Category: Literary Theory

Fantasy Literature: Term, Origin and Concept

Term: Fantasy literature is a genre of fiction that creates imaginative and often magical worlds. This realm of storytelling typically includes fantastical elements such as mythical creatures, supernatural abilities, and invented settings that defy the laws of our reality.

Origin and Concept

• Rooted in Folklore and Mythology: The essence of fantasy literature stems from ancient folklore, myths, and legends passed down across cultures. Think of tales filled with dragons, fairies, gods, and heroes.
• Medieval Romances: Medieval works like the tales of King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table, with their chivalric quests and magical elements, established a foundation for the rich tradition of fantasy.
• 19th-Century Romanticism and Gothic Literature: This period brought on a sense of wonder and the exploration of the uncanny and supernatural, further shaping the themes that define fantasy.
• The Birth of Modern Fantasy: Authors like George MacDonald, Lord Dunsany, and later J.R.R. Tolkien and C.S. Lewis created iconic fantasy worlds, solidifying the conventions of the genre.
• Ongoing Evolution: Today, fantasy continues to branch out into various subgenres, exploring diverse magical systems, social themes, and complex characters.

Features of Fantasy Literature

• Magic and the Supernatural: Fantasy worlds often incorporate magic as a fundamental element. This could include spells, potions, magical artifacts, or supernatural beings with extraordinary abilities.
  • Example: The wizarding world of Harry Potter, with its wands, charms, and magical creatures.
• Mythical Creatures: Fantastical beasts are a staple of the genre. They range from dragons and unicorns to goblins, trolls, and creatures entirely dreamed up by the author.
  • Example: Smaug the dragon in Tolkien’s The Hobbit.
• Invented Worlds (World-Building): Fantasy often takes place in detailed, imaginary worlds with their own unique histories, geographies, societies, and even laws of physics.
  • Example: The elaborate world of Middle-earth in Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings
• Quests, Journeys, and Prophecies: Heroes in fantasy stories frequently embark on quests, whether driven by a prophecy, destiny, or a desire to overcome evil.
  • Example: Frodo’s perilous journey to destroy the One Ring in The Lord of the Rings.
• Good vs. Evil: The conflict between good and evil is a recurring theme, often on a grand scale with the fate of the world hanging in the balance.
  • Example: The battle against Lord Voldemort in the Harry Potter series.
• Themes of Growth and Self-Discovery: Fantasy heroes often experience tremendous personal growth and discover hidden strengths as they face challenges.
  • Example: The coming-of-age journeys of characters like Harry Potter or Percy Jackson.

Critical Approaches to Study Fantasy Literature

Examples of Fantasy Literature

• The Lord of the Rings (J.R.R. Tolkien): This monumental work established many conventions of high fantasy: an epic struggle between good and evil, richly detailed invented languages, and a sweeping sense of history within its meticulously crafted world, Middle-earth.
• The Chronicles of Narnia (C.S. Lewis): A classic series seamlessly blending Christian themes with timeless fantasy figures and magical adventures. Narnia invites readers to explore concepts of courage, faith, and the enduring battle between light and darkness.
• The Harry Potter Series (J.K. Rowling): A contemporary cornerstone of the genre, this series reawakened global interest in fantasy. Its accessible setting of a magical world intertwined with the familiar and emphasis on school life, friendships, and overcoming dark forces captivated a vast audience.
• A Song of Ice and Fire (George R.R. Martin): This series is noted for its subversion of traditional fantasy tropes. By focusing on political maneuvering, stark violence, and blurring the lines between heroes and villains, it popularized the ‘grimdark’ subgenre.
• The Earthsea Cycle (Ursula K. Le Guin): Le Guin’s seminal work presents a unique approach to magic rooted in the balance of nature and the concept of true names. Her focus on social and philosophical issues, alongside rich characters and vivid world-building, elevated the literary quality of the fantasy genre.

Keywords in Fantasy Literature

Fantasy Literature: Suggested Readings Books

• Chokshi, Roshani. Aru Shah and the End of Time. Rick Riordan Presents, 2018.
• Gaiman, Neil. Neverwhere. William Morrow and Company, 1996.
• Le Guin, Ursula K. A Wizard of Earthsea. Parnassus Press, 1968.
• Martin, George R.R. A Game of Thrones. Bantam Books, 1996.
• Rowling, J.K. Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone. Scholastic, 1998.
• Tolkien, J.R.R. The Lord of the Rings. Houghton Mifflin, 1954-1955.

Anthologies

• Datlow, Ellen, and Terri Windling, editors. The Year’s Best Fantasy and Horror. St. Martin’s Press (Published annually). Note: The most effective way to locate a desired edition is through an online search or via a bookstore’s website.
• Jones, Diana Wynne, and Peter S. Beagle, editors. The Oxford Book of Fantasy Stories. Oxford University Press, 1994.

Articles

• Clute, John, and John Grant, editors. “Fantasy.” The Encyclopedia of Fantasy. Orbit, 1999. [Available online: https://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/fantasy]
• Mendlesohn, Farah. “Towards a Taxonomy of Fantasy.” Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts, vol. 13, no. 2 (50), 2002, pp. 118-132. Note: Likely requires access through a university library or a research database (e.g., JSTOR, Project MUSE).
• Spivak, Emily. “World-Building in Fantasy Fiction.” Children’s Literature in Education, vol. 14, no. 2, 1983, pp. 85-96. Note: Likely requires access through a university library or a research database.

Diaspora Theory: Term and Concept

Diaspora Theory

Diaspora theory is a field of study that examines the dispersal of people from their original homeland, the formation of communities in new locations, and the continued connections and influence these communities maintain with their homeland. It is often used to analyze experiences of displacement, whether forced or voluntary, and explore the ways in which communities maintain a sense of identity and cultural heritage even when separated by geography.

• Hybrid Identities: Diasporic communities often develop unique cultural identities that blend elements of their homeland, their host country, and their own evolving experiences.
• Continued Connection to Homeland: Diasporas frequently maintain strong emotional, cultural, and sometimes even political ties to their homeland, even across generations.
• Nostalgia and Idealization: A sense of nostalgia for the homeland is common, often involving an idealized view of the past.
• The Role of Technology: Modern technology plays a crucial role in maintaining connections between diasporas and their homeland, facilitating communication and cultural exchange.
• Transnationalism: Diasporas often operate across national borders, creating transnational networks and influencing politics, economies, and cultural flows.

Diaspora Theory: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists

• Stuart Hall: A foundational figure in cultural studies, Hall emphasized the complex and fluid nature of diasporic identities. He rejected essentialist notions of culture and argued that identity is continuously shaped by experiences of displacement and hybridity. His essay “Cultural Identity and Diaspora” (1990) is considered a seminal work.
• William Safran: His article “Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return” (1991) outlined criteria for defining diaspora, such as dispersal, a shared homeland myth, and continued alienation within a host country.
• Paul Gilroy: Gilroy’s “The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness” (1993) explores the African diaspora through a lens of cultural exchange and hybridity. He challenges the concept of fixed national identities and highlights routes rather than roots in understanding identity formation.
• James Clifford: Clifford’s work, including “Diasporas” (1994), emphasizes the de-territorialized nature of modern diasporic experiences. He highlights the diverse forms that diasporas take and challenges traditional notions of cultural authenticity.
• Avtar Brah: Brah’s “Cartographies of Diaspora” (1996) explores the intersection of gender, class, and diaspora. She critiques earlier work for overlooking women’s experiences and emphasizes the multiple axes of identity formation within diasporic communities.

Key Arguments

• Identity as Process: Diaspora theorists emphasize that identity is not static but continually being constructed and negotiated through experiences of migration and cultural exchange.
• Challenge to National Narratives: The existence of diasporas undermines the idea of homogenous, bounded nations. Diasporic identities reveal the fluidity of borders and challenge narratives of national belonging.
• Cultural Hybridity: Diasporic cultures are characterized by hybridization – the blending of elements from the homeland and the host country, creating new and unique cultural forms.
• The Politics of Belonging: Diasporas experience tensions of belonging between their homeland, host country, and sometimes within the diaspora itself. This leads to ongoing negotiations of identity and political affiliation.
• Memory and Nostalgia: Memory of the lost homeland plays a powerful role within diasporas. This often involves an idealized version of the past, which influences cultural production and sense of identity.

Diaspora Theory: Key Principals

• Displacement and Dispersal: The defining feature of a diaspora is involuntary or voluntary scattering from an original homeland. This displacement can be due to historical factors like war, famine, slavery, or economic necessity.
  • Literary Example: The Reluctant Fundamentalist by Mohsin Hamid explores the experiences of a Pakistani man who immigrates to the US, achieving success, and then facing a crisis of identity after 9/11.
• Homeland as Myth and Memory: The concept of the homeland takes on a powerful symbolic meaning for diasporas. It becomes a site of nostalgia, often idealized, and serves as a reference point for identity.
  • Literary Example: The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao by Junot Díaz frequently references the Dominican Republic, the homeland the family fled due to political oppression.
• Hybrid Identities: Diasporic identities are complex and fluid, shaped by the homeland culture, the host country, and the unique experiences of the diaspora. This leads to a blending of cultural elements and a sense of existing across multiple worlds.
  • Literary Example: Bend It Like Beckham (film) depicts a British-Indian girl navigating expectations of her traditional family while pursuing her passion for football (soccer).
• Transnationalism: Diasporas create networks that span national borders. They maintain cultural, economic, and sometimes political ties with their homeland, influencing flows of people, ideas, and resources.
  • Literary Example: The Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan explores the interconnected lives of Chinese immigrant mothers and their American-born daughters, highlighting the ongoing ties across the Pacific.
• Challenging National Narratives: Diasporas disrupt the idea of homogenous nations. Their presence complicates narratives of belonging and forces a rethinking of what it means to belong to a nation.
  • Literary Example: No-No Boy by John Okada focuses on a Japanese American man released from an internment camp after World War II, struggling to find acceptance in a country that questioned his loyalty.

Additional Considerations

• Diverse Experiences: Diasporas are not monolithic. Experiences vary based on reasons for dispersal, socioeconomic status, generational differences, and the reception in the host country.
• Intersections with Other Lenses: Diaspora theory is often used in conjunction with critical frameworks like postcolonialism, feminism, and race studies, offering a nuanced understanding of identity.

Diaspora Theory: How to Use in Literary Critiques

Diaspora theory offers a valuable lens for analyzing works that touch upon themes of displacement, identity, and the connections between homeland and host countries. Here are key ways to use it:

• Analyzing Hybrid Identities: Explore how characters from diasporic communities navigate complex and evolving identities. What influences (cultural heritage, experiences in the host country, etc.) shape their sense of self? How do they negotiate belonging?
• Examining Nostalgia and the Homeland: Consider how the homeland is represented in the work. Is it a source of longing or a site of idealized memory? How does this image of the homeland affect characters and their actions?
• Exploring Cultural Transformations: Investigate how aspects of the homeland’s culture are adapted, transformed, or preserved within the diaspora. Look for examples of hybridization (language, music, traditions) and how these adaptations create unique forms of expression.
• Connections and Tensions: Analyze the relationships between diasporic communities and their homeland, and between generations born in the diaspora. Are there tensions over authenticity or conflicting visions of the future?
• Intersections with Other Identities: Diaspora theory often works well when combined with other critical lenses. Consider how gender, race, class, and sexuality intersect with diasporic experiences in the text.

Examples: Applying Diaspora Theory

1. The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy: Roy’s novel explores the legacy of colonialism and the complexities of a postcolonial Indian diaspora. Diasporic characters navigate identities shaped by Indian heritage and experiences in England. A diaspora theory lens could analyze issues of cultural hybridity, the weight of family expectations, and ongoing connections with India.
2. Exit West by Mohsin Hamid: This contemporary novel follows a couple fleeing an unnamed war-torn country on a fantastical journey to new destinations. A diasporic reading could focus on the challenges of forging an identity when displacement is constant and the idea of “homeland” may be lost.
3. The Namesake by Jhumpa Lahiri: Lahiri’s novel is a multi-generational saga of a Bengali family in the US. A diasporic critique could examine the clash of cultures between immigrant parents and their American-born children, negotiations of identity, and the changing relationship to the image of India across generations.
4. Americanah by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie: This powerful novel explores race, love, and the experience of a Nigerian woman who emigrates to the US and later returns to Nigeria. A diaspora theory lens could delve into themes of cultural alienation and re-entry shock, contrasts between the idealized homeland and contemporary realities, and reflections on belonging.

Diaspora Theory: Criticism Against It

• Overemphasis on Homeland: Some critics argue that diaspora theory can overemphasize the connection to the homeland, neglecting the transformative experiences within the host country that are central to new identity formation.
• Essentialism Risk: While diaspora theory emphasizes hybridity, there’s a risk of essentializing diasporic identities. This can lead to overlooking the internal diversity within diasporas and differences based on class, gender, generation, etc.
• Exclusivity: The focus on a specific homeland can create a sense of exclusivity, overlooking the experiences of those with multiple origins or whose displacement doesn’t neatly fit into a homeland-diaspora model.
• Romanticizing Exile: Diaspora theory can sometimes be accused of romanticizing displacement or creating a hierarchy of authenticity, where those living in the homeland are seen as more “authentic” than those in the diaspora.
• Neglecting Power Structures: Early diaspora theory has been criticized for not fully considering the power dynamics between host countries and diasporic communities. Analyses primarily focused on cultural formations may underplay issues of assimilation pressure, discrimination, and economic inequality faced by diasporic communities.

Contemporary Evolution

It’s important to note that diaspora theory is a continually evolving field of study. Many contemporary theorists acknowledge these criticisms and work to address them. Some key areas of focus include:

• Expanding Definitions: Broadening definitions of diaspora to include those with multiple points of origin or whose experiences don’t align with a traditional homeland model.
• Internal Dynamics: Paying greater attention to the internal diversity and hierarchies within diasporas.
• Power and Resistance: Incorporating analyses of power structures, economic inequality, and strategies of resistance employed by diasporic communities.

Diaspora Theory: Key Terms

Diaspora Theory: Suggested Readings

Primary Sources:

• Brah, Avtar. Cartographies of Diaspora: Contesting Identities. Routledge, 1996.
• Clifford, James. “Diasporas.” Cultural Anthropology, vol. 9, no. 3, 1994, pp. 302-338. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org.
• Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Harvard University Press, 1993.
• Hall, Stuart. “Cultural Identity and Diaspora.” Identity: Community, Culture, Difference, edited by Jonathan Rutherford, Lawrence & Wishart, 1990, pp. 222-237.
• Safran, William. “Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return.” Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, vol. 1, no. 1, 1991, pp. 83-99. Project MUSE, https://muse.jhu.edu.

Anthologies & Edited Collections

• Braziel, Jana Evans, and Anita Mannur, editors. Theorizing Diaspora. Blackwell, 2003.
• Cohen, Robin. Global Diasporas: An Introduction. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2008.
• Tölölyan, Khachig, and Bedross Der Matossian, editors. Diaspora, Identity and Religion: New Directions in Theory and Research. Routledge, 2006.

Introduction: Chicano Literature

Chicano literature emerges from the experiences of Mexican Americans who identify with the social and cultural aims of the Chicano Movement. It is characterized by themes of bicultural identity, social justice, the reclamation of indigenous history and mythology, and a focus on the experiences within borderland communities. This literature often exhibits linguistic hybridity, seamlessly blending Spanish, English, and Spanglish, alongside experimental mixing of literary genres. Chicano literature aims to assert a distinct cultural identity and serves as a powerful tool for activism and social commentary.

Origin of Chicano Literature

• Sociopolitical Context: Chicano literature emerged from the social and political ferment of the Chicano Movement (1960s-70s), a period of activism focused on the rights and cultural self-determination of Mexican Americans.
• Rejection of Cultural Erasure: These writers challenged the expectation of full assimilation into mainstream American society. They asserted a distinct Chicano identity, informed by both Mexican heritage and the unique experiences of living in the United States.
• Reclamation of History: Chicano literature embraces pre-Columbian indigenous roots, particularly Aztec mythology and culture, establishing a link to the deep history of the Americas and countering narratives of displacement.
• Focus on Social Justice: Key themes include experiences of discrimination, economic inequality, labor struggles, and the pursuit of social and political justice. These works often serve as tools of social commentary and activism.
• Linguistic Innovation: Chicano writers frequently incorporate bilingualism (Spanish and English) and code-switching, mirroring the linguistic realities of many Chicano communities and creating a literary style that reflects a bicultural identity.

Major Features of Chicano Literature

• Focus on Chicano Identity: This goes beyond simple exploration of heritage and into the complexities of a hybrid existence.
  • Authors confront feelings of being neither fully Mexican nor fully American, grappling with questions of where they belong.
  • Works often challenge stereotypes and expectations placed upon them by both cultures.
  • Additional Examples: “The House on Mango Street” by Sandra Cisneros, “Pocho” by José Antonio Villarreal
• Social Justice Themes: Chicano literature frequently functions as a tool of protest and activism.
  • Writers highlight the lived experiences of oppression, giving voice to those marginalized by mainstream American society.
  • Works advocate for labor rights, expose instances of discrimination, and criticize systems of power that perpetuate inequality.
  • Additional Examples: “Zoot Suit” (play) by Luis Valdez, “Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories” by Sandra Cisneros
• Linguistic Innovation: The use of language becomes a means of both artistic expression and cultural assertion.
  • Code-switching isn’t just realistic; it reflects the way many Chicanos live and think, moving fluidly between languages.
  • Spanglish is celebrated as a legitimate form of communication, not a sign of linguistic deficiency.
  • Additional Examples: Poetry of Lorna Dee Cervantes, “Rain of Gold” by Victor Villaseñor
• Reclamation of Indigenous Roots: Chicano literature delves into a history that predates the formation of the United States and Mexico.
  • Incorporation of Aztec myths and figures like Quetzalcoatl establish a connection to a lineage deliberately obscured by dominant historical narratives.
  • Use of Nahuatl words and concepts challenges the sole dominance of European linguistic and cultural influence.
  • Additional Examples: “Always Running” by Luis J. Rodriguez, the poetry of Alurista
• Borderlands as Setting: The U.S.-Mexico border isn’t simply a geographical location; it’s a space of unique cultural blending and tension.
  • Authors examine the constant negotiation of identity experienced by those living in this liminal space.
  • Borders can be physical, cultural, and linguistic, and works explore the challenges and richness created by this environment.
  • Additional Examples: Works by Guillermo Gómez-Peña, “The Devil’s Highway” by Luis Alberto Urrea

Major Writers/Poets in Chicano Literature

Absolutely! Here’s a more expanded and revised look at the major figures in Chicano literature, including their notable works and the central themes they address.

Rudolfo Anaya

• Notable Works:
  • Bless Me, Ultima (novel): Considered the foundational text of Chicano literature, it chronicles the coming-of-age of Antonio, a young boy in New Mexico torn between his parent’s differing cultural heritages and mentored by a curandera (healer) named Ultima.
  • Heart of Aztlán (novel): Explores the conflicts between Chicano activists and the Anglo establishment over land rights and cultural identity in New Mexico.
  • Tortuga (novel): Focuses on the experiences of a young boy hospitalized after a horrific accident, weaving together themes of resilience and the power of storytelling.
• Themes:
  • The complexities of bicultural identity and navigating a hybrid existence.
  • Profound influence of indigenous myth, spirituality, and a connection to the land.
  • Preservation of cultural traditions and the power they hold in shaping identity.
  • Coming-of-age narratives that highlight challenges, choices, and self-discovery.

Sandra Cisneros

• Notable Works:
  • The House on Mango Street (novel): A series of vignettes depicting the life of Esperanza Cordero, a young Chicana girl coming of age in a poor Chicago neighborhood, offering a nuanced and often poetic portrayal of her experiences.
  • Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories (short story collection): A blend of realism and lyrical prose, centering on the lives of Chicanas confronting issues of gender, societal expectations, poverty, and cultural identity.
  • Caramelo (novel): A multi-generational family saga exploring themes of family, history, and navigating the spaces between Mexico and the United States.
• Themes:
  • Exploration of female experience within Chicano culture, highlighting challenges of gender, identity, and finding one’s voice.
  • Power of storytelling and the importance of self-expression for Chicanas.
  • Life on the socioeconomic margins and the challenges of escaping poverty.
  • Complexity of identity within Mexican-American families and generational shifts.

Gloria Anzaldúa

• Notable Works:
  • Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (non-fiction, poetry, prose): A groundbreaking work that blends genres and languages, deconstructing the idea of fixed borders (geographic, cultural, gender).
  • This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color (co-edited anthology): A collection amplifying the voices of women of color, confronting issues of intersectionality within feminism and the broader political landscape.
• Themes:
  • The fluidity of identity and rejection of rigid categories, particularly those concerning nationality, race, sexuality, and gender.
  • Empowerment found in the borderlands – spaces where cultures and identities overlap and create new possibilities for self-definition.
  • Embracing a mestiza consciousness and challenging dominant cultural narratives.
  • Feminist and queer perspectives integral to the Chicano/a experience.

Luis Valdez

• Notable Works:
  • Zoot Suit (play): Based on the infamous Sleepy Lagoon trial and Zoot Suit Riots of 1940s Los Angeles. It depicts the injustices faced by Pachucos (Mexican American youth).
  • Actos (short plays): Created with his theater troupe El Teatro Campesino, these short plays brought social issues to the forefront, often used as tools for activism and community empowerment.
  • La Bamba (film): Retelling the life of rock and roll pioneer Ritchie Valens, this movie brought Chicano history and culture into the cinematic mainstream.
• Themes:
  • Confronting and dramatizing historical injustices and discrimination faced by Chicanos.
  • Reclaiming and celebrating Pachuco culture and resistance to societal oppression.
  • Empowerment through theater, using art as a vehicle for social change, particularly focused on the farmworker experience.

Tomás Rivera

• Notable Works:
  • …y no se lo tragó la tierra / And the Earth Did Not Devour Him (novel and short stories): Offers a series of glimpses into the lives of migrant farmworkers, capturing their struggles, resilience, and the strength of community.
• Themes:
  • Hardships of migrant farmworker life and the cyclical nature of poverty and exploitation.
  • Importance of storytelling and preserving a collective memory.
  • Search for faith and meaning in the face of injustice.

Examples of Chicano Literature

Novels

• Bless Me, Ultima by Rudolfo Anaya: This seminal novel serves as a touchstone for Chicano literature. It delves into themes of bicultural identity formation, the intersection of spiritual traditions, and the importance of preserving cultural heritage through storytelling.
• …y no se lo tragó la tierra / And the Earth Did Not Devour Him by Tomás Rivera: A poignant and evocative work comprised of vignettes and interconnected stories detailing the experiences of migrant farmworkers. It captures the cycle of hardship and exploitation, while emphasizing community resilience and the power of memory.
• The House on Mango Street by Sandra Cisneros: A coming-of-age narrative told through lyrical prose, portraying the life of Esperanza Cordero. Cisneros offers a nuanced and often poetic exploration of Chicana girlhood and navigating life within a marginalized Chicago neighborhood.
• Pocho by José Antonio Villarreal: One of the first and most important Chicano novels, exploring themes of identity, conflicting family expectations, and navigating the complexities of Mexican-American life during the 1930s and 1940s.

Poetry

• “I Am Joaquin” by Rodolfo “Corky” Gonzales: This epic poem became an anthem for the Chicano Movement. It passionately celebrates cultural heritage, draws attention to historic injustices, and calls for social action and self-determination.
• The poetry of Alurista: Alurista’s work exemplifies linguistic innovation and political activism within Chicano poetry. Through a powerful blend of Spanish, English, and indigenous imagery, he challenges dominant narratives and celebrates Chicano identity and resilience.
• The poetry of Lorna Dee Cervantes: Explores the female experience within Chicano culture with unflinching honesty. Her work examines themes of gender, identity, sexuality, socioeconomic realities, and the search for an independent voice.

Plays

• Zoot Suit by Luis Valdez: This groundbreaking play dramatizes the 1940s Sleepy Lagoon trial and Zoot Suit Riots. It highlights institutional racism, the resilience of Pachuco culture, and the search for identity by the Mexican American youth in Los Angeles.
• Actos by Luis Valdez for El Teatro Campesino: Valdez’s short plays were created in collaboration with his iconic theater troupe. Actos often served as tools for education and social activism, directly addressing the lived experiences of agricultural workers and Chicanos navigating oppression.

Note: This selection represents a limited, yet critical, sampling of Chicano literature’s vastness. Numerous other authors, poets, and playwrights have made vital contributions and continue to shape this dynamic literary landscape.

Keywords in Chicano Literature

Suggested Readings in Chicano Literature

• Anaya, Rudolfo. Bless Me, Ultima. Grand Central Publishing, 1994.
• Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza. 4th ed., Aunt Lute Books, 2012.
• Cisneros, Sandra. The House on Mango Street. Vintage Books, 1991.
• Cisneros, Sandra. Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories. Vintage Books, 1992.
• Gonzales, Rodolfo “Corky.” I Am Joaquin. Arte Publico Press, 1995.
• Rivera, Tomás. …y no se lo tragó la tierra / And the Earth Did Not Devour Him. Arte Publico Press, 1992.
• Valdez, Luis. Zoot Suit and Other Plays. Arte Publico Press, 1992.
• Villarreal, José Antonio. Pocho. Anchor Books, 1989.

Anthologies

• Herrera, Juan Felipe, Margarita Luna Robles, and Malinda Mayer, editors. Infinite Divisions: An Anthology of Chicana Literature. Arte Público Press, 2006.
• Lomelí, Francisco A., and Carl R. Shirley, editors. Chicano Literature: A Reader’s Encyclopedia. Garland Publishing, 1988.
• Moraga, Cherríe, and Ana Castillo, editors. This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color. 4th ed., SUNY Press, 2015.
• Ortego, Philip D., editor. We Are Chicanos: An Anthology of Mexican-American Literature. Pocket Books, 1973.
• Saldivar-Hull, Sonia, editor. Feminism on the Border: Chicana Gender Politics and Literature. University of California Press, 2000.

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Term and Concept

Term

The term “Islam and Early Modern English Literature” refers to an interdisciplinary field of study within literary criticism and historical analysis. It focuses on the period roughly spanning the 16th and 17th centuries in England, examining how English literature of this era reflects, engages with, and is influenced by the Islamic world. This can include representations of Muslims, Islamic cultures, contact with the Ottoman Empire, Orientalist themes, and the possible influence of Islamic thought on English writers.

Concept

As a broader concept, “Islam and Early Modern English Literature” investigates the complex and often misunderstood relationship between England and the Islamic world during a time of significant cultural exchange and global power shifts. Works within this field explore how English authors portrayed Muslims, sometimes as threatening “others,” but also as figures of fascination, romance, or even potential allies. Simultaneously, the concept examines potential traces of Islamic philosophy, literature, and artistic traditions on Early Modern English writers and their works.

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Writers, Works and Arguments

Important Notes:

• Orientalism significantly shapes these representations. It’s crucial to analyze these works for their construction of the “East” as exotic and inferior to the “West.”
• Each writer holds unique perspectives, reflecting the multifaceted ways in which early modern England engaged with the Islamic world.

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Key Principals

• Orientalism: A pervasive mode of representation, as theorized by Edward Said, through which the West constructed the Islamic world as fundamentally “other.” This entailed portraying it as exotic, backwards, and in opposition to Western values.
  • Literary References: This construction is evident in Marlowe’s depiction of Tamburlaine as a powerful yet tyrannical figure, and Spenser’s allegorical portrayal of Muslims as enemies of Christian virtue in The Faerie Queene.
• Ambivalence and Complexity: Representations of Muslims and Islamic cultures were rarely straightforward. English authors often expressed a mixture of fear, fascination, and begrudging respect.
  • Literary References: Shakespeare’s Othello offers a nuanced portrayal of a Moorish general, while simultaneously grappling with racial prejudice. Travelogues frequently expressed both admiration and disdain for customs within Islamic societies.
• Religious Antagonism: Christian and Islamic faiths were often framed in opposition, with Christian superiority asserted and Muslims depicted as religious threats.
  • Literary References: Spenser’s The Faerie Queene presents Muslims as enemies of Christendom. Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus includes scenes suggesting the protagonist’s potential rejection of Christianity in favor of Islam, reflecting anxieties about religious conversion.
• Geopolitical and Mercantile Contact: Expanding diplomatic and trade relations with the Ottoman Empire influenced English perceptions. Works acknowledged Islamic empires as formidable, yet often positioned them as rivals.
  • Literary References: Francis Bacon’s essays display awareness of Ottoman power structures. Plays like Selimus, and travel narratives provide insights (however biased) into Islamic political and social systems.
• Misrepresentation of Islamic Thought: Direct exposure to Islamic philosophy and theology was limited. Translations were often flawed or filtered through a Christian worldview, contributing to distorted understandings of Islamic beliefs.
  • Literary References: References to the Qur’an or Islamic figures within literary works frequently reveal misconceptions rather than accurate knowledge.

Important Note: These principles are intertwined and illustrate the complex ways in which Early Modern English writers engaged with, and were shaped by, their perceptions of the Islamic world.

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

• Orientalism: As outlined by Edward Said, Orientalism provides a crucial framework for understanding how Western cultures, including early modern England, constructed the “East” (inclusive of the Islamic world) as fundamentally different and inferior. Key concepts include:
  • Othering: Portraying the Muslim world as radically “other”, emphasizing difference to reinforce a Western sense of superiority.
  • Exoticization: Depicting Islamic cultures as exotic, mysterious, and often sensualized, feeding into a fascination with the East.
  • Essentialism: Reducing complex cultures to a set of simplistic and stereotypical traits, often with negative connotations.
• Postcolonial Studies: Rooted in the analysis of colonialism and its enduring legacies, postcolonial theory helps unpack the power dynamics embedded in early modern representations of Islam. Key areas of focus include:
  • Imperialism: Examining how portrayals of Muslims might reinforce English imperial ambitions or reveal anxieties about those ambitions.
  • Cultural Hegemony: Analyzing how English literature contributed to establishing dominant narratives about the Islamic world and suppressing alternative voices.
  • Hybridity and Mimicry: Exploring potential counter-currents to purely negative representations, looking for spaces where authors depict cultural exchange, instances of admiration, or even subversion of Orientalist tropes.
• Religious Studies: This perspective offers critical tools for understanding the theological underpinnings of literary representations. Key inquiries might include:
  • Comparative Analysis: Examining how portrayals of Islam in English literature contrast with Christian doctrine, revealing biases and polemics.
  • Apologetics: Investigating instances where texts defend Christianity by demonizing Islam or misrepresenting Islamic beliefs.
  • Interfaith Encounters: Analyzing depictions of theological debates or conversions (real or imagined) between Christians and Muslims.
• Critical Race Studies: Illuminates how early modern literature might construct notions of race in relation to representations of Muslims. Of interest is:
  • Racialization of Religion: Examining how religious difference is conflated with racial difference, particularly in negative portrayals of Muslims.
  • Colorism and Physiognomy: Analyzing if descriptions of Muslim characters rely on tropes associating darker skin or specific physical features with negative qualities.

How to Apply:

These perspectives provide lenses to:

• Uncover biases and examine power dynamics within literary texts.
• Deconstruct stereotypes and challenge simplistic portrayals of the Islamic world.
• Explore the intersections of race, religion, and empire in early modern England.

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Criticism Against It

• Exaggerated Focus on Islam: Critics argue that the overwhelming attention paid to Islam within some Early Modern studies distorts historical reality. England’s interactions with the Islamic world were significant, but limited compared to broader European concerns and continental conflicts.
• Overemphasis on Othering: Some suggest that a focus on Orientalism and the construction of the Muslim “other” can lead to a reductive reading of texts. It might oversimplify complex works and neglect themes unrelated to representations of Islam.
• Anachronistic Interpretations: Critics contend that applying modern concepts like “Orientalism” or rigid notions of religious identity anachronistically obscures the fluidity of early modern perceptions. The concept of a monolithic “Islam” was less established than in later centuries.
• Neglect of Diverse Muslim Voices: Focusing primarily on English representations risks silencing Muslim voices from the period. Neglecting available texts from the Islamic world reduces it to a passive object of study rather than an active participant in cultural exchange.

Counterarguments and Considerations

• Revealing Power Structures: Even exaggerated representations of Islam can expose English anxieties, desires, and the processes by which cultural identities were constructed, both of self and other.
• Unpacking Unconscious Bias: Works might express Orientalist views unintentionally. Analyzing these depictions can reveal deeply ingrained biases that shaped how early modern England viewed the world.
• Historicizing Frameworks: It’s crucial to apply theories like Orientalism with awareness of their historical development. These frameworks are tools for analysis, not rigid templates to impose onto the past.
• Seeking Alternative Sources: While the focus may often be on English representations, actively seeking out translations of Ottoman writings, travel narratives from the Islamic world, and other sources offers a more balanced perspective.

Important Note:

Valid criticism encourages nuanced study of Islam and Early Modern English Literature. It’s essential to be mindful of potential oversimplification, acknowledge the period’s complexities, and actively incorporate perspectives from the Islamic world whenever possible.

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Key Terms

Islam and Early Modern English Literature: Suggested Readings

Books

• Dimmock, Matthew. New Turkes: Dramatizing Islam and the Ottomans in Early Modern England. Penn State University Press, 2005.
• El Shakry, Omnia. The Arabic Freud: Psychoanalysis and Islam in Modern Egypt. Princeton University Press, 2017.
• Matar, Nabil. Islam in Britain, 1558-1685. Cambridge University Press, 1998.
• Matar, Nabil. Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery. Columbia University Press, 1999.
• Said, Edward. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1979.
• Vitkus, Daniel (editor). Three Turk Plays from Early Modern England. Columbia University Press, 2000.
• Vitkus, Daniel. Turning Turk: English Theater and the Multicultural Mediterranean, 1570-1630. Palgrave Macmillan, 2003.

Research Articles

• Blaydes, Lisa, and Christopher Paik. “The Impact of Holy Land Crusades on Anti-Muslim Harassment.” Journal of Peace Research, vol. 56, no. 5, 2019, pp. 691-706.
• Loomba, Ania, and Jonathan Burton. “The Oriental Renaissance: Europe’s Rediscovery of India and the East, 1680-1880.” Race, Class, and Gender in the Renaissance, edited by Ania Loomba and Jonathan Burton, Palgrave Macmillan, 1999, pp. 203-221.

Muslim English Discourse: Term and Concept

Term

The term “Muslim English Discourse” designates a specific field within linguistics, discourse analysis, and religious studies. It encompasses the diverse ways in which English is used as a communicative tool by Muslims across various cultural and geographic contexts. This includes the study of how Muslims use English for religious expression, identity formation, community building, and navigating interactions with non-Muslim English-speaking societies.

Concept

As a broader concept, Muslim English Discourse explores the intricate relationship between the Islamic faith and the English language. It examines unique linguistic features, including the integration of Arabic terms and concepts, the creation of new Islamic English vocabulary, and the influence of Islamic thought patterns on English syntax and rhetorical styles. Additionally, the concept investigates how English is utilized by Muslims to discuss theological debates, interpret religious texts, and engage in interfaith dialogue.

Muslim English Discourse and English Literature

• Muslim English Discourse
  • Focus on Language Use and Communication: Examines the patterns, structures, and functions of English as used by Muslims in various contexts.
  • Interdisciplinary Field: Draws from linguistics, discourse analysis, sociology, and religious studies.
  • Themes: Islamic identity, community dynamics, theological expression, interfaith communication, adaptation of English to Islamic contexts.
• English Literature
  • Canon of Literary Works: Encompasses the established body of texts considered significant within English-speaking cultures.
  • Traditional Focus: Historically centered on texts produced by authors from predominantly Christian backgrounds.
  • Expanding Scope: Increasing recognition and inclusion of works by Muslim authors, reflecting diverse perspectives and experiences.
• Points of Intersection
  • Muslim Authors in English Literature: Growing presence of Muslim writers contributing to the English literary landscape with unique voices and perspectives.
  • Representation of Islam: Analysis of how Muslims and Islamic themes are portrayed in English literature, both by Muslim and non-Muslim authors.
  • Critical Perspectives: Application of Muslim English Discourse frameworks to examine literary texts for religious symbolism, linguistic nuances, and cultural references.

Muslim English Discourse: Key Principals

Muslim English Discourse: Major Writers

1. Writer: Mohsin Hamid
   • Works: The Reluctant Fundamentalist, Exit West
   • Place: Pakistan
   • Arguments: Hamid’s acclaimed novels delve into the complexities of Muslim identity in a globalized world. The Reluctant Fundamentalist challenges Western perceptions of Muslims post-9/11, while Exit West offers a poignant exploration of love, migration, and displacement amidst a backdrop of conflict and chaos.
2. Writer: Leila Aboulela
   • Works: Minaret, The Translator
   • Place: Sudan, Scotland
   • Arguments: Aboulela’s evocative prose captures the nuances of Muslim life, often exploring themes of faith, migration, and cultural adaptation. In Minaret, she offers a nuanced portrayal of a Sudanese woman’s spiritual journey in exile, while The Translator delves into the complexities of identity and belonging for a Muslim immigrant in Scotland.
3. Writer: Zadie Smith
   • Works: White Teeth, Swing Time
   • Place: England
   • Arguments: Smith’s vibrant narratives depict multicultural London and the intricacies of identity, family, and belonging. In White Teeth, she skillfully weaves together the lives of immigrant families, touching on themes of religion, assimilation, and generational change. Swing Time explores the complexities of friendship and ambition against a backdrop of race and class dynamics.
4. Writer: Khaled Hosseini
   • Works: The Kite Runner, A Thousand Splendid Suns
   • Place: Afghanistan, United States
   • Arguments: Hosseini’s powerful storytelling illuminates the human experience in the context of Afghanistan’s tumultuous history. The Kite Runner delves into themes of guilt, redemption, and the enduring bonds of friendship, while A Thousand Splendid Suns portrays the resilience of Afghan women amidst the backdrop of war and oppression.
5. Writer: Kamila Shamsie
   • Works: Home Fire, Burnt Shadows
   • Place: Pakistan, United Kingdom
   • Arguments: Shamsie’s compelling narratives tackle pressing issues of identity, politics, and belonging, often through the lens of Muslim characters. Home Fire explores themes of radicalization, loyalty, and sacrifice in a post-9/11 world, while Burnt Shadows traverses continents and generations to examine the enduring impact of colonialism and conflict.
6. Writer: Ayad Akhtar
   • Works: American Dervish, Disgraced
   • Place: United States
   • Arguments: Akhtar’s works confront themes of religion, identity, and assimilation in contemporary America. American Dervish follows a young Pakistani-American boy’s coming-of-age journey amidst cultural and religious tensions, while Disgraced explores the complexities of Muslim identity, ambition, and prejudice in post-9/11 New York.
7. Writer: Fatima Farheen Mirza
   • Works: A Place for Us
   • Place: United States
   • Arguments: Mirza’s debut novel A Place for Us offers a moving exploration of family, faith, and belonging within the context of an Indian-American Muslim family. Set in California, the novel delves into the complexities of identity, tradition, and the pursuit of individuality amidst familial expectations and cultural heritage.

Muslim English Discourse: Literary Theories

Muslim English Discourse: Key Terms

Suggested Readings: Muslim English Discourse

1. Aboulela, Leila. The Translator. Grove Press, 1999.
2. Akhtar, Ayad. Disgraced. Picador, 2013.
3. Hamid, Mohsin. The Reluctant Fundamentalist. Harcourt, 2007.
4. Jamal, Amina. “Muslim English.” Routledge Handbook of World Englishes, edited by Andy Kirkpatrick, Routledge, 2020, pp. 256-274.
5. Jarrar, Randa. A Map of Home. Penguin Books, 2008.
6. Knight, Michael Muhammad. The Taqwacores. Soft Skull Press, 2004.
7. Mahmood, Saba. Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Princeton University Press, 2005.
8. Rana, Junaid. Terrifying Muslims: Race and Labor in the South Asian Diaspora. Duke University Press, 2011.
9. Saeed, Abdullah. The Qur’an: An Introduction. Routledge, 2008.
10. Shamsie, Kamila. Home Fire. Riverhead Books, 2017.

Literary Darwinism: Term and Concept

Term

Literary Darwinism refers to a late 19th-century and early 20th-century trend of applying the principles of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution to the study of literature. This approach often emphasized themes of competition, survival of the fittest, and the influence of environment on literary works. However, the term is considered largely outdated and problematic due to its oversimplification of both Darwinian principles and the complexities of literary creation.

Concept

Literary Darwinism sought to analyze literature through a lens of biological determinism. It viewed literary texts as products of their social and historical environments, with “superior” works naturally rising to prominence. This approach often led to interpretations that reinforced harmful hierarchies based on race, gender, and class. Additionally, it ignored the role of individual creativity and the complex ways in which literature both reflects and shapes cultural values.

Literary Darwinism: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorists

While no single theorist codified Literary Darwinism as a unified movement, figures who contributed to its ideas include:

• Herbert Spencer: British philosopher who applied evolutionary ideas to society, coining the phrase “survival of the fittest.” His influence led to views of literature progressing towards higher, more complex forms.
• Hippolyte Taine: French critic who emphasized the deterministic influence of race, environment, and historical moment on literature.
• American Naturalists: Writers like Stephen Crane, Frank Norris, and Theodore Dreiser, whose works often depict characters shaped by heredity and social forces beyond their control.

Works

Directly theorizing Literary Darwinism is less common than works that implicitly reflect its principles:

• Emile Zola, Germinal (1885): A novel exploring class struggle and hereditary determinism within a French mining town.
• **John Griffith London (Jack London), The Call of the Wild (1903): A story about a dog’s survival, often interpreted through a lens of biological determinism.
• Scholarly Articles: Individual articles analyzed literature through an evolutionary lens, but there was no central text outlining a unified Literary Darwinian theory.

Central Arguments

• Literature as an Organism: Literary works were seen as evolving similarly to biological organisms, subject to natural selection.
• Determinism: Literary quality and success were pre-determined by factors like the author’s race, gender, social conditions, or historical era.
• Focus on Struggle and Survival: Themes of competition, survival, and the harsh realities of life were emphasized in interpretations.
• Hierarchical Views: Literary Darwinism often reinforced problematic ideas about ‘superior’ cultures or races, viewing literary history as linear progression.

Important Considerations

• Literary Darwinism is largely rejected: Today, it’s mostly studied as a historical phenomenon, not a valid critical approach. Its reductive interpretations and potential for harmful social implications make it problematic.
• Influences linger: Some evolutionary concepts can be applied to literature in more nuanced ways (see Evolutionary Literary Criticism), but with crucial differences from the deterministic models of Literary Darwinism.

Literary Darwinism: Key Principals

Literary Darwinism: How to Use in Literary Critiques

Steps for Addressing Literary Darwinism

1. Identify Elements: Look for signs of Literary Darwinist thinking in the text you’re analyzing:
   • Do characters seem driven primarily by biological urges or social forces beyond their control?
   • Is there a focus on themes of competition, survival, or harsh deterministic environments?
   • Are any cultures/races presented as inherently “superior” to others in a way that suggests a hierarchy?
2. Consider Context:
   • When was the work written? Literary Darwinism was most prominent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
   • Research the author’s background – were they influenced by the scientific and social theories of the time?
3. Critique, Don’t Apply: Instead of using Literary Darwinism as your analysis lens, focus on critiquing its presence.
   • How do these deterministic views limit interpretations of the characters and their actions?
   • Does the text reinforce harmful stereotypes or social hierarchies?
   • Discuss how a more nuanced reading of the work challenges the Literary Darwinist ideas it might superficially suggest.

**Case Study: Jack London’s The Call of the Wild **

• Darwinian Elements: The novel focuses on Buck the dog’s survival, his reversion to primal instincts, and themes of competition in the harsh Yukon environment. A superficial reading could emphasize biological determinism.
• Context: London was familiar with the ideas of Herbert Spencer and influenced by the harsh realities of the Klondike Gold Rush.
• Critique: While the novel has Darwinian elements, it can be read more productively as a commentary on the complex relationship between nature and nurture, and the dangers of viewing “civilization” in simplistic hierarchical terms.

Important Reminders

• Literary Darwinism is flawed; your critique should expose those flaws rather than validate them.
• Many works with Darwinian themes can be analyzed compellingly through other critical lenses (social critique, environmental studies, etc.).

Literary Darwinism: Criticism Against It

• Reductionism: Critics argue that Literary Darwinism reduces complex human experiences and creations to simplistic biological or evolutionary explanations.
• Oversimplification: Critics contend that it oversimplifies the rich tapestry of human culture by attempting to fit all literary phenomena into a narrow evolutionary framework.
• Ignoring Cultural Context: Critics argue that Literary Darwinism often disregards the cultural, historical, and sociopolitical contexts in which literary works are created and interpreted.
• Lack of Empirical Evidence: Critics claim that many assertions made by Literary Darwinists lack empirical evidence and rely heavily on speculation.
• Neglect of Individual Agency: Critics argue that Literary Darwinism neglects the role of individual agency, creativity, and intentionality in the production and reception of literature.
• Ethical Concerns: Some critics express ethical concerns about reducing human creativity and cultural products to mere byproducts of evolutionary processes, potentially devaluing human experience and expression.
• Oversights in Evolutionary Psychology: Critics point out limitations and oversights in the application of evolutionary psychology principles to literary analysis, highlighting the complexity of human behavior and cultural evolution.

Literary Darwinism: Key Terms

Literary Darwinism: Suggested Readings

1. Buss, David M. The Evolution of Desire: Strategies of Human Mating. Basic Books, 2016.
2. Carroll, Joseph. Literary Darwinism: Evolution, Human Nature, and Literature. Routledge, 2004.
3. Gottschall, Jonathan. The Storytelling Animal: How Stories Make Us Human. Mariner Books, 2012.
4. Miller, Geoffrey. The Mating Mind: How Sexual Choice Shaped the Evolution of Human Nature. Anchor Books, 2001.
5. Nesse, Randolph M., and Williams, George C. Why We Get Sick: The New Science of Darwinian Medicine. Vintage Books, 1996.
6. Pinker, Steven. How the Mind Works. W. W. Norton & Company, 1997.
7. Pinker, Steven. The Blank Slate: The Modern Denial of Human Nature. Penguin Books, 2003.
8. Wilson, Edward O. Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge. Vintage Books, 1999.
9. Wilson, Edward O. On Human Nature. Harvard University Press, 2004.

Indigenous Narrative: Term and Concept

Term

The term “Indigenous Narrative” broadly refers to the diverse forms of storytelling, oral histories, and artistic expressions that originate from and reflect the worldviews of Indigenous peoples. These narratives can take many forms, including creation myths, traditional songs, personal histories, fiction, poetry, and visual arts. Indigenous narratives are critical tools for preserving cultural knowledge, transmitting values across generations, and expressing resistance to colonialism.

Concept

Indigenous narratives offer a unique lens through which to understand the world. These narratives often emphasize themes of interconnectedness with the natural world, respect for ancestors, and the importance of community. They may contain complex symbolism, metaphors, and storytelling techniques that differ from Western literary traditions. Indigenous narratives are not simply entertainment; they embody living histories, philosophies, and a profound connection to land and identity.

Indigenous Narrative: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Key Theorists

• Gerald Vizenor (Anishinaabe): Prominent figure in Indigenous literary studies. Works include:
  • Manifest Manners: Narratives on Postindian Survivance (1994): Introduces the concept of “survivance” – active resistance and creative presence in the face of colonial narratives.
  • Fugitive Poses: Native American Indian Scenes of Absence and Presence (1998): Explores how Indigenous stories reclaim space and counter colonial erasure.
• Thomas King (Cherokee): Celebrated novelist, essayist, and scholar. Works include:
  • The Truth About Stories: A Native Narrative (2003): Collection of lectures playfully weaving Indigenous oral tradition with literary analysis.
  • Green Grass, Running Water (1993): Novel that blends myth, history, and contemporary Indigenous experiences in non-linear, subversive ways.
• LeAnne Howe (Choctaw): Author and theorist. Works include:
  • Choctalking on Other Realities (2013): Examines the power of storytelling, tribalography (Indigenous ways of writing), and how Indigenous narratives work both within and against Western forms.

Foundational Works

• Traditional Indigenous Stories: The vast and diverse oral traditions of Indigenous peoples worldwide are the foundation of Indigenous narrative. Many have been transcribed and published, often through the work of Indigenous and non-Indigenous scholars.
• **N. Scott Momaday, The Way to Rainy Mountain (1968): ** A seminal work that blends Kiowa oral history, personal reflection, and poetic prose.
• Leslie Marmon Silko, Ceremony (1977): A powerful novel integrating Laguna Pueblo traditions and storytelling within a story of healing and resilience.

Central Arguments

• Decolonization of Knowledge: Indigenous narratives challenge Western dominance in knowledge production and assert the validity of Indigenous ways of knowing and storytelling.
• Power of Story in Identity and Resistance: Indigenous narratives can preserve cultural memory, transmit values, and act as tools for resistance against colonialism and cultural suppression.
• Distinctive Aesthetics: Indigenous narratives often have storytelling structures, symbolism, and perspectives that differ from Western literary traditions.
• Survivance and Adaptation: Indigenous narratives are not static but demonstrate resilience, adaptation, and innovation, reflecting the ongoing lived experiences of Indigenous communities.

Indigenous Narrative: Key Principals

1. Oral Tradition: Many Indigenous cultures have a strong tradition of passing down knowledge, stories, and cultural values orally from generation to generation. These narratives often involve storytelling as a central means of preserving cultural heritage. One literary reference that exemplifies this principle is “The Walum Olum,” a creation narrative of the Lenape people, which was originally transmitted orally before being transcribed.
2. Interconnectedness: Indigenous narratives frequently emphasize the interconnectedness of all living beings and the environment. This interconnectedness is often portrayed through stories that highlight the relationships between humans, animals, plants, and the land. An example of this can be found in Leslie Marmon Silko’s novel “Ceremony,” where the protagonist Tayo learns about the interconnectedness of all things through his interactions with nature and traditional ceremonies.
3. Spirituality: Many Indigenous narratives incorporate spiritual elements, reflecting the belief systems and cosmologies of Indigenous cultures. These narratives often explore themes such as the relationship between the physical and spiritual worlds, the significance of ceremonies and rituals, and the connections between humans and higher powers or deities. Sherman Alexie’s “The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven” contains stories that blend realism with spiritual elements, depicting the complex intersection of modern Native American life and traditional beliefs.
4. Respect for the Land: Indigenous narratives frequently emphasize the importance of respecting and caring for the natural world. These narratives often depict humans as stewards of the land, emphasizing the need for harmony and balance in the relationship between humans and nature. Louise Erdrich’s novel “Tracks” portrays the Anishinaabe people’s deep connection to the land and their efforts to protect it from exploitation and destruction.
5. Community and Collective Identity: Indigenous narratives often highlight the importance of community and collective identity. These narratives often center around the experiences of Indigenous communities, exploring themes such as family ties, communal responsibility, and the preservation of cultural traditions. Thomas King’s “Green Grass, Running Water” weaves together multiple narratives to portray the interconnected lives of the characters and the importance of community in shaping individual identities.

These principles and literary references offer insight into the rich and diverse storytelling traditions of Indigenous cultures, highlighting the values, beliefs, and perspectives that inform Indigenous narratives.

Indigenous Narrative: How to Use in Literary Critiques

1. Identify the Work’s Context:
   • Is the author Indigenous? If not, how does the work engage with Indigenous themes or characters?
   • Explore the history and cultural context relevant to the work. Be cautious of applying generalizing assumptions to specific Indigenous groups.
2. Analyze Narrative Elements:
   • Structure: Is the narrative linear or cyclical? Does it reflect Indigenous oral traditions?
   • Symbolism and Metaphor: What symbols are used, and how do they relate to Indigenous cultural knowledge and worldviews?
   • Character Archetypes: Are there characters that resonate with traditional Indigenous figures (trickster figures, elders, etc.)?
3. Consider Indigenous Theoretical Concepts:
   • Survivance: Does the work reflect themes of resilience, resistance, and creative adaptation in the face of colonialism?
   • Oral Tradition: Are storytelling techniques reminiscent of oral traditions (e.g., repetition, digressions, non-linearity)?
   • Connection to Land: How is the relationship between people and the natural world portrayed?
4. Respect Cultural Specificity:
   • Do your research! Understand the specific cultural context of the Indigenous group represented (if applicable).
   • Avoid imposing generalizations or pan-Indigenous interpretations.
   • Acknowledge your position as a reader and how it may differ from the intended audience of an Indigenous work.

**Case Study: Leslie Marmon Silko’s Ceremony **

• Context: Silko is Laguna Pueblo, and the novel draws heavily on Laguna traditions and creation myths.
• Narrative Elements: The structure is fragmented and cyclical, mirroring Pueblo storytelling and a worldview of time as spiraling rather than linear.
• Indigenous Concepts: Themes of healing, restoration, and reconnection to land and community reflect ideas of survivance within a post-colonial context.
• Respectful Approach: A critique shouldn’t try to definitively “decode” Laguna symbolism, but instead, appreciate its complexity and the cultural knowledge embedded within the work.

Important Things to Remember

• Indigenous Narrative is not monolithic: There are diverse approaches and traditions within Indigenous storytelling.
• Center Indigenous voices: Seek out scholarship and critiques by Indigenous scholars for deeper insights.
• Ethical engagement: Your analysis should show sensitivity to the cultural context and avoid appropriative interpretations.

Indigenous Narrative: Criticism Against It

1. Authenticity and Representation: Some critics argue that Indigenous narratives, particularly those written or interpreted by non-Indigenous authors, may not accurately represent Indigenous cultures, beliefs, and experiences. This criticism highlights concerns about cultural appropriation and the potential for misrepresentation or stereotyping.
2. Stereotyping and Essentialism: Indigenous narratives have sometimes been criticized for perpetuating stereotypes or essentializing Indigenous identities, reducing diverse cultures and experiences to simplistic or monolithic portrayals. This criticism emphasizes the need for nuanced and multifaceted representations of Indigenous peoples and communities.
3. Marginalization and Erasure: Indigenous narratives have historically been marginalized within mainstream literary and academic circles, leading to a lack of visibility and recognition for Indigenous authors and stories. Critics argue that this marginalization contributes to the erasure of Indigenous voices and perspectives from the broader cultural landscape.
4. Colonial Influences: Some critics argue that Indigenous narratives have been shaped and influenced by colonial processes, including the imposition of Western literary forms, languages, and aesthetics. This criticism highlights the ongoing impact of colonialism on Indigenous storytelling traditions and the need to decolonize literary representations.
5. Commercialization and Exploitation: Indigenous narratives, particularly those that achieve commercial success, have been criticized for their potential to be commodified and exploited for profit by non-Indigenous individuals or institutions. This criticism raises concerns about cultural appropriation, intellectual property rights, and the ethical responsibilities of authors and publishers.
6. Interpretation and Ownership: Indigenous narratives often involve complex oral traditions and cultural protocols that may not easily translate into written form. Critics argue that the interpretation and dissemination of Indigenous stories by non-Indigenous individuals or institutions can raise questions of ownership, authority, and accountability.
7. Political Instrumentalization: Indigenous narratives have sometimes been co-opted or instrumentalized for political purposes, either by Indigenous activists seeking to advance specific agendas or by non-Indigenous actors seeking to tokenize or instrumentalize Indigenous voices for their own ends. This criticism underscores the need for Indigenous narratives to be treated with respect and integrity, rather than being exploited for political gain.

Indigenous Narrative: Key Terms

Indigenous Narrative: Suggested Readings

1. Battiste, Marie, and James (Sa’ke’j) Youngblood Henderson. Protecting Indigenous Knowledge and Heritage: A Global Challenge. Purich Publishing Ltd., 2000.
2. Coulthard, Glen Sean. Red Skin, White Masks: Rejecting the Colonial Politics of Recognition. University of Minnesota Press, 2014.
3. Green, Joyce, editor. Indigena: Contemporary Native Perspectives. Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1992.
4. King, Thomas, Cheryl Calver, and Helen Hoy, editors. The Native Critics Collective: An Anthology of Critical Essays. Theytus Books, 2003.
5. Lyons, Scott Richard. X-Marks: Native Signatures of Assent. University of Minnesota Press, 2010.
6. Momaday, N. Scott. The Man Made of Words: Essays, Stories, Passages. St. Martin’s Griffin, 1998.
7. Simpson, Leanne Betasamosake. As We Have Always Done: Indigenous Freedom through Radical Resistance. University of Minnesota Press, 2017.
8. Tuck, Eve, and K. Wayne Yang. “Decolonization is Not a Metaphor.” Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education & Society, vol. 1, no. 1, 2012, pp. 1-40.
9. Vizenor, Gerald, editor. Narrative Chance: Postmodern Discourse on Native American Indian Literatures. University of New Mexico Press, 1989.
10. Womack, Craig S. Red on Red: Native American Literary Separatism. University of Minnesota Press, 1999.

Gender Performativity Theory: Term and Concept

Term

The term “gender performativity” in gender performativity theory rose to prominence within feminist and queer theory following its articulation by philosopher Judith Butler in her seminal work Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (1990). Butler drew upon existing theories of performativity in linguistics and philosophy, specifically J.L. Austin’s concept of speech acts. In the context of gender, performativity shifts the focus from an assumed innate gender identity to the actions and behaviors an individual engages in to signal their gender.

Concept

Gender performativity theory destabilizes the notion of gender as a fixed, biological essence. Instead, it posits that gender is a fluid and dynamic construction produced through reiterated acts, stylized behaviors, and social cues. These “performances” are not mere expressions of an inner gendered self. Rather, they create the very illusion of a stable gender identity. By emphasizing the repetitive and constructed nature of gender expression, Butler challenges traditional gender binaries and the power structures they uphold, opening up possibilities for more diverse and flexible understandings of gender.

Gender Performativity Theory: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Key Theorists

• Judith Butler: The foremost figure in gender performativity theory. Her groundbreaking works include:
  • Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (1990): Butler’s most famous work, where she lays the foundation of performativity theory and how it deconstructs the concept of gender as fixed and inherent.
  • Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex (1993): Explores how the concept of the material body itself is shaped by social discourse.
• Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick: A key figure in queer theory whose work intersects with Butler’s. Works include:
  • Between Men: English Literature and Male Homosocial Desire (1985): Examines patterns of male relationships and power within literature.
  • Epistemology of the Closet (1990): Explores the construction of sexuality and its impact on identity formation.

Foundational Works

• J.L Austin: Philosopher of language.
  • How to Do Things With Words (1962): Austin’s concept of speech acts (performative utterances) provided a theoretical basis for Butler’s understanding of gender as produced through performance.
• Michel Foucault: Philosopher and historian.
  • Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (1975): Foucault’s analysis of power, discipline, and how institutions shape subjectivity informed Butler’s understanding of the regulatory power of social norms in shaping gender performances.

Central Arguments

• Gender is not innate: Gender is not a biological given but rather a social construct produced through repeated actions, behaviors, and social expectations.
• Performance creates identity: The “performance” of gender precedes and creates the illusion of an inner, essential gender core – one does not have a gender that they are expressing, but gender identity is formed through repeated performances.
• Subversion of binaries: Performativity theory challenges the rigid binary of male/female and the social structures that uphold it, opening up possibilities for more fluid and diverse gender expressions.
• Power and regulation: Gender norms are not neutral but serve to maintain power structures. By exposing the performative nature of gender, Butler highlights how these norms can be challenged and subverted.

Gender Performativity Theory: Key Principals

Key Principles

• Gender as Performance, Not Essence: Gender isn’t something you are, it’s something you do. Literary examples:
  • Shakespeare’s cross-dressing comedies (like Twelfth Night): Characters disguising themselves as the opposite gender highlight the performative nature of gender roles and expectations.
  • Virginia Woolf’s Orlando: A protagonist who lives centuries, shifting between male and female genders, destabilizes notions of fixed gender identity.
• Repetition and Citation: Gender norms are reinforced through repeated performances that cite an idealized (but non-existent) original. Literary examples:
  • Fairy tales: The repeated tropes of damsels in distress and heroic princes perpetuate restrictive gender roles.
  • Jane Austen’s novels: Societal pressure on women to perform femininity that signifies marriageability.
• The Body as Inscribed by Power: The material body itself is not outside of discourse but is shaped by social norms and expectations. Literary examples:
  • Gothic literature: Female bodies portrayed as fragile, threatened, in need of male protection.
  • Toni Morrison’s Beloved: Explores how the trauma of slavery is physically and psychologically inscribed on the bodies of Black women.
• Subversive Potential: By making the performative nature of gender visible, it can be disrupted and challenged. Literary examples:
  • Characters in drag or otherwise flouting gender norms: These become acts of defiance against restrictive expectations.
  • Modernist and Postmodernist Literature: Fragmentation of identity challenges ideas of a fixed gendered self.

Important Note: It’s crucial to remember that not every literary instance of cross-dressing or gender ambiguity is automatically an endorsement of gender performativity. Some works might reinforce rather than disrupt traditional gender constructs. Careful analysis is key!

Gender Performativity Theory: How to Use in Literary Critiques

Here’s a guide on applying Gender Performativity Theory to literary critiques, along with a simplified case study:

Steps for Using Gender Performativity in Literary Critiques

1. Identify Gender Performances: Look for instances in the text where characters consciously or unconsciously “perform” their gender. Consider:
   • Clothing and appearance
   • Speech patterns and mannerisms
   • Roles characters play (mother, warrior, lover, etc.)
   • How characters interact with others based on gendered expectations
2. Question the “Naturalness”: Analyze how the text presents these performances. Are they treated as essential and unchanging, or is there a hint they are constructed?
   • Does the text reinforce traditional gender roles or challenge them?
   • Are there characters who defy expectations? How does the text treat them?
3. Examine Power Structures: Consider how gender performances are tied to power dynamics within the text.
   • Who benefits from upholding traditional gender roles?
   • Are there characters whose gender expressions give them more or less agency?
   • How does the text treat characters who challenge gender norms?
4. Look for Subversions: Identify moments where the text undermines or exposes the performative nature of gender.
   • Are there instances of deliberate gender-bending or characters who refuse their assigned roles?
   • Does the text highlight the artificiality of gender constructs?

**Case Study: Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night **

• Gender Performances: Viola disguises herself as a man (Cesario), Olivia falls in love with this male persona, Orsino is attracted to the feminine side of Cesario.
• Questioning “Naturalness”: The play highlights the fluidity of gender and how easily appearances can deceive. Love for Cesario calls into question traditional notions of heterosexual attraction.
• Power Structures: Viola gains more agency disguised as a man, yet is also constrained by her assumed gender identity. Olivia’s power as a woman of status is limited by societal expectations of female behavior.
• Subversions: The comedic chaos caused by gender confusion exposes the absurdity of rigid gender roles. The final resolution (Viola revealing her true identity) hints at the possibility of greater flexibility in gender expression.

Remember:

• Not every text will be equally rich for this analysis.
• Gender performativity is just one lens among many you can apply in a literary critique.
• Your analysis should always be grounded in close textual evidence.

Gender Performativity Theory: Criticism Against It

Here’s a breakdown of some of the main criticisms leveled against Gender Performativity Theory:

• Neglect of Material Reality: Critics argue that Butler’s emphasis on the discursive construction of gender risks downplaying the material realities of lived experience. These include things like physical differences between bodies, unequal access to resources based on gender, and the very real violence directed at people due to their gender.
• Overemphasis on Agency: Some critics suggest that performativity theory overstates the individual’s ability to subvert gender norms. Social structures, inequalities, and ingrained cultural beliefs heavily constrain this freedom of performance, especially for marginalized groups.
• The Problem of the Pre-Discursive Subject: Butler argues that there’s no essential “self” that exists prior to gender performance. However, critics note this leaves little room for understanding how individuals experience and navigate the constraints of assigned gender roles, requiring a degree of self-awareness and agency that performativity theory struggles to accommodate.
• Lack of Political Strategy: Some scholars argue that while performativity theory effectively deconstructs traditional gender categories, it provides limited guidance on how to build a transformative feminist or queer political movement, ultimately focusing on individual subversion rather than collective change.
• Risks of Appropriation Ideas of gender fluidity, while liberating, can paradoxically be appropriated by conservative forces to undermine the rights of transgender people. For instance, some argue that womanhood is no longer an identity based on lived experience, but a performance anyone can imitate.

Important Considerations

• These criticisms don’t invalidate Gender Performativity Theory entirely. It remains a valuable tool for understanding how social forces shape gender.
• Many of these criticisms have led to productive dialogue and refinements of feminist and queer theory over time.
• Butler herself has acknowledged some limitations and responded to critics in subsequent works.

Gender Performativity Theory: Key Terms

Gender Performativity Theory: Suggested Readings

1. Barker, Meg-John, and Julia Scheele. Queer: A Graphic History. Icon Books, 2016.
2. Bornstein, Kate. Gender Outlaw: On Men, Women, and the Rest of Us. Routledge, 1994.
3. Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. Routledge, 1993.
4. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
5. Fausto-Sterling, Anne. Sexing the Body: Gender Politics and the Construction of Sexuality. Basic Books, 2000.
6. Halberstam, Jack. Female Masculinity. Duke University Press, 1998.
7. Kessler, Suzanne J., and Wendy McKenna. Gender: An Ethnomethodological Approach. University of Chicago Press, 1978.
8. Meyerowitz, Joanne. How Sex Changed: A History of Transsexuality in the United States. Harvard University Press, 2002.
9. Nestle, Joan, Clare Howell, and Riki Wilchins, editors. GenderQueer: Voices from Beyond the Sexual Binary. Alyson Books, 2002.
10. Stryker, Susan. Transgender History: The Roots of Today’s Revolution. Seal Press, 2008.