in reverse order. This creates a memorable and often impactful repetition of words or ideas that can be used to emphasize a point or create a memorable turn of phrase.

Chiasmus in Grammar

Grammatically, “chiasmus” is a singular noun, but it takes a plural verb when referring to multiple instances or examples of the device. For example, you could say “This essay contains several examples of chiasmus” or “Chiasmus is a powerful rhetorical tool, and its use can be seen in many great speeches.” In both cases, “chiasmus” is the subject of the sentence, but the verb form changes to reflect whether it’s being used in the singular or plural form.

Definition of Chiasmus

Chiasmus is a literary device that involves the repetition of a phrase or idea in reverse order. It is a figure of speech in which words or ideas are repeated in a crisscross pattern, creating a parallel structure that emphasizes the contrast between the two ideas. In other words, chiasmus is a rhetorical device in which two parallel phrases are used, but with the second phrase reversing the order of the words used in the first phrase.

Chiasmus is often used in literature, poetry, and public speaking to create memorable phrases, emphasize important points, or create a sense of symmetry or balance in the language.

Common Examples of Chiasmus

“He went to the country, to the town went she.”
“You can have my gun when you pry it from my cold, dead hands.”
“I meant what I said and I said what I meant.”

“Don’t sweat the small stuff, and it’s all small stuff.”
“Life is a journey, not a destination.”
“Fair is foul, and foul is fair.”

“The first shall be last, and the last shall be first.”
“We shape our buildings, and afterward our buildings shape us.”
“Eat to live, not live to eat.”

“You can’t have a light without a dark to stick it in.”
“When the going gets tough, the tough get going.”
“It’s not the years in your life that count. It’s the life in your years.”

“Never let a fool kiss you or a kiss fool you.”
“All for one, and one for all.”
By day the frolic, and the dance by night.”

Literary Examples of Chiasmus

From Hamlet by William Shakespeare:

“To be or not to be, that is the question.”

This is perhaps one of the most famous examples of chiasmus in literature. The phrase “to be or not to be” is repeated in reverse order to create a parallel structure that emphasizes the contrast between existence and non-existence, or life and death. The use of chiasmus in this line highlights the philosophical nature of Hamlet’s internal debate about whether it is better to endure the sufferings of life or to end them through suicide.

From The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

“I am still a little afraid of missing something if I forget that, as my father snobbishly suggested, and I snobbishly repeat, a sense of the fundamental decencies is parceled out unequally at birth.”

This is an example of a complex chiasmus that uses parallel clauses to make a point about social class and morality. The phrase “my father snobbishly suggested, and I snobbishly repeat” is repeated in reverse order, while the phrase “a sense of the fundamental decencies is parceled out unequally at birth” is used to emphasize the idea that social class can determine one’s sense of morality.

From Animal Farm by George Orwell:

“All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.”

This is an example of a chiasmus that uses a paradox to create a memorable phrase. The phrase “all animals are equal” is repeated in reverse order with the phrase “but some animals are more equal than others” to create a paradoxical statement that highlights the hypocrisy of the pigs who have taken over the farm and are using their power to oppress the other animals.

From The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain:

“You can’t pray a lie – I found that out.”

This is an example of a chiasmus that uses a simple structure to make a point about morality. The phrase “you can’t pray a lie” is repeated in reverse order to emphasize the idea that honesty and morality are fundamental to a genuine religious experience.

From Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen:

“Those who do not complain are never pitied.”

This is an example of a chiasmus that uses a simple structure to make a point about human nature. The phrase “those who do not complain” is repeated in reverse order with the phrase “are never pitied” to create a memorable phrase that emphasizes the idea that people who suffer in silence are often overlooked and forgotten.

How to Create Chiasmus

Identify the key ideas or phrases you want to use

The first step in creating chiasmus is to identify the key ideas or phrases you want to use. Chiasmus works by repeating these ideas in reverse order, so it’s important to have a clear understanding of what you want to say.

Write the first clause

Once you’ve identified your key ideas or phrases, write the first clause of your chiasmus. This should contain one or more of the key ideas or phrases you want to use.

Identify the reverse order of the key ideas or phrases

In order to create the cross-over pattern that defines chiasmus, you need to identify the reverse order of the key ideas or phrases you’re using. This will allow you to create a second clause that mirrors the first, but in reverse order.

Write the second clause

Using the reverse order of your key ideas or phrases, write the second clause of your chiasmus. This should mirror the first clause, but with the key ideas or phrases in reverse order.

Revise and refine your chiasmus

Once you’ve written your chiasmus, take some time to revise and refine it. Look for ways to improve the wording or phrasing to make it more impactful or memorable.

Practice delivering your chiasmus

Finally, practice delivering your chiasmus. Pay attention to the rhythm and cadence of your words, and try to emphasize the repetition and cross-over pattern to make it more effective.

Here’s an example of how you can create chiasmus:

Original sentence: “She loves me more than I love her.”

Chiasmus: “More than I love her, she loves me.”

In this example, the key phrase “loves me” is repeated in reverse order to create a parallel structure. The chiasmus creates a balanced, memorable phrase that emphasizes the contrast between the speaker’s love for his partner and her love for him.

Benefits of Using Chiasmus

There are several benefits of using chiasmus in writing and speech. Here are some of the main benefits:

Creates a Memorable Phrase: Chiasmus can create a memorable phrase that sticks in the mind of the reader or listener. The repetition of words or phrases in reverse order creates a symmetrical structure that is pleasing to the ear and easy to remember.
Emphasizes Key Ideas: Chiasmus can be used to emphasize key ideas or themes in writing or speech. By repeating key words or phrases, the writer or speaker can draw attention to important concepts or ideas and create a sense of balance and symmetry.

Adds Style and Elegance: Chiasmus adds a sense of style and elegance to writing or speech. The use of parallel structure and repetition creates a rhythmic quality that is pleasing to the ear and adds a level of sophistication to the language.
Enhances Persuasion: Chiasmus can be used to enhance persuasion in writing or speech. The repetition of key ideas or phrases can reinforce the argument being made and make it more convincing to the audience.
Improves Clarity: Chiasmus can improve clarity in writing or speech by creating a clear and concise structure that is easy to understand. The repetition of key ideas or phrases can help to reinforce the meaning of the message being conveyed.

Chiasmus in Literary Theory

Chiasmus can be analyzed and appreciated from different literary theories. Here are five literary theories that can be applied to the study of chiasmus:

Structuralism: Structuralism is a theory that focuses on the underlying structures and patterns in language and literature. Chiasmus is a prime example of structuralist analysis, as it is based on a symmetrical structure that repeats words or phrases in reverse order.
Formalism: Formalism is a theory that emphasizes the formal elements of literature, such as language, form, and style. Chiasmus is a formal element that can be analyzed for its effectiveness in creating a balanced and symmetrical structure that adds to the overall aesthetic of a work.

Rhetoric: Rhetoric is the study of persuasive language and communication. Chiasmus is often used in rhetorical devices such as antithesis, where contrasting ideas are presented in a balanced and parallel structure.
Post-Structuralism: Post-structuralism is a theory that challenges the idea of a fixed or stable meaning in language and literature. Chiasmus can be analyzed in a post-structuralist context to explore how it disrupts traditional notions of language and meaning.
Deconstruction: Deconstruction is a theory that emphasizes the idea of meaning as unstable and open to multiple interpretations. Chiasmus can be analyzed through a deconstructive lens to explore how its symmetrical structure can be subverted or deconstructed to reveal alternative meanings and interpretations.

Psychoanalytic Theory: Psychoanalytic theory explores the unconscious motivations and desires that shape human behavior and language. Chiasmus can be analyzed in a psychoanalytic context to explore how it reflects the structure of the unconscious mind, with its repeating patterns and mirror-like images.
Reader-Response Theory: Reader-response theory emphasizes the role of the reader in creating meaning from a literary text. Chiasmus can be studied from a reader-response perspective to explore how different readers might interpret the symmetrical structure and repeated phrases in different ways.
Feminist Theory: Feminist theory examines the ways in which gender shapes language and literature. Chiasmus can be analyzed from a feminist perspective to explore how it reflects and reinforces gender norms and expectations, or how it can be subverted to challenge or critique those norms.

Cultural Studies: Cultural studies explores the ways in which language and literature reflect and shape cultural values and identities. Chiasmus can be studied in a cultural studies context to explore how it reflects and reinforces cultural patterns and values, or how it can be used to subvert or challenge those patterns and values.

Simile

Etymology and Meanings of a Simile

The entry for “similar” in the dictionary links to the etymology of “simile,” as they share the same Latin root, “similis,” meaning “like, resembling, or of the same kind.” “Similar” is an adjective that describes things that have characteristics in common, and it was first used in the early 17th century. The noun form, “similarity,” came later in the mid-17th century, and it refers to the state of being similar or having resemblance. The evolution of these words reflects the human desire to compare and understand the world around us, and the importance of language in expressing these observations. Overall, the etymology and meanings of “simile” and “similar” demonstrate the enduring power of comparison and likeness in human communication.

Simile in Grammar

The word “simile” itself is a noun, and it does have a plural form: “similes.” However, the word “simile” refers to the literary device of comparing two things using “like” or “as,” not to the actual things being compared.

For example, in the sentence “His heart was racing like a cheetah,” the simile is the phrase “like a cheetah,” which is used to compare the speed of the person’s heart to the speed of a cheetah. The word “simile” in this sentence is simply used to describe the literary device being employed. To summarize, while the word “simile” is a noun with a plural form, the simile itself is not a noun, but a figure of speech used to make comparisons

Definition of A Simile

The term simile in literature means comparing two things using the words “like” or “as.” It is often used in literature, poetry, and rhetoric to create a vivid image and enhance the meaning of a phrase or idea. The purpose of a simile is to create a comparison that is easily understandable and memorable for the reader or listener.

Common Examples of Similes

As brave as a lion
As wise as an owl

As quiet as a mouse
As busy as a bee
As strong as an ox

As light as a feather
As white as snow
As black as coal

As red as a rose
As cold as ice
As hot as fire

As sly as a fox
As slippery as an eel
As old as the hills

As quick as a flash

Unconventional similes are those that compare two dissimilar things in a surprising or unexpected way. They can be used to create vivid and memorable descriptions, and often involve unexpected word pairings. Here are some examples of unconventional similes:

The moon was like a toenail clipping in the sky.

The silence in the room was as loud as thunder.
His eyes were like two fried eggs.
The car was as green as a cucumber.

The wind was as soft as a whisper.
She danced like a tree swaying in the breeze.
The water in the river was like liquid diamonds.

His laughter was like a chainsaw in the forest.
The snow was like a million tiny stars falling from the sky.
The clouds were like cotton candy floating in the sky.

Shakespearean Similes

“Plentiful as blackberries” can be found in Shakespeare’s play, “Henry IV,” Act II, Scene 3.
“Thick as hail” can be found in Shakespeare’s play, “Macbeth,” Act I, Scene 3.
“My affection has no bottom, like the Bay of Portugal” can be found in Shakespeare’s play, “The Tempest,” Act I, Scene 2.

“My age is as a lusty winter, frosty but kind” can be found in Shakespeare’s play, “As You Like It,” Act II, Scene 7.
“Flock together in consent, like so many wild geese” can be found in Shakespeare’s play, “The First Part of Henry VI,” Act V, Scene 2.
“Walk alone like one that had the pestilence” can be found in Shakespeare’s play, “Coriolanus,” Act IV, Scene 1.

“Mad as a buck” can be found in Shakespeare’s play, “The Two Gentlemen of Verona,” Act III, Scene 1.
“Black as hell” can be found in Shakespeare’s play, “King Lear,” Act II, Scene 3.
“Life is tedious as a twice-told tale” can be found in Shakespeare’s play, “King John,” Act III, Scene 4.

“As sure as day” can be found in Shakespeare’s play, “Richard II,” Act II, Scene 1.

Literary Examples of Similes

“My heart is like a singing bird / Whose nest is in a water’d shoot” – from “A Birthday” by Christina Rossetti

Explanation: This simile compares the speaker’s heart to a singing bird that has made its home in a nourishing environment. It suggests that the speaker’s heart is full of joy and vitality, just like a bird that sings happily in its nest.

“Life is like a box of chocolates, / You never know what you’re gonna get” – from “Forrest Gump” by Winston Groom

Explanation: This simile, made famous by the movie Forrest Gump, compares life to a box of chocolates. It suggests that life is unpredictable and full of surprises, just like a box of assorted chocolates where each one has a different filling.

“My love is like a red, red rose / That’s newly sprung in June” – from “A Red, Red Rose” by Robert Burns

Explanation: This simile compares the speaker’s love to a freshly bloomed red rose in the month of June. It suggests that the love is vibrant, passionate, and full of life, just like the beauty of a newly opened rose.

Aye, there have been generations of Sir Johns among you, and if knighthood were hereditary, like a baronetcy, as it practically was in old times, when men were knighted from father to son, you would be Sir John now. From Tess of d’Urberville by Thomas Hardy

Explanation: This simile compares the hereditary nature of a baronetcy to the hypothetical situation in which knighthood could also be passed down from father to son. The comparison highlights the difference between the two forms of titles and suggests that if knighthood were hereditary like a baronetcy, then the person being addressed would have inherited the title of Sir John from their ancestors.

How to Create Similes

Be specific: Instead of using generic comparisons like “like a rock,” try to come up with similes that are specific and unique to the situation or character you are describing. For example, “her eyes were like two black holes sucking me in” creates a more vivid and unusual image than “her eyes were like coal.”
Use sensory details: Including sensory details like sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell in your similes can help make them more engaging and memorable. For example, “the silence was like a cold hand gripping my throat” uses both touch and sound to create a powerful image.
Think outside the box: Don’t be afraid to be creative and unconventional with your similes. Combining two unlikely things can create an unusual and memorable comparison. For example, “her laughter was like a swarm of butterflies taking flight” combines the sound of laughter with the visual image of butterflies to create a unique simile.

Draw on personal experience: Personal experiences and memories can provide inspiration for similes that are unique to you. Think about how you would describe a feeling or experience to someone else and try to capture that in a simile. For example, “the weight of her grief was like a boulder on my chest” draws on a personal experience of feeling overwhelmed by emotions.
Edit and revise: Like any other form of writing, creating good similes takes practice and revision. Experiment with different combinations of words and images until you find a simile that feels fresh and effective.

Benefits of Using Similes

Enhancing understanding: Similes can help to clarify abstract or complex ideas by comparing them to something more familiar. This can help readers or listeners to better understand and relate to the concept being discussed.

Creating vivid imagery: Similes can create vivid images in the reader’s or listener’s mind, making the description or narrative more engaging and memorable.
Evoking emotions: Similes can be used to convey emotions and feelings more effectively than simple descriptions. By comparing emotions to something else, similes can create a more powerful and evocative image that helps to convey the intended emotion.
Adding interest: Similes can make writing or speech more interesting and engaging. By using creative and unexpected comparisons, similes can capture the reader’s or listener’s attention and keep them interested in the topic being discussed.

Highlighting similarities and differences: Similes can be used to highlight similarities and differences between two things, allowing for deeper analysis and understanding of the topic being discussed.

Similes in Literary Theory

Similes in Postmodernism: play a significant role in postmodern literature because they can be used to create fragmented and self-reflexive effects that challenge traditional literary conventions. Postmodernism is characterized by a rejection of grand narratives and an emphasis on the multiplicity of meanings and the instability of language. Similes can help to create these effects in several ways:
Disrupting Meaning: Similes can be used to disrupt the meaning of a text by introducing unexpected or contradictory comparisons. This can create a sense of uncertainty and ambiguity that challenges the reader’s assumptions and expectations.

Irony: Similes can be used to create ironic effects by comparing two things that are seemingly unrelated. This can create a sense of absurdity or humor that undermines traditional literary conventions.
Self-Reflexivity: Similes can be used to draw attention to the artifice of the text and the act of reading. By comparing the text to something else, similes can highlight the constructed nature of language and meaning, and encourage the reader to question their assumptions about the text.
Fragmentation: Similes can be used to create a sense of fragmentation and disunity by introducing multiple, conflicting comparisons. This can create a sense of disorientation that challenges the reader’s understanding of the text and the world it represents.

Role of Similes in Structuralism and Poststructuralism: In structuralism and poststructuralism, similes play a role in helping to deconstruct the underlying assumptions and structures that shape our understanding of the world. Similes are often used to draw comparisons between seemingly unrelated things, revealing hidden connections and relationships that challenge our traditional ways of thinking. In structuralism, similes can be used to analyse the underlying structures that shape our understanding of language and culture. For example, a simile might be used to compare the structure of a sentence to the structure of a musical composition, revealing how both are composed of smaller elements that combine to create a larger whole. This can help to reveal the underlying rules and conventions that govern language and culture. In poststructuralism, similes are often used to disrupt and subvert these underlying structures, challenging our traditional ways of thinking and understanding. For example, a simile might be used to compare a text to a machine or a system, revealing how the text is composed of smaller elements that are connected in complex and often unpredictable ways. This can help to reveal the ways in which language and culture are inherently unstable and subject to constant change and reinterpretation.

Assonance

Etymology and Meanings of Assonance

The word “assonance” comes from the Latin word “assonare,” which means “to sound to.” The term was first used in English in the 19th century to describe this poetic technique. Assonance is often used in poetry and song lyrics to create a sense of unity and harmony in the text. The repeated vowel sounds can help to establish a particular mood or tone, and can also make the text more memorable and easier to remember.

The literal meanings of assonance are related to its Latin roots. “Assonance” is derived from the Latin verb “assonare,” which means “to sound to” or “to resound.” The prefix “ad-” means “to” or “toward,” and “sonare” means “to make a sound” or “to sound.” So, literally, “assonance” means “sounding to” or “sounding toward,” which captures the essence of this literary device as the repetition of vowel sounds that create a musical or rhythmic effect in a text.

Assonance in Grammar

In grammatical terms, “assonance” is indeed a singular noun, but it can take on a plural form depending on the context in which it is used. When referring to multiple instances of assonance in a text, the word can be used in the plural form as “assonances.” For example, “The poet used various assonances throughout the poem.” In this case, “assonances” refers to the different examples of the literary device used in the poem. However, when referring to a single instance or the concept of assonance in general, the word is used in its singular form. For example, “The assonance in this line creates a musical effect.”

Definition of Assonance

Assonance is a literary device that involves the repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words or syllables in a text. The repeated vowel sounds can create a musical or rhythmic effect and make the text more memorable. Assonance is often used in poetry and song lyrics to enhance the overall sound and impact of the work.

Types of Assonance

There are different types of assonance that can be used in literature and poetry:

Internal Assonance: This type of assonance involves the repetition of vowel sounds within a single word or phrase. For example, “the light of the fire” uses internal assonance with the repetition of the long “i” sound.

End Rhyme Assonance: This type of assonance involves the repetition of vowel sounds at the end of words. For example, “lake” and “fade” in the phrase “take the cake and let it fade” use end rhyme assonance with the repetition of the long “a” sound.
Initial Assonance: This type of assonance involves the repetition of vowel sounds at the beginning of words. For example, “aunt Annie ate apples all afternoon” uses initial assonance with the repetition of the short “a” sound.
Diphthong Assonance: This type of assonance involves the repetition of diphthongs, which are two vowel sounds pronounced together in a single syllable. For example, “oil boils in soil” uses diphthong assonance with the repetition of the “oi” sound.

Consonant Assonance: This type of assonance involves the repetition of consonant sounds in nearby words or syllables. For example, “mad hatter” uses consonant assonance with the repetition of the “d” and “t” sounds.

Common Examples of Assonances

Assonance is a literary device that is often used in poetry and literature, but it can also be found in everyday language. Here are some common everyday examples of assonance:

“A stitch in time saves nine” – The repetition of the “i” sound in “stitch,” “time,” and “nine” creates an assonant effect.

“The cat sat on the mat” – The repetition of the “a” sound in “cat” and “mat” creates an assonant effect.
“The rain in Spain stays mainly in the plain” – The repetition of the long “a” sound in “rain,” “Spain,” and “mainly” creates an assonant effect.
“I feel real ill” – The repetition of the “ee” sound in “feel” and “real” creates an assonant effect.

“The light of the fire is bright” – The repetition of the long “i” sound in “light” and “fire” creates an assonant effect.

Shakespearean Assonances

William Shakespeare, one of the greatest playwrights in English literature, made extensive use of assonance in his works to create musical and rhythmic effects. Here are some examples of Shakespearean assonances:

“When I do count the clock that tells the time” (Sonnet 12) – The repetition of the “o” sound in “do,” “count,” “clock,” and “told” creates an assonant effect.

“Double, double, toil and trouble; Fire burn and cauldron bubble” (Macbeth) – The repetition of the “o” and “u” sounds in “double,” “trouble,” “burn,” and “bubble” creates an assonant effect.
“I know a bank whereon the wild thyme blows” (A Midsummer Night’s Dream) – The repetition of the “o” sound in “know,” “bank,” “blows,” and “thyme” creates an assonant effect.
“All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players” (As You Like It) – The repetition of the short “a” sound in “world,” “stage,” “men,” and “players” creates an assonant effect.

“To be, or not to be: that is the question” (Hamlet) – The repetition of the short “o” sound in “to,” “or,” “not,” and “question” creates an assonant effect.

Examples of Assonances from Literature

From “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe

“Once upon a midnight dreary,

while I pondered, weak and weary,

Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore…”

In this extract from “The Raven,” the repetition of the long “e” sound in “dreary,” “weak,” and “weary” creates an assonant effect, emphasizing the speaker’s state of exhaustion and despair.

From “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost

“Two roads diverged in a wood, and I—

I took the one less traveled by,

And that has made all the difference.”

In this extract from “The Road Not Taken,” the repetition of the long “o” sound in “road,” “diverged,” and “by” creates an assonant effect, emphasizing the speaker’s decision to take the less-traveled path.

From “Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe

“It was many and many a year ago,

In a kingdom by the sea,

That a maiden there lived whom you may know

By the name of Annabel Lee…”

In this extract from “Annabel Lee,” the repetition of the long “e” sound in “many,” “sea,” “lee,” and “be” creates an assonant effect, emphasizing the musicality and rhythm of the poem.

From “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost

“The woods are lovely, dark and deep,

But I have promises to keep,

And miles to go before I sleep,

And miles to go before I sleep.”

In this extract from “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening,” the repetition of the long “o” sound in “promises,” “go,” and “before” creates an assonant effect, emphasizing the speaker’s sense of duty and responsibility.

How to Create Assonances

Brainstorm a list of words that have the same or similar vowel sounds as “heading.” Some examples include “spreading,” “wedding,” “shedding,” “dreading,” “setting,” “bedding,” “letting,” and “getting.”

Choose a few of these words that work well with the context or tone of your writing.
Use these words in your writing to create assonances with “heading.” For example, you could write:
The wedding was heading towards disaster.

The dread of what was ahead was spreading through the room.
The setting sun was casting a golden glow over the heading ship.
The shedding of leaves marked the approaching winter.

By repeating the vowel sounds in “heading” with other words, you can create a musical effect that adds interest and depth to your writing.

Benefits of Using Assonances

Assonances can provide several benefits when used effectively in writing or speech, including:

Adding musicality and rhythm to language: Assonances can create a musical effect when repeated vowel sounds are used, making the language more memorable and pleasant to listen to.

Creating a cohesive and unified text: By repeating sounds throughout a text, assonances can create a sense of unity and coherence, making the text more cohesive and easier to understand.
Enhancing the emotional impact: Assonances can evoke emotions and create a particular mood, depending on the words used and the context of the text.
Increasing the memorability of the text: By using assonances, a writer or speaker can create a memorable text that is more likely to stick in the reader’s or listener’s mind.

Improving the flow of the text: Assonances can help to link ideas and phrases together, creating a smoother flow and improving the overall readability of the text.

Literary Device of Assonance in Literary Theory

Assonance is a literary device that is frequently used in poetry and prose to create a musical effect by repeating vowel sounds within words or across multiple words. This technique is often used to add depth and texture to the language and to create a particular mood or tone.

In literary theories, assonance is often discussed in the context of sound symbolism, where certain sounds are thought to have innate emotional or symbolic associations. This can make assonance a powerful tool for writers who wish to evoke certain emotions or ideas in their readers. Additionally, assonance can be used to create a sense of unity and coherence within a text, linking different ideas or phrases together and creating a more memorable and impactful piece of writing. Overall, assonance is a versatile and effective literary device that is widely used in literature and is a key component of many writers’ toolkits.

Antithesis

Etymology of Antithesis

The word “antithesis” comes from the Greek word “antithesis” (αντίθεσις), which is a combination of two words: “anti” (αντί) meaning “against” or “opposite”, and “thesis” (θέσις) meaning “position” or “statement”. Thus, the literal meaning of antithesis in Greek is “opposition” or “contradiction of position”.

The term was later adopted into Latin as “antithesis”, which has the same meaning as the Greek word. In rhetoric and literary analysis, the term “antithesis” refers to the use of contrasting or opposite ideas or phrases in close proximity to one another for effect or emphasis. It is a technique that has been used in literature, speeches, and other forms of communication throughout history to create a powerful and memorable effect on the listener or reader.

Meanings of Antithesis

The literal meanings of the word, antithesis, refer to a contrast or opposition between two things, often used to create a powerful effect in writing or speech. In rhetorical and literary analysis, antithesis refers to the use of contrasting ideas, words, or phrases in close proximity to one another, creating a deliberate contrast or tension between them. This technique has been used throughout history to create emphasis, to highlight differences, or to provoke thought and reflection.

Antithesis in Grammar

Grammatically, antithesis is a noun with plural form “antitheses” which takes a plural verb. For example: “The antitheses of love and hate are often explored in literature.”

Definition of Antithesis as Literary Device

Antithesis is a literary device that involves the use of contrasting concepts, words, or sentences within parallel grammatical structures. The purpose of antithesis is to create a contrast between two ideas, emphasize their differences, and create a memorable and impactful statement. It is a common rhetorical device used in literature, poetry, and speeches.

Types of Antitheses

There are several types of antitheses, each of which is used to contrast different ideas or concepts. Here are some of the common types of antitheses:

Direct antithesis: This is the most common type of antithesis, which involves the use of contrasting words or phrases in a parallel grammatical structure. For example, “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times.”
Antithesis through negation: This type of antithesis involves the use of contrasting words or phrases through negation, such as “Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.”
Antithesis through chiasmus: This type of antithesis involves the use of a reversed parallelism, such as “Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country.”

Antithesis through juxtaposition: This type of antithesis involves the use of contrasting ideas or images placed side by side, such as “It was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness.”
Antithesis through oxymoron: This type of antithesis involves the use of two contradictory words or ideas within a single phrase, such as “sweet sorrow” or “living death.”
Antithesis through metaphor: This type of antithesis involves the use of two opposing metaphors to create contrast, such as “She is a rose, but with thorns.”

Antithesis through allusion: This type of antithesis involves the use of a reference to another literary or historical work or event to create contrast, such as “The world is too much with us; late and soon, getting and spending, we lay waste our powers.”
Antithesis through repetition: This type of antithesis involves the use of repeating words or phrases to create contrast, such as “To err is human, to forgive divine.”
Antithesis through paradox: This type of antithesis involves the use of a seemingly contradictory statement to create contrast, such as “Less is more.”

Common Examples of Antithesis

Here are some common examples of antithesis in literature and speeches:

“To be or not to be, that is the question” – William Shakespeare, Hamlet
“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times” – Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities

“Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing” – Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
“That’s one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind” – Neil Armstrong
“Give every man thy ear, but few thy voice” – William Shakespeare, Hamlet

“We must learn to live together as brothers or perish together as fools” – Martin Luther King Jr.

Shakespearean Antithesis

Here are some examples of Shakespearean antithesis:

“Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more” – Julius Caesar

“To be, or not to be, that is the question” – Hamlet
“Fair is foul and foul is fair” – Macbeth
“Parting is such sweet sorrow” – Romeo and Juliet

“All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players” – As You Like It

Literary Examples of Antithesis

Here are a few examples of antithesis in literature with an explanation of their context:

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times” – Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities

This line from A Tale of Two Cities contrasts two opposing ideas: the best of times and the worst of times. The novel is set against the backdrop of the French Revolution, a time of great upheaval and chaos. The antithesis in this sentence emphasizes the stark contrast between the two extremes and highlights the uncertainty and unpredictability of the time.

“It was beauty killed the beast” – Merian C. Cooper, King Kong

In the 1933 film King Kong, this line is spoken by the character Carl Denham after the titular character falls to his death from the top of the Empire State Building. The antithesis in this line contrasts the beauty of Ann Darrow, King Kong’s love interest, with the violence and destruction he causes in his pursuit of her. The line suggests that it is not Kong’s violence that led to his demise, but rather his love for Ann, which ultimately proved fatal.

“Better to reign in Hell than serve in Heaven” – John Milton, Paradise Lost

This line is spoken by Satan in Milton’s epic poem Paradise Lost. The antithesis in this line contrasts the concepts of reigning in Hell and serving in Heaven, emphasizing the pride and rebellion of Satan’s character. The line also suggests that Satan would rather choose his own path, even if it leads to Hell, than submit to a higher power.

How to Create Antithesis

Here are a few steps you can follow to create antithesis:

Identify the key elements to be contrasted: To create an antithesis, you need to identify the key elements that you want to contrast. This could be ideas, words, phrases, or even entire sentences.
Choose contrasting words or phrases: Once you have identified the key elements to be contrasted, choose words or phrases that have opposite meanings or connotations. For example, “love” and “hate”, “light” and “darkness”, “good” and “evil”, etc.
Use parallel structure: To create a strong and effective antithesis, use parallel structure. This means that the two contrasting elements should be structured in a similar way, using the same grammatical structure, word order, or sentence pattern.

Play with sound and rhythm: Another way to create an effective antithesis is to play with the sound and rhythm of the contrasting words or phrases. For example, you could use alliteration, where the initial sounds of the words are the same (e.g. “sweet sorrow”), or use a rhythmic pattern to emphasize the contrast.
Consider the context and purpose: Finally, when creating an antithesis, it is important to consider the context and purpose. The contrast should be relevant and meaningful to the topic or theme, and should serve a purpose, such as to create emphasis, to highlight differences, or to provoke thought and reflection.

Remember, antithesis is a powerful tool, but it should be used judiciously. Too much contrast can be overwhelming or confusing for readers, so it’s important to use it sparingly and in service of the overall message of your work

Benefits of Using Antithesis

There are several benefits to using antithesis in your writing:

Creates Contrast: Antithesis creates a clear contrast between two ideas, which can help to clarify your point and emphasize the importance of the ideas you are presenting.
Adds Emphasis: By highlighting opposing ideas, antithesis can add emphasis and power to your writing, making it more memorable and persuasive.

Improves Clarity: Antithesis can help to clarify complex ideas by breaking them down into simpler, contrasting concepts. This can make your writing more accessible and easier to understand.
Adds Variety: Antithesis can add variety and interest to your writing, helping to engage readers and keep them interested in what you have to say.
Demonstrates Skill: Using antithesis effectively demonstrates your skill as a writer, showing that you are able to use rhetorical devices to enhance your writing and communicate your ideas more effectively.

Literary Device of Antithesis in Literary Theory

In literary theory, the device of antithesis has been studied and analyzed in different ways, depending on the approach and framework of the theory. Here are some examples:

Formalism: Formalist literary theory focuses on the formal elements of literature, such as structure, style, and language. Formalists analyze the use of antithesis as a way to create tension and balance in a literary work. They examine how antithesis can be used to create parallelism, repetition, and contrast in a work, and how it can contribute to the overall effect of the work.
Structuralism: Structuralist literary theory emphasizes the role of language and structure in shaping meaning. Structuralists analyze the use of antithesis as a way to create binary oppositions that structure meaning in a work. They examine how antithesis can be used to create a hierarchy of meaning in a work, and how it can contribute to the overall structure and coherence of the work.

Post-Structuralism: Post-structuralist literary theory challenges the idea that meaning is stable and fixed, and instead emphasizes the fluidity and multiplicity of meaning. Post-structuralists analyze the use of antithesis as a way to create ambiguity and indeterminacy in a work. They examine how antithesis can be used to deconstruct binary oppositions and challenge traditional concepts of meaning and identity.
Reader-Response Criticism: Reader-response literary theory focuses on the role of the reader in shaping meaning in a literary work. Reader-response critics analyze the use of antithesis as a way to engage the reader and create a dialogic relationship between the reader and the text. They examine how antithesis can be used to create multiple meanings and interpretations, and how it can contribute to the overall impact of the work on the reader.

Suggested Readings

Cuddon, John Anthony. A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. John Wiley & Sons, 2012.

Krašovec, Jože. “Introduction: The Definition of Antithesis in Literature and its Place in the Hebrew Bible.” Antithetic Structure in Biblical Hebrew Poetry. Brill, 1984. 1-18. Ruzibaeva, Nigora. “Peculiarities Of The Antithesis In The Literary Text.” European Journal of Research and Reflection in Educational Sciences Vol 7.11 (2019).

Cliché

Etymology and Meanings of Cliché

The word “cliché” originally comes from the French language, where it means “stereotype” or “printing plate.” It has been likely derived from the sound made by a printing plate when it is pressed onto paper.

The term was first used in English in the mid-19th century, and initially referred to a stereotype or electrotype printing plate used to produce multiple copies of the same image or text.

Over time, “cliché” came to be used metaphorically to refer to any overused or unoriginal phrase or idea. Today, the term is commonly used to describe a trite or predictable phrase or expression that lacks originality or creativity.

Meanings of Cliche

The literal meaning of “cliché” is “printing plate” or “stereotype” in French. In the context of printing, a cliché is a plate made from a mold, used to reproduce an image or text multiple times. The term “stereotype” is related, as it originally referred to a metal printing plate that had been cast from a mold, and could be used to print the same text over and over again without any variations.
The metaphorical meaning of “cliché” refers to a phrase, expression, or idea that has become so overused that it has lost its original impact or meaning. This usage likely originated from the idea that a printing plate or stereotype would be used so frequently that it would wear down or become dull, producing inferior copies of the original. The metaphorical use of “cliché” implies that the idea or expression in question is no longer fresh or original, but has become tired and unoriginal due to repeated use

Cliché in Grammar

Grammatically, “cliche” is a singular noun, and its plural form is “cliches”. The verb that agrees with “cliche” depends on the context of the sentence. For example:

“The cliche is overused.” (singular subject, singular verb)
“The cliches are overused.” (plural subject, plural verb)

In both cases, the verb agrees with the subject of the sentence, whether it is singular or plural.

Definition of Literary Device of Cliché

A literary device, a cliché is an overused expression or idea that has become so common it has lost its impact or originality. It is a phrase, concept or idea that has been used so frequently that it has become predictable or trite. Clichés are often avoided in literature, as they can detract from the originality and effectiveness of a writer’s work.

Types of Clichés

There are several types of clichés, including:

Language clichés: These are phrases or expressions that have become overused in a particular language or culture, such as “time heals all wounds,” “actions speak louder than words,” or “you only live once.”

Character clichés: These are stereotypes of characters that are used repeatedly in literature or film, such as the “damsel in distress,” the “wise old mentor,” or the “villain with a British accent.”
Plot clichés: These are predictable or formulaic storylines that are used repeatedly in literature or film, such as the “underdog overcoming the odds,” the “quest for a magical object,” or the “love triangle.”
Genre clichés: These are overused themes or elements that are associated with a particular genre of literature or film, such as the “haunted house” in horror, the “unlikely romance” in romantic comedies, or the “chosen one” in fantasy.

Setting clichés: These are common or overused settings in literature or film, such as the “small town with a dark secret,” the “dystopian society,” or the “magical realm.”
Dialogue clichés: These are common or overused lines of dialogue in literature or film, such as “we’re not so different, you and I,” “it’s not what it looks like,” or “we have to work together to stop them.”
Visual clichés: These are overused visual elements in film or television, such as the “slow-motion action scene,” the “zoom-in on a character’s face for dramatic effect,” or the “explosion in the background as the hero walks away.”

Sound clichés: These are overused sound effects or musical cues in film or television, such as the “record scratch to indicate a sudden change in mood,” the “dramatic sting to underscore a shocking reveal,” or the “heroic fanfare to accompany the protagonist’s triumph.”
Characterization clichés: These are overused character traits or descriptions that are used to quickly establish a character, such as the “stoic, brooding hero,” the “perky, bubbly best friend,” or the “cold, calculating villain.”
Plot device clichés: These are overused plot devices or twists that have become predictable or formulaic, such as the “dream sequence,” the “fake-out death,” or the “surprise twin sibling.”

Narrative clichés: These are overused narrative techniques or structures that have become predictable or formulaic, such as the “flashback,” the “frame story,” or the “unreliable narrator.”
Marketing clichés: These are overused marketing slogans or strategies that have become trite or ineffective, such as “new and improved,” “limited time offer,” or “act now before it’s too late.”

Common Examples of Cliché

Here are some common examples of clichés:

“Time heals all wounds”
“Every cloud has a silver lining”
“Actions speak louder than words”

“You can’t judge a book by its cover”
“The grass is always greener on the other side”
“Love conquers all”

“All’s fair in love and war”
“Better late than never”
“When life gives you lemons, make lemonade”

“Don’t count your chickens before they hatch”
“There’s no place like home”
“Rome wasn’t built in a day”

“Easy come, easy go”
“The early bird catches the worm”
“You reap what you sow”

“Behind every great man is a great woman”
“Life is a journey, not a destination”
“Ignorance is bliss”

“Laughter is the best medicine”
“Money can’t buy happiness”

Shakespearean Cliché

There are several phrases and expressions that Shakespeare used in his plays that have become clichés over time. Here are a few examples:

“To be or not to be, that is the question” (Hamlet)
“All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players” (As You Like It)
“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet” (Romeo and Juliet)

“Brevity is the soul of wit” (Hamlet)
“What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet” (Romeo and Juliet)
“The course of true love never did run smooth” (A Midsummer Night’s Dream)

“Fair is foul, and foul is fair” (Macbeth)
“Out, damned spot! Out, I say!” (Macbeth)
“Parting is such sweet sorrow” (Romeo and Juliet)

“The lady doth protest too much, methinks” (Hamlet)

Examples of Cliché from Literature

To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee

Extract: “You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view … until you climb into his skin and walk around in it.”

Explanation: This quote from “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee is spoken by the character Atticus Finch, and is often cited as a poignant statement about the importance of empathy and understanding others’ perspectives. It reminds us that we can never truly know someone else’s experience until we take the time to listen and try to see things from their point of view.

From 1984 by George Orwell

Extract: “Freedom is the freedom to say that two plus two make four. If that is granted, all else follows.”

Explanation: This quote from “1984” by George Orwell is a statement about the importance of freedom of thought and expression. It suggests that if we are not even allowed to express basic mathematical truths, then we are truly living in a world without freedom. It highlights the idea that a society cannot truly be free if its citizens are not allowed to think or express themselves freely.

From Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen

Extract: “It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.”

Explanation: This quote from “Pride and Prejudice” by Jane Austen is the famous opening line of the novel. It is often cited as an example of Austen’s wit and social commentary. The quote pokes fun at the societal norms of the time, where marriage was often seen as a way for women to secure financial stability and for men to gain social status. It sets the tone for the novel and establishes the theme of marriage and social class that runs throughout the story.

From The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald

Extract: “So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.”

Explanation: This quote from “The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald is the final sentence of the novel. It is often cited as a commentary on the human condition and the idea that we are always striving for something just out of reach. The metaphor of boats against the current suggests that we are constantly struggling against the forces of the past and our own limitations. The use of the word “ceaselessly” emphasizes the idea that this struggle is endless and never truly resolved.

From The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger

Extract: “Don’t ever tell anybody anything. If you do, you start missing everybody.”

Explanation: This quote from “The Catcher in the Rye” by J.D. Salinger is spoken by the protagonist Holden Caulfield. It reflects his disillusionment with the world and his fear of intimacy and connection with others. The quote suggests that by sharing ourselves with others, we become vulnerable to their judgment and rejection, which can lead to feelings of loneliness and disconnection. It is a poignant reminder of the importance of human connection and the risks and rewards that come with vulnerability.

Writing and Using a Cliché

While it’s generally best to avoid using clichés in your writing, sometimes they can be an effective way to convey a familiar idea or concept quickly and efficiently. If you do decide to use clichés in your writing, here are some steps to keep in mind:

Choose clichés that are relevant to your audience: Before you start writing, think about the audience you are writing for and what clichés might resonate with them. For example, if you’re writing a marketing email targeting millennials, you might use clichés like “out of the box” or “game changer.”
Use clichés sparingly: While clichés can be effective in certain situations, using them too often can make your writing sound trite and unoriginal. Try to limit your use of clichés and only use them when they add value to your writing.
Use clichés in a creative way: One way to make clichés feel fresh and interesting is to use them in unexpected ways. For example, instead of using the cliché “time is money” in a straightforward way, you could write “Time is the currency of life, and spending it wisely is the key to success.”

Modify clichés to make them your own: Another way to make clichés feel more original is to modify them in some way. For example, instead of using the cliché “diamond in the rough,” you could write “gemstone in the gravel.”
Use clichés with intention: When using clichés in your writing, be intentional about what you are trying to communicate. Ask yourself why you are using a particular cliché and what message you are trying to convey to your audience.

Benefits of Using Cliché

While it’s generally recommended to avoid clichés in your writing, there are some potential benefits to using them in certain situations. Here are a few examples:

Familiarity: Clichés are often familiar to readers, which can make them easy to understand and relate to. In some cases, using a cliché can help to establish a common ground between the writer and the reader, making it easier for the reader to engage with the text.
Economy of language: Clichés are often short and to the point, which can make them a useful tool for writers who want to convey a message quickly and efficiently. By using a familiar phrase or expression, writers can save time and space that might otherwise be used to explain a concept in more detail.
Tone: In some cases, using a cliché can help to establish a particular tone or mood in the writing. For example, using a clichéd phrase like “once upon a time” can help to create a sense of nostalgia or fantasy in the reader’s mind.

Satire and parody: Clichés are often used in satire and parody to poke fun at the conventions and expectations of a particular genre or style of writing. In these cases, the use of cliché can be deliberate and strategic, and can help to highlight the absurdity or predictability of a particular situation.

However, it’s important to note that these benefits are often outweighed by the negative effects of using clichés in your writing. Clichés can make your writing seem unoriginal, predictable, and lacking in creativity. It’s generally recommended to use fresh, original language and imagery to engage your readers and make your writing stand out.

Literary Device of Cliché in Literary Theory

The literary device of cliché is viewed differently in different literary theories. Here are a few examples:

Formalism: In the formalist approach to literature, clichés are often seen as a negative element of writing. Formalists believe that literature should be evaluated on its own merits, without regard for outside factors like historical context or authorial intention. Because clichés are seen as overused and lacking in originality, they are generally viewed as a flaw in the writing.
Structuralism: In the structuralist approach to literature, clichés are often seen as an example of the cultural codes and conventions that shape our understanding of the world. Structuralists believe that language and culture are interconnected, and that certain phrases and expressions become clichéd because they are deeply ingrained in our cultural consciousness. Therefore, clichés can be seen as a way of revealing the underlying structures and codes that govern our understanding of the world.
Postmodernism: In the postmodern approach to literature, clichés are often seen as a tool for subverting or deconstructing traditional literary forms and conventions. Postmodernists believe that there is no objective reality or universal truth, and that all meaning is constructed through language and cultural codes. By using clichés in unexpected or unconventional ways, postmodern writers can challenge and disrupt our assumptions about language and meaning.

Feminist theory: In feminist literary theory, clichés are often seen as a way of reinforcing gender stereotypes and perpetuating patriarchal values. Feminist critics argue that many clichés are rooted in sexist or misogynistic attitudes, and that they contribute to a culture that devalues women’s experiences and perspectives. Therefore, feminist writers often seek to subvert or challenge clichés in their writing, in order to create more nuanced and authentic representations of gender and identity.

Ad Hominem

Introduction

Ad hominem is not a literary device. It is a type of logical fallacy used mostly in debates, discussions, and arguments. It is important to be aware of this fallacy so that you can recognize when others use it and avoid making the same mistake yourself.

Etymology and Meanings of Logical Fallacy of Ad Hominem

Etymology of Ad Hominem:

The term “ad hominem” comes from the Latin phrase “argumentum ad hominem,” meaning “argument against the person.” It first appeared in the 16th century in philosophical and legal contexts and later became popular in the 18th century as a rhetorical term. Nowadays, the term refers to any attack against the person making an argument, rather than the argument itself. It often occurs in political and social discourse to discredit an opponent’s argument without addressing its substance.

Meanings:

Ad hominem is a logical fallacy in which an argument attacks the character or personal traits of an opponent instead of addressing the substance of their argument. Ad hominem attacks can take various forms such as;

Personal insults
Accusations of bias
Questioning an opponent’s motives.

Definition of Logical Fallacy of Ad Hominem

Ad Hominem is a literary device that involves attacking an opponent’s character or personal traits instead of addressing the substance of their argument. It is a logical fallacy that aims to undermine the credibility of the person making the argument rather than addressing the issue at hand. Its use occurs in political and social discourse, where opponents use personal attacks to discredit their opponents without engaging with the substance of their argument.

Types of Logical Fallacy of Ad Hominem

There are several types of ad hominem arguments used in political and social discourse:

Abusive ad hominem: This is the most common type of ad hominem. It involves using personal insults and name-calling to attack an opponent’s character rather than addressing their argument.

Circumstantial ad hominem: This type of ad hominem involves attacking an opponent’s motives or personal circumstances rather than addressing the substance of their argument. For example, accusing someone of being biased because of their personal interests or affiliations.
Tu quoque ad hominem: This type of ad hominem involves accusing an opponent of hypocrisy or inconsistency rather than addressing the substance of their argument. For example, accusing someone of being a hypocrite for advocating for a certain policy while not following it themselves.
Guilt by association ad hominem: This type of ad hominem involves attacking an opponent based on their affiliation with a certain group or individual, rather than addressing the substance of their argument. For example, accusing someone of being radical because they associate with a certain group.

Common Examples of Logical Fallacy of Ad Hominem

Personal insults: This is the most common form of ad hominem, where an individual attacks the character or personal traits of their opponent, instead of addressing the substance of their argument. For example, calling someone stupid or ignorant to discredit their argument.
Accusations of bias: This is a circumstantial ad hominem, where a person attacks his/her opponent’s motives or personal circumstances to discredit his/her argument. For example, accusing someone of being biased because of their political affiliation.
Questioning an opponent’s credibility: This is another form of circumstantial ad hominem, where a person attacks his/her opponent’s credibility to discredit his/her argument. For example, questioning the credentials of a scientist who presents evidence that contradicts your argument.

Attacking an opponent’s personal life: This is another form of abusive ad hominem, where an individual attacks his/her opponent’s personal life to discredit his/her argument. For example, bringing up an opponent’s marital problems or criminal history to discredit his/her argument is a case in point.

Literary Examples of Logical Fallacy of Ad Hominem

To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee

The character, Bob Ewell, uses an ad hominem attack to discredit Atticus Finch, the lawyer, involved in defending Tom Robinson, an African American accused of rape. Bob Ewell accuses Atticus of being a “nigger-lover” and suggests that he is not fit to defend a white man in court. This attack aims at Atticus’ character rather than his argument. Therefore, it means to discredit him in the eyes of the jury.

Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare

In this play, Brutus uses ad hominem attacks to turn the Roman people against Julius Caesar. He suggests that Caesar is a tyrant who is only interested in his own power and that he is not fit to rule Rome. These attacks aim at discrediting Caesar’s character rather than his policies or actions. Therefore, they meantto convince the people that he must be overthrown.

The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer

In this collection of tales, the character of the Pardoner uses ad hominem attacks to discredit the other pilgrims. He accuses them of being sinful and hypocritical and suggests that they are not worthy of respect or admiration. These attacks aim to discredit the other characters’ character rather than their stories or arguments. Therefore, they mean to elevate the Pardoner’s own status as a moral authority.

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain

In this novel, the character of Pap uses ad hominem attacks to discredit Huck’s decision to go to school and learn to read. He suggests that education is not worth pursuing and that Huck is not smart enough to succeed in school. These attacks aim to discredit Huck’s character and abilities rather than his arguments or choices. Therefore, they mean to keep him under Pap’s control.

The Tragedy of Macbeth by William Shakespeare

In this play, Lady Macbeth uses ad hominem attacks to convince Macbeth to kill King Duncan. She suggests that he is not manly enough to take action and that he will be seen as weak if he does not act. These attacks aim to discredit Macbeth’s character rather than his reasoning or morals. Therefore, they mean to persuade him to take the violent action she desires.

“1964 Republican National Convention Speech” by Barry Goldwater

“I would remind you that extremism in the defense of liberty is no vice. And let me remind you also that moderation in the pursuit of justice is no virtue… And let me further remind you that, unlike Senator Goldwater, Lyndon Johnson has never had the satisfaction of winning a war.”

In this quote, Goldwater attacks Johnson’s character by suggesting that he has never won a war and therefore is not fit to lead the country.

How to Remove Logical Fallacy of Ad Hominem From Your Writing

Removing ad hominems from writing is an important step in creating a more effective and persuasive argument. Here are some steps you can take to remove ad hominems from your writing:

Identify ad hominems in your writing: Look for any personal attacks, insults, or derogatory language directed at the person making the argument rather than the argument itself.
Evaluate the relevance of the ad hominems: Determine whether the personal attacks are relevant to the argument. If they are not, remove them from your writing.
Reframe the argument: Instead of attacking the person making the argument, focus on the substance of the argument itself. Use logic, evidence, and facts to support your position.

Avoid emotional language: Emotions can run high when discussing important topics, but it is essential to keep a level head and avoid using emotional language. Stick to the facts and avoid using language perceived as hostile or inflammatory.
Stay on topic: It is important to stay on topic and not get sidetracked by personal attacks or irrelevant information. Focus on the central argument and address it respectfully and constructively.

Harms of Using Logical Fallacy of Ad Hominem

Discredit Your Position: Using ad hominem attacks in a debate or discussion undermines the credibility of the argument and the person making the attack.

Cause Conflict: Using ad hominem attacks can also lead to a breakdown in communication and cause unnecessary conflict and hostility.
Create Confusion: When people engage in personal attacks, they often become defensive, and the conversation becomes less about finding a solution or common ground and more about winning an argument.

Literary Device of Ad Hominem in Literary Theory

Reader Response Theory: Reader response theory suggests that a reader’s personal experiences and biases influence their interpretation of a text. In this sense, a reader who engages in ad hominem attacks on an author or character may be allowing their personal biases to cloud their interpretation of the text.

Psychoanalytic Theory: Psychoanalytic theory suggests that unconscious desires and conflicts influence our behavior and perceptions. In this sense, a character who engages in ad hominem attacks may be doing so because of their own unconscious motivations and desires.
Feminist Theory: Feminist theory examines the role of gender in literature and society. In this sense, ad hominem attacks on a female author or character may be considered a manifestation of sexist attitudes and biases.
Postcolonial Theory: Postcolonial theory examines the cultural, social, and political implications of colonialism and imperialism. In this sense, ad hominem attacks on an author or character from a particular cultural or ethnic group may be considered a manifestation of cultural imperialism or colonialism.

“The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin

Kate Chopin’s short story “The Story of an Hour” first appeared in 1894 in Vogue magazine. At the time of its publication, the story caused furor due to its depiction of a woman’s desire for independence and freedom from traditional gender roles. The story’s popularity grew over time, becoming a classic of American literature. It has found widely anthologized and studied in literature classes. Various stage productions, films, and operas have adapted the story. Its enduring appeal lies in its exploration of themes such as female identity, marriage, and freedom, as well as Chopin’s masterful use of narrative techniques such as irony and foreshadowing.

Main Events in “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin

Introduction: The story begins with the news of Mr. Mallard’s death delivered to Mrs. Mallard through her sister and her husband’s friend, Richards.
Louise’s reaction: Initially, Louise reacts to the news with tears and sorrow. However, as time passes, she begins to feel a sense of freedom and relief from her husband’s

The discovery: As Louise contemplates about her newfound freedom, she discovers that she actually enjoys the idea of living for herself and not for her husband.
The realization: Louise comes to the realization that she can live her life as she pleases and be free from her husband’s control. At this, she feels a sense of liberation and joy.
The return: Just as Louise is basking in her newfound freedom, her husband returns home alive and well. He was having been nowhere near the scene of the accident that supposedly claimed his life.

The tragic end: The shock of seeing her husband alive causes Louise to have a heart attack and die. The doctors claim that she died of “joy that kills.”

Literary Devices in “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin

Allusion: The reference to the “joy that kills” alludes to the biblical story of Adam and Eve, who were expelled from the Garden of Eden after eating from the tree of knowledge.
Diction: Chopin uses carefully chosen words and phrases to convey the emotions and thoughts of the characters. For example, Louise’s heart is described as “trouble[d]” and “beating fast.”

Foreshadowing: The story foreshadows Louise’s death when it mentions her heart’s condition, which makes her fragile and vulnerable.
Hyperbole: When Louise feels the sense of freedom, she imagines a “monstrous joy” and a “possession” that is so strong it could “overpower her.”
Imagery: The story uses vivid and descriptive language to create images in the reader’s mind, such as the “blue sky” and the “delicious breath of rain.”

Irony: The story’s ending is ironic because Louise dies just as she is about to start a new life, free from her husband’s control.
Metaphor: The story uses the metaphor of an open window to represent Louise’s new opportunities and freedoms.
Personification: The story personifies nature, as when the “trees were all aquiver with the new spring life” and the “delicious breath of rain” is described as “pattering” on the roof.

Repetition: The story repeats the phrase “Free! Body and soul free!” to emphasize the intensity of Louise’s newfound freedom.
Simile: The story uses similes to describe Louise’s feelings, such as “she carried herself unwittingly like a goddess of Victory.”
Symbolism: The open window symbolizes the freedom that Louise desires, while the closed door represents the oppressive forces that she seeks to escape.

Tone: The tone of the story shifts from sadness and grief to excitement and joy, and then back to tragedy and sorrow.
Verbal irony: The characters say things that are the opposite of what they mean, such as when Josephine says she is afraid Louise will “make herself ill” and Louise’s husband’s friend Richards urges her to “let us all be happy.”
Situational irony: The situation of Louise’s husband being alive instead of dead is ironic, as it reverses her feelings of freedom and happiness.

Foil: The character of Louise’s sister, Josephine, serves as a foil to Louise, as she is more conventional and less interested in breaking free from societal expectations.

Characterization in “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin

Louise Mallard: She is the protagonist of the story and the wife of Brently Mallard. She is a complex character who experiences conflicting emotions about her husband’s death. Initially portrayed as grieving and fragile due to her heart condition, she experiences a newfound sense of freedom and joy following the supposed death of her husband. Kate Chopin has shown her independent, yet constrained by societal norms.
Brently Mallard: He is Louise’s husband and a minor character in the story. He is believed to have died in a train accident, which triggers Louise’s emotional response.

Josephine: She is Louise’s sister and a minor character. She is the one who breaks the news of Brently’s death to Louise, and tries to comfort her sister. She seems more conventional and traditional than Louise.
Richards: He is a friend of Brently and a minor character. He accompanies Josephine when she breaks the news of Brently’s death to Louise.

Characterization: The author uses various techniques to develop her characters in the story. For instance, she shows Louise’s character through her inner thoughts and feelings, which reveal her conflicted emotions and desire for freedom. Brently appears through Louise’s perspective, and his personality does not emerge directly to the readers. Josephine and Richards are minor characters and are not given as much attention, but they serve as a contrast to Louise’s character, emphasizing her individuality and desire for independence. Overall, the characters in “The Story of an Hour” have been showing exploring themes such as female identity, freedom, and oppression.

Writing Style in “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin

Kate Chopin’s writing style in “The Story of an Hour” demonstrates features of concise and emotive language that creates a sense of immediacy and intensity. The author uses vivid imagery, sensory detail, and figurative language, such as metaphors and similes, to convey the characters’ emotions and experiences. The story is in third-person omniscient point of view, which allows the reader to gain insight into the thoughts and feelings of the characters. Additionally, the use of irony creates tension and surprise, making the story’s conclusion even more impactful. Overall, Chopin’s writing style effectively conveys complex emotions and themes in a concise and powerful manner.

Major Themes in “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin

Female identity: The story highlights the limited roles and expectations of women in the late 19th century, when they used to find themselves confined to domestic duties and subservient to their husbands. The protagonist, Louise, struggles with her own identity and desires, which conflict with societal norms and expectations.
Freedom and oppression: The story portrays the idea of freedom as a fundamental human need and the oppression resulting from societal expectations and norms. After learning of her husband’s death, Louise experiences a newfound sense of freedom and joy, which is subsequently crushed when Brently returns alive, emphasizing the oppression that women faced in society.

Death and mortality: The story explores the themes of death and mortality, as well as the different ways people deal with grief and loss. Louise’s reaction to her husband’s death is complex and contradictory, revealing the complexity of human emotions in the face of death.
Self-discovery: Through Louise’s experience, the story explores the idea of self-discovery and the potential for personal growth and transformation. Louise’s realization of her own desires and potential for independence represents a form of self-discovery that challenges societal norms and expectations.

Literary Theories and Interpretation of “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin

Feminist Theory: This theory emphasizes the role of women in society and how their experiences are portrayed in literature. In “The Story of an Hour,” Kate Chopin portrays the oppression of women in the 19th century. Mrs. Mallard, the protagonist, is confined to her home and marriage, and her husband’s death brings her a sense of freedom. This liberation is short-lived, however, as she discovers that her husband is alive and realizes that she must return to her life of oppression.

Example: “She breathed a quick prayer that life might be long. It was only yesterday she had thought with a shudder that life might be long.”

Psychoanalytic Theory: This theory focuses on the unconscious mind and the psychological motivations of the characters. In “The Story of an Hour,” the protagonist’s repressed desires and emotions are brought to the surface after her husband’s death. Mrs. Mallard’s feelings of joy and liberation are unexpected, and they suggest that she has been repressing her true emotions for some time.

Example: “She was beginning to recognize this thing that was approaching to possess her, and she was striving to beat it back with her will–as powerless as her two white slender hands would have been.”

Reader-Response Theory: This theory emphasizes the reader’s interpretation of the text and how it relates to their own experiences. In “The Story of an Hour,” readers may have different reactions to Mrs. Mallard’s feelings of liberation and her subsequent disappointment. Some readers may identify with her desire for freedom, while others may sympathize with her return to oppression.

Example: “When the doctors came they said she had died of heart disease–of joy that kills.”

Marxist Theory: This theory emphasizes the role of economic and social class in literature. In “The Story of an Hour,” Mrs. Mallard is depicted as a middle-class woman who is confined to her home and marriage. Her sense of liberation is therefore tied to her social and economic status.

Example: “There would be no powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence with which men and women believe they have a right to impose a private will upon a fellow-creature.”

Formalist Theory: This theory emphasizes the structure, form, and language of the text. In “The Story of an Hour,” the plot revolves around a single event and its aftermath. Chopin’s use of short sentences and repetition creates a sense of tension and urgency.

Example: “She said it over and over under her breath: ‘free, free, free!’“

Postcolonial Theory: This theory emphasizes the impact of colonialism on literature and how it shapes cultural identity. In “The Story of an Hour,” the protagonist’s experiences reflect the patriarchal and colonial attitudes of her time. Chopin’s portrayal of Mrs. Mallard’s desire for liberation can be seen as a critique of the dominant cultural norms of her time.

Example: “There would be no one to live for during those coming years; she would live for herself.”

Essay Questions and Their Thesis Statements about “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin

How does Chopin use symbolism in “The Story of an Hour” to convey the themes of confinement and freedom?

Thesis statement: Through the use of symbols such as the armchair, open window, and springtime imagery, Chopin underscores the themes of confinement and freedom, highlighting how Mrs. Mallard’s realization of her own identity is a complex and nuanced process.

What is the role of Mrs. Mallard’s sister, Josephine, in “The Story of an Hour”?

Thesis statement: Josephine serves as a foil to Mrs. Mallard’s desires for independence and freedom, highlighting the societal expectations and norms that women were expected to conform to during the late 19th century.

How does Chopin use foreshadowing in “The Story of an Hour” to create suspense and tension?

Thesis statement: Chopin employs foreshadowing techniques throughout the story to create suspense and tension, ultimately building to the shocking revelation of Brently’s arrival home alive and well.

What is the significance of the title “The Story of an Hour” in Chopin’s work?

Thesis statement: The title “The Story of an Hour” reflects the brevity of Mrs. Mallard’s emotional journey, highlighting how a single hour can be transformative and ultimately tragic.

How does Chopin use first-person point of view in “The Story of an Hour” to create a sense of intimacy with the reader?

Thesis statement: Through the use of first-person point of view, Chopin invites the reader to intimately experience Mrs. Mallard’s emotional journey, allowing for a deeper understanding of the complex themes at play.

What is the commentary on marriage and relationships in “The Story of an Hour”?

Thesis statement: Chopin’s commentary on marriage and relationships in “The Story of an Hour” emphasizes the restrictive nature of traditional gender roles and societal expectations, highlighting the need for women to have agency and autonomy in their own lives.

Short Questions and Answers About “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin

What is the significance of the open window in “The Story of an Hour”?

The open window in “The Story of an Hour” serves as a symbol of freedom and opportunity for Mrs. Mallard. It provides her with a glimpse of the outside world and allows her to experience the beauty of nature. The open window also contrasts with the confined and oppressive environment of Mrs. Mallard’s home, emphasizing the restricted nature of her life as a married woman. Also, it foreshadows Mrs. Mallard’s tragic demise, as it ultimately becomes the means by which she escapes her oppressive marriage.

What is the role of irony in “The Story of an Hour”?

Irony is used extensively in “The Story of an Hour” to convey the repressive nature of marriage in the late 19th century. For example, Mrs. Mallard’s initial reaction to her husband’s death is one of grief and sadness, but this quickly gives way to a sense of liberation and joy as she realizes that she is now free from her husband’s control. However, this newfound freedom is short-lived, as her husband’s unexpected return ultimately leads to her tragic demise. Through the use of irony, Chopin underscores the oppressive nature of marriage and highlights the need for women to have agency and autonomy in their own lives.

How does “The Story of an Hour” challenge traditional gender roles?

“The Story of an Hour” challenges traditional gender roles by depicting Mrs. Mallard as a complex and nuanced character with her own desires and aspirations. Rather than conforming to the limited role of a dutiful wife, Mrs. Mallard’s emotional journey highlights the need for women to have agency and autonomy in their own lives. The story also challenges the idea of women as passive and submissive, as Mrs. Mallard actively seeks to assert her own identity and desires. Ultimately, “The Story of an Hour” highlights the importance of women’s liberation and the need for society to recognize and respect women’s individuality and agency.

What is the significance of Mrs. Mallard’s death at the end of “The Story of an Hour”?

Mrs. Mallard’s death at the end of “The Story of an Hour” is significant in several ways. First, it highlights the tragic consequences of denying women agency and autonomy in their own lives. Mrs. Mallard’s death is ultimately attributed to the “joy that kills,” underscoring the suffocating and oppressive nature of traditional gender roles. Second, Mrs. Mallard’s death serves as a critique of societal expectations of women during the late 19th century. Also, Mrs. Mallard’s death emphasizes the complexity and nuance of her emotional journey, illustrating how her initial sense of liberation and joy gives way to a tragic demise.