May 9, 2024 - English Studies

“As Froth on the Face of the Deep” by Christina Rossetti: A Critical Analysis

“As Froth on the Face of the Deep” by Christina Rossetti was first published in 1862 within her collection, “The Goblin Market, and Other Poems.”

Introduction: “As Froth on the Face of the Deep” by Christina Rossetti

“As Froth on the Face of the Deep” by Christina Rossetti was first published in 1862 within her collection, “The Goblin Market, and Other Poems.” This short, eight-line poem utilizes vivid similes to express the fleeting and meaningless nature of life without faith in God. The imagery of froth, dreams at waking, and an unharvested crop emphasizes the impermanence of earthly things. The poem’s power lies in its concise language and its powerful conclusion, urging the reader to find hope and purpose through devotion.

Text: “As Froth on the Face of the Deep” by Christina Rossetti

As froth on the face of the deep,
As foam on the crest of the sea,
As dreams at the waking of sleep,
As gourd of a day and a night,
As harvest that no man shall reap,
As vintage that never shall be,
Is hope if it cling not aright,
O my God, unto Thee.

Annotations: “As Froth on the Face of the Deep” by Christina Rossetti

Line	Annotation
As froth on the face of the deep,	Hope is compared to froth on the surface of the deep ocean, suggesting its fleeting nature.
As foam on the crest of the sea,	Like foam on the highest point of a wave, indicating transience and impermanence.
As dreams at the waking of sleep,	Similar to dreams fading upon waking, implying the ephemeral nature of hope.
As gourd of a day and a night,	Hope is likened to something that lasts only briefly, like a gourd that withers quickly.
As harvest that no man shall reap,	Hope that never comes to fruition, akin to a harvest that remains uncollected.
As vintage that never shall be,	Like a vintage of wine that is never produced, symbolizing hope that remains unrealized.
Is hope if it cling not aright,	The essence of hope is questioned if it does not hold fast to something substantial, like faith or belief.
O my God, unto Thee.	The speaker expresses a plea for their hope to be anchored in God, implying divine reliance.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “As Froth on the Face of the Deep” by Christina Rossetti

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“As froth on the face of the deep”	Repetition of initial consonant sounds for a musical effect
Analogy	“As froth on the face of the deep, / As foam on the crest of the sea”	Comparison between two things to explain a concept
Apostrophe	“O my God, unto Thee”	Addressing a person or entity not present
Enjambment	“As dreams at the waking of sleep, / As gourd of a day and a night”	Carrying a sentence or phrase over to the next line without punctuation
Hyperbole	“As harvest that no man shall reap, / As vintage that never shall be”	Exaggeration for emphasis
Imagery	“As froth on the face of the deep, / As foam on the crest of the sea”	Vivid description to create mental images
Metaphor	“As froth on the face of the deep”	Comparison between two things without “like” or “as”
Meter	Entire poem	Pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables for a musical effect
Personification	“Hope”	Attributing human qualities to an abstract concept
Repetition	“As”	Repeating a word or phrase for emphasis and unity
Rhyme	“deep” and “sleep”	Identical ending sounds for a musical effect
Simile	“As froth on the face of the deep, / As foam on the crest of the sea”	Comparison between two things using “like” or “as”
Symbolism	“Froth”, “Foam”, “Dreams”, “Gourd”, “Harvest”, “Vintage”	Using objects to represent abstract ideas
Synecdoche	“The Deep”	Using a part to represent the whole
Theme	Hope and its relationship with God	Underlying idea or message of the poem

Themes: “As Froth on the Face of the Deep” by Christina Rossetti

Ephemerality of Hope
The poem explores the fleeting nature of hope, comparing it to ephemeral things like froth, foam, and dreams. Just as these things quickly disappear, hope can vanish if not anchored to something stable. The lines “As froth on the face of the deep, / As foam on the crest of the sea” illustrate the transitory nature of hope, while “As dreams at the waking of sleep” suggests how hope can evaporate when reality sets in.

Futility of Human Endeavors
The poem touches on the idea that human efforts and aspirations are ultimately futile without a higher purpose. The lines “As harvest that no man shall reap, / As vintage that never shall be” suggest that our labors and accomplishments are empty if not directed towards a divine goal. This theme is reinforced by the comparison of hope to an unattainable harvest or vintage.
Dependence on the Divine
The poem emphasizes the need for hope to be anchored in the divine. The final line “O my God, unto Thee” underscores the idea that hope must be directed towards God to be meaningful and lasting. The poem suggests that hope not rooted in God is like the ephemeral things described earlier – fleeting and ultimately unsatisfying.
Longing and Yearning
The poem expresses a deep longing and yearning for a connection with the divine. The speaker’s address to God in the final line conveys a sense of intimacy and desire for union. The use of metaphors and imagery throughout the poem creates a sense of wistfulness and nostalgia, emphasizing the speaker’s deep desire for a lasting and fulfilling hope.

Literary Theories and “As Froth on the Face of the Deep” by Christina Rossetti

Literary Theory	Explanation	Example from the Poem
Formalism	Focuses on the text itself, examining its structure, language, and form to derive meaning.	Examining the poem’s use of similes and imagery to convey the fleeting nature of hope, such as “As froth on the face of the deep.”
New Criticism	Similar to formalism, New Criticism emphasizes close reading of the text to understand its complexities and meanings.	Analyzing how each simile contributes to the overall theme of impermanence, like “As dreams at the waking of sleep.”
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores the unconscious desires and conflicts of the author or characters and how they manifest in the text.	Interpreting the speaker’s longing for hope as a reflection of their inner struggles and anxieties, revealed through phrases like “O my God, unto Thee.”
Feminist Criticism	Investigates how gender roles, power dynamics, and societal norms influence literature and its interpretation.	Considering how the portrayal of hope in the poem reflects traditional gender expectations or challenges them.
Reader-Response Criticism	Focuses on the reader’s interpretation and response to the text, acknowledging that meaning is created through the interaction between reader and text.	Exploring how different readers might interpret the poem’s depiction of hope based on their own experiences and beliefs.
Postcolonial Criticism	Examines literature in relation to colonialism, imperialism, and cultural identity, particularly how marginalized voices are represented.	Analyzing whether the poem’s themes of hope and despair resonate differently for individuals from colonized or marginalized communities.

Critical Questions about “As Froth on the Face of the Deep” by Christina Rossetti

What is the significance of the speaker’s use of natural imagery in the poem?
The speaker’s use of natural imagery in the poem serves to underscore the ephemeral and transitory nature of hope. The comparisons of hope to “froth on the face of the deep”, “foam on the crest of the sea”, and “dreams at the waking of sleep” all draw on natural phenomena that are fleeting and easily dispersed. This imagery suggests that hope, like these natural phenomena, is fragile and easily lost. Furthermore, the use of natural imagery allows the speaker to explore the relationship between the human experience and the natural world, highlighting the ways in which our emotions and experiences are reflected in the world around us.
How does the poem’s structure and form contribute to its meaning?

The poem’s structure and form contribute to its meaning through the use of repetition, enjambment, and caesura. The repetition of the phrase “As [image]” creates a sense of rhythm and musicality, emphasizing the speaker’s meditation on the nature of hope. The use of enjambment, where a sentence or phrase continues into the next line without punctuation, creates a sense of flow and continuity, mirroring the speaker’s flowing thoughts. The strategic use of caesura, or pauses within lines, adds to the sense of contemplation and reflection, allowing the reader to pause and consider the speaker’s words.
What is the significance of the speaker’s address to God in the final line of the poem?
The speaker’s address to God in the final line of the poem serves to underscore the idea that true hope can only be found in the divine. The use of the phrase “O my God, unto Thee” creates a sense of intimacy and direct address, emphasizing the speaker’s desire for a personal connection with God. This address also serves to contrast with the earlier imagery of fleeting natural phenomena, suggesting that hope in God is a stable and enduring thing. Furthermore, the use of the word “unto” implies a sense of movement or direction, suggesting that the speaker’s hope is not static, but rather dynamic and directed towards God.

How does the poem engage with the theme of doubt and uncertainty?
The poem engages with the theme of doubt and uncertainty through its exploration of the fragility of hope. The speaker’s comparisons of hope to fleeting natural phenomena suggest that hope is easily lost or dispersed, leaving the speaker (and the reader) to wonder if hope is even possible. The use of phrases like “As harvest that no man shall reap, / As vintage that never shall be” also implies a sense of uncertainty, suggesting that human efforts and aspirations may be ultimately futile. The speaker’s address to God in the final line can be seen as a expression of doubt and uncertainty, as the speaker seeks to anchor their hope in something stable and enduring.

Literary Works Similar to “As Froth on the Face of the Deep” by Christina Rossetti

“The Tide Rises, The Tide Falls” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow: This poem explores the cyclical nature of life and death, much like Rossetti’s reflection on the ephemeral nature of hope. Both poems employ natural imagery to convey the passage of time and the inevitability of change.

“A Dream Within a Dream” by Edgar Allan Poe: Poe’s poem delves into the elusive nature of reality and the fleetingness of human experience, similar to Rossetti’s exploration of the transient quality of hope and dreams. Both poets grapple with the idea of grasping onto something intangible.
“Nothing Gold Can Stay” by Robert Frost: Frost’s poem meditates on the impermanence of beauty and innocence, echoing Rossetti’s theme of fleetingness in “As Froth on the Face of the Deep.” Both poems convey a sense of loss and the inevitability of change.
“To An Athlete Dying Young” by A.E. Housman: Housman’s poem reflects on the transience of glory and fame, much like Rossetti’s contemplation of hope that never materializes. Both poets explore the fleeting nature of success and the passage of time.

“Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley: Shelley’s sonnet reflects on the inevitable decline of power and empire, similar to Rossetti’s meditation on hope that fades away. Both poems convey the idea of human achievements being ultimately ephemeral in the face of time.

Representative Quotations “As Froth on the Face of the Deep” by Christina Rossetti

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“As froth on the face of the deep,”	The speaker compares hope to froth on the surface of the ocean, emphasizing its fleeting and insubstantial nature.	New Criticism
“As foam on the crest of the sea,”	Continuing the metaphor, hope is likened to foam on the highest point of a wave, reinforcing its impermanence.	Psychoanalytic Criticism
“As dreams at the waking of sleep,”	Hope is compared to dreams that vanish upon awakening, highlighting its ephemeral quality and lack of substance.	Formalism
“As gourd of a day and a night,”	The speaker likens hope to something that lasts only briefly, akin to a gourd that withers quickly, emphasizing its temporary nature.	Feminist Criticism
“As harvest that no man shall reap,”	Hope is portrayed as a harvest that remains uncollected, suggesting unfulfilled potential and missed opportunities.	Postcolonial Criticism

“All Hallows’ Eve” by Dorothea Tanning: A Critical Analysis

“All Hallows’ Eve” by Dorothea Tanning was first published in The New Yorker on November 1, 2004, on page 102, and included in Tanning’s poetry collection, Coming to That: Poems.

Introduction: “All Hallows’ Eve” by Dorothea Tanning

“All Hallows’ Eve” by Dorothea Tanning was first published in The New Yorker on November 1, 2004, on page 102, and included in Tanning’s poetry collection, Coming to That: Poems, showcasing the poet’s unique blend of surrealism and mysticism. This poem embodies the qualities of Tanning’s work, weaving together vivid imagery, symbolism, and a sense of dreamlike wonder. With its exploration of the threshold between reality and the unknown, “All Hallows’ Eve” invites readers to step into a realm of enchantment and contemplation, characteristic of Tanning’s distinctive style.

Text: “All Hallows’ Eve” by Dorothea Tanning

Be perfect, make it otherwise.

Yesterday is torn in shreds.

Lightning’s thousand sulfur eyes

Rip apart the breathing beds.

Hear bones crack and pulverize.

Doom creeps in on rubber treads.

Countless overwrought housewives,

Minds unraveling like threads,

Try lipstick shades to tranquilize

Fears of age and general dreads.

Sit tight, be perfect, swat the spies,

Don’t take faucets for fountainheads.

Drink tasty antidotes. Otherwise

You and the werewolf: newlyweds.

Annotations: “All Hallows’ Eve” by Dorothea Tanning

Full Line	Annotation
Be perfect, make it otherwise.	The speaker commands to pursue perfection but then suggests subversion or alteration of this perfection.
Yesterday is torn in shreds.	The past is depicted as fragmented or destroyed, suggesting a sense of loss or chaos.
Lightning’s thousand sulfur eyes	Vivid imagery comparing lightning to eyes of sulfur, emphasizing its intense and ominous nature.
Rip apart the breathing beds.	Violent imagery suggesting destruction, possibly of graves or resting places.
Hear bones crack and pulverize.	Graphic imagery depicting destruction and decay, creating a sense of unease or horror.
Doom creeps in on rubber treads.	Doom is personified as silently advancing, suggesting an inevitable and ominous presence.
Countless overwrought housewives,	Introduces a group of individuals, possibly symbolizing societal norms or expectations.
Minds unraveling like threads.	Metaphor for mental unraveling or breakdown, suggesting psychological distress or chaos.
Try lipstick shades to tranquilize	Housewives seek solace or distraction through mundane activities like applying lipstick.
Fears of age and general dreads.	References to common anxieties and fears associated with aging or the unknown future.
Sit tight, be perfect, swat the spies,	Directives amidst chaos, implying the need to maintain composure and vigilance.
Don’t take faucets for fountainheads.	Caution against mistaking ordinary objects for extraordinary sources of inspiration or wisdom.
Drink tasty antidotes. Otherwise	Encouragement to seek comfort or escape from troubles through pleasurable distractions.
You and the werewolf: newlyweds.	Unconventional pairing, suggesting a transformation or change in identity.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “All Hallows’ Eve” by Dorothea Tanning

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“Yesterday is torn in shreds.”	Repetition of the “s” sound in “yesterday,” “is,” and “shreds” creates a sense of fragmentation and destruction.
Allusion	“All Hallows’ Eve”	Reference to the traditional eve of the Western Christian feast of All Hallows’ Day (also known as Halloween).
Anaphora	“Be perfect, make it otherwise.”	Repetition of the phrase “Be perfect” at the beginning of two consecutive lines for emphasis and structure.
Assonance	“Lightning’s thousand sulfur eyes”	Repetition of the long “i” sound in “lightning” and “sulfur” creates an eerie and intense auditory effect.
Consonance	“Countless overwrought housewives”	Repetition of the “s” sound in “countless,” “housewives,” and “overwrought” creates a soft and flowing rhythm.
Enjambment	“Rip apart the breathing beds. / Hear bones crack and pulverize.”	The continuation of a sentence from one line to the next without a pause or punctuation enhances the sense of urgency and violence.
Hyperbole	“Lightning’s thousand sulfur eyes”	Exaggeration of the number of eyes attributed to lightning, emphasizing its intense and powerful nature.
Imagery	“Lightning’s thousand sulfur eyes”	Vivid description that appeals to the senses, creating a visual image of lightning with sulfur-colored eyes.
Metaphor	“Minds unraveling like threads”	Comparison between minds and unraveling threads, suggesting a gradual breakdown or disintegration of mental states.
Onomatopoeia	“Hear bones crack and pulverize.”	Words that imitate the sound they describe, enhancing the auditory experience and emphasizing the violence depicted.
Oxymoron	“Tasty antidotes”	Contradictory terms juxtaposed to create a surprising or intriguing effect, suggesting comfort in something paradoxical.
Personification	“Doom creeps in on rubber treads.”	Attribution of human characteristics (creeping) to non-human entities (doom), creating a sense of impending threat.
Repetition	“Be perfect, make it otherwise.”	Repeated phrase for emphasis, urging the reader to consider and reconsider the notion of perfection.
Simile	“You and the werewolf: newlyweds.”	Comparison between “you” and “the werewolf” using “like” or “as,” implying a deep and transformative connection.
Symbolism	“Breathing beds”	The beds symbolize life or vitality, and their destruction suggests mortality or the cessation of life.
Synecdoche	“Try lipstick shades to tranquilize”	The mention of lipstick stands for a broader concept of attempting to find calmness or control amidst chaos.
Tone	“Sit tight, be perfect, swat the spies,”	The imperative tone conveys a sense of urgency and authority, instructing the reader on how to respond to chaos.
Assonance	“Don’t take faucets for fountainheads.”	Repetition of the “o” sound in “faucets” and “fountainheads” creates a melodious effect and emphasizes the cautionary message.
Metonymy	“Drink tasty antidotes”	The term “antidotes” stands for anything that provides comfort or relief, representing a broader concept of solace.
Repetition	“Be perfect, make it otherwise.”	The repetition of the imperative command emphasizes the importance of striving for perfection while also subverting it.

Themes: “All Hallows’ Eve” by Dorothea Tanning

Imperfection and Striving for Perfection: The poem grapples with the tension between the desire for perfection and the reality of imperfection. This theme is encapsulated in the line “Be perfect, make it otherwise,” which suggests an unattainable ideal while acknowledging the need to confront imperfection. The juxtaposition of the command to “Be perfect” with the subsequent instruction to “make it otherwise” underscores the futility of pursuing perfection in a world marked by destruction and decay.
Fear and Anxiety: Fear permeates the poem, manifesting in various forms such as the fear of aging, the fear of the unknown, and the fear of impending doom. The imagery of “Lightning’s thousand sulfur eyes” evokes a sense of dread, while the mention of “general dreads” alludes to pervasive anxieties. The portrayal of “overwrought housewives” seeking solace in mundane activities like applying lipstick highlights the ways in which individuals attempt to cope with their fears amidst the chaos of All Hallows’ Eve.
Transformation and Metamorphosis: The theme of transformation emerges through the unexpected pairing of “You and the werewolf: newlyweds.” This line suggests a metaphorical transformation or change in identity, as the speaker aligns the reader with the figure of the werewolf, traditionally associated with metamorphosis. This theme underscores the idea of embracing change amidst the upheaval and destruction of All Hallows’ Eve, hinting at the potential for growth and renewal even in the face of darkness.

Decay and Mortality: Throughout the poem, there are vivid images of decay and destruction, symbolizing the passage of time and the inevitability of mortality. Lines such as “Yesterday is torn in shreds” and “Hear bones crack and pulverize” evoke a sense of fragility and transience. The mention of “breathing beds” being ripped apart suggests the cessation of life, while the imagery of “Doom creeps in on rubber treads” underscores the looming presence of death. These motifs of decay and mortality serve as a reminder of the ephemeral nature of existence and the constant cycle of life and death.

Literary Theories and “All Hallows’ Eve” by Dorothea Tanning

Literary Theory	Application	Explanation
Surrealism	Imagery, metaphor (e.g., “Lightning’s thousand sulfur eyes”, “Minds unraveling like threads”)	Tanning’s use of dreamlike, fantastical elements and unusual comparisons creates a sense of uncertainty and blurs reality.
Feminist Criticism	Portrayal of housewives, emphasis on societal expectations (“Be perfect”, “Try lipstick shades to tranquilize”)	The poem critiques societal pressure on women to conform and the resulting anxiety and disintegration of identity.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Werewolf as symbol of repressed desires, “Fears of age and general dreads”	The poem explores the unconscious mind and the struggle to contain primal fears and desires, reflecting Tanning’s interest in psychoanalysis.
Absurdism	Dark humor, unexpected juxtapositions (“You and the werewolf: newlyweds”)	The poem’s tone and imagery create a sense of absurdity, highlighting the absurdity of societal expectations and the human condition.
Symbolism	Use of symbols like lightning, werewolf, and lipstick	These symbols represent the power of the unconscious, the struggle with primal fears, and the societal pressure to conform, respectively.

Critical Questions about “All Hallows’ Eve” by Dorothea Tanning

Question 1: How does the poem explore the tension between societal expectations and individual identity?
The poem critiques the pressure to conform to societal norms, exemplified in the repeated command “Be perfect.” This expectation is contrasted with the speaker’s inner turmoil, as seen in the lines “Minds unraveling like threads” and “Fears of age and general dreads.” The speaker’s struggle to maintain a perfect facade while dealing with internal anxieties highlights the tension between societal expectations and individual identity.

Question 2: How does the poem use surrealism to convey the speaker’s emotional state?
The poem employs surrealistic imagery, such as “Lightning’s thousand sulfur eyes” and “Drink tasty antidotes,” to create a dreamlike atmosphere that reflects the speaker’s anxious and disjointed mental state. These images disrupt the reader’s expectations and create a sense of uncertainty, mirroring the speaker’s feelings of disorientation and disintegration.
Question 3: What role does gender play in the poem’s exploration of identity and societal pressure?

The poem specifically highlights the experiences of women, with the line “Countless overwrought housewives” emphasizing the gendered nature of societal expectations. The speaker’s reference to “lipstick shades” and the need to “tranquilize” fears also underscores the gendered aspects of societal pressure. The poem critiques the ways in which women are socialized to prioritize appearance and conformity over individual identity.
Question 4: How does the poem’s use of dark humor and irony contribute to its themes and tone?
The poem’s final line, “You and the werewolf: newlyweds,” is a darkly humorous and ironic comment on the speaker’s situation. This line highlights the absurdity of societal expectations and the ways in which individuals are forced to conform, even to the point of losing their own identity. The use of dark humor and irony adds a layer of complexity to the poem’s themes and tone, underscoring the speaker’s sense of desperation and frustration.

Literary Works Similar to “All Hallows’ Eve” by Dorothea Tanning

“The Hollow Men” by T.S. Eliot: This poem explores themes of emptiness, disillusionment, and the fear of meaninglessness. Like “All Hallows’ Eve,” it delves into the darker aspects of human existence and the search for significance in a world marked by decay and despair.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: Another work by T.S. Eliot, this poem delves into themes of existential angst, isolation, and the passage of time. Like “All Hallows’ Eve,” it captures the sense of unease and uncertainty that pervades modern life.
“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot: Yet another poem by T.S. Eliot, “The Waste Land” explores themes of fragmentation, disillusionment, and spiritual desolation. It shares with “All Hallows’ Eve” a sense of fragmentation and decay, as well as a preoccupation with the emptiness and futility of existence.

“The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe: This classic poem by Poe explores themes of grief, loss, and the inevitability of death. Like “All Hallows’ Eve,” it uses vivid imagery and evocative language to create a sense of unease and foreboding.
“The Hollow of the Three Hills” by Nathaniel Hawthorne: This short story in poetic form explores themes of guilt, punishment, and the consequences of sin. Like “All Hallows’ Eve,” it delves into the darker aspects of human nature and the psychological toll of past actions.

Representative Quotations “All Hallows’ Eve” by Dorothea Tanning

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspectives
“Be perfect, make it otherwise.”	Opening lines, setting tone	Feminist Criticism: highlights societal pressure on women to conform; Psychoanalytic Theory: reflects the tension between the conscious and unconscious mind
“Lightning’s thousand sulfur eyes / Rip apart the breathing beds.”	Imagery of destruction and chaos	Surrealism: dreamlike, fantastical elements; Absurdism: unexpected, violent imagery
“Countless overwrought housewives, / Minds unraveling like threads”	Description of women’s mental state	Feminist Criticism: critiques societal expectations and gender roles; Psychoanalytic Theory: explores the unconscious mind and repressed desires
“Try lipstick shades to tranquilize / Fears of age and general dreads”	Women’s attempts to cope with anxiety	Feminist Criticism: highlights gendered societal pressure; Symbolism: lipstick as a symbol of societal conformity
“You and the werewolf: newlyweds”	Final line, darkly humorous	Absurdism: unexpected, ironic conclusion; Symbolism: werewolf as a symbol of repressed desires and the unconscious mind

“From The Princess: Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal” by Lord Alfred Tennyson

“From The Princess: Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal” by Lord Alfred Tennyson was first published in 1847 as part of a longer narrative poem titled The Princess: A Medley.

Introduction: “From The Princess: Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal” by Lord Alfred Tennyson

“From The Princess: Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal” by Lord Alfred Tennyson was first published in 1847 as part of a longer narrative poem titled The Princess: A Medley. This particular excerpt, though not a traditional sonnet due to its lack of rhyme scheme, showcases Tennyson’s mastery of imagery and metaphor. He paints a vivid picture of a tranquil night using natural elements like sleeping flowers and fireflies, alluding to a dawning passion between the speaker and his beloved.

**Text: “From The Princess: Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal” by Lord Alfred Tennyson**

Now sleeps the crimson petal, now the white;

Nor waves the cypress in the palace walk;

Nor winks the gold fin in the porphyry font.

The firefly wakens; waken thou with me.

Now droops the milk-white peacock like a ghost,

And like a ghost she glimmers on to me.

Now lies the Earth all Danaë to the stars,

And all thy heart lies open unto me.

Now slides the silent meteor on, and leaves

A shining furrow, as thy thoughts in me.

Now folds the lily all her sweetness up,

And slips into the bosom of the lake.

So fold thyself, my dearest, thou, and slip

Into my bosom and be lost in me.

Annotations: “From The Princess: Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal” by Lord Alfred Tennyson

Line	Annotation
1	“Now sleeps the crimson petal, now the white;” The opening line creates a sense of calm and tranquility, indicating the passing of time as petals from flowers rest.
2	“Nor waves the cypress in the palace walk;” The absence of movement in the cypress tree signifies stillness and quietness in the palace surroundings.
3	“Nor winks the gold fin in the porphyry font.” The goldfish (gold fin) typically seen swimming in a porphyry font is also motionless, adding to the scene’s serene atmosphere.
4	“The firefly wakens; waken thou with me.” In contrast to the previous lines, the firefly awakens, suggesting a call to action or a plea for companionship and shared awakening.
5	“Now droops the milk-white peacock like a ghost,” The imagery of the peacock drooping like a ghost conveys a sense of sadness or desolation, possibly mirroring the speaker’s emotions.
6	“And like a ghost she glimmers on to me.” The comparison of the peacock to a ghost continues, emphasizing its ethereal, almost otherworldly presence.
7	“Now lies the Earth all Danaë to the stars,” This line references Danaë, a figure from Greek mythology, suggesting a sense of openness and vulnerability akin to Danaë’s exposure.
8	“And all thy heart lies open unto me.” The speaker suggests a deep emotional connection, where the beloved’s heart is metaphorically laid bare, fully known and understood.
9	“Now slides the silent meteor on, and leaves A shining furrow, as thy thoughts in me.” The image of a meteor leaving a shining trail in the sky parallels the impression left by the beloved’s thoughts in the speaker’s mind.
10	“Now folds the lily all her sweetness up,” Just as the lily closes its petals, the sweetness and beauty of a moment or experience come to an end or are withdrawn.
11	“And slips into the bosom of the lake.” The imagery suggests a gentle, serene transition as the lily’s beauty merges with the tranquility of the lake.
12	“So fold thyself, my dearest, thou, and slip Into my bosom and be lost in me.” The speaker invites the beloved to surrender and become enveloped in their love, echoing the closing of the lily and a sense of unity.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “From The Princess: Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal” by Lord Alfred Tennyson

Device	Example	Explanation
1. Metaphor	“Now sleeps the crimson petal”	Comparing the petal to a person sleeping, suggesting a peaceful and serene atmosphere.
2. Personification	“Nor waves the cypress in the palace walk”	Attributing human-like action to a plant, creating a sense of stillness and quiet.
3. Alliteration	” The firefly wakens; waken thou with me”	Repeating the “w” sound for a musical effect, adding to the poem’s rhythm and flow.
4. Enjambment	“The firefly wakens; waken thou with me”	Carrying a sentence or phrase over to the next line without punctuation, creating a sense of urgency and continuity.
5. Simile	“Now droops the milk-white peacock like a ghost”	Comparing two things using “like” or “as”, creating a vivid and haunting image.
6. Imagery	“And like a ghost she glimmers on to me”	Creating a vivid sensory experience for the reader, evoking a sense of eerie beauty.
7. Allusion	“Now lies the Earth all Danaë to the stars”	Referencing the mythological figure Danaë, who was imprisoned in a tower, suggesting a sense of confinement and longing.
8. Symbolism	“And all thy heart lies open unto me”	Using the heart to represent emotions and vulnerability, suggesting a deep connection between the speaker and the beloved.
9. Hyperbole	“Now slides the silent meteor on, and leaves / A shining furrow, as thy thoughts in me”	Exaggerating the impact of the beloved’s thoughts, suggesting a profound and lasting effect.
10. Personification	“And slips into the bosom of the lake”	Attributing human-like action to an object or idea, creating a sense of gentle and peaceful movement.
11. Repetition	“Now” (throughout the poem)	Repeating a word or phrase for emphasis and unity, creating a sense of rhythm and continuity.
12. Rhyme	“me” and “be”	Using similar sounds in words to create a musical effect, adding to the poem’s rhythm and flow.
13. Assonance	“white” and “night”	Repeating vowel sounds for a musical effect, creating a sense of harmony and continuity.
14. Onomatopoeia	“winks”	Using a word that imitates the sound of a gentle movement, creating a vivid sensory experience.
15. Anaphora	“Now” (throughout the poem)	Repeating a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses, creating a sense of rhythm and continuity.
16. Epistrophe	“me” (throughout the poem)	Repeating a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses, creating a sense of unity and emphasis.
17. Caesura	Throughout the poem	Using pauses or breaks within a line for effect, creating a sense of drama and emphasis.
18. Imagery	Throughout the poem	Creating vivid sensory experiences for the reader, evoking a range of emotions and ideas.
19. Symbolic Language	Throughout the poem	Using objects or colors to represent abstract ideas, creating a rich and layered meaning.
20. Envelope Structure	“Now sleeps the crimson petal… / So fold thyself, my dearest, thou, and slip / Into my bosom and be lost in me”	Using a structural device where the poem begins and ends with a similar image or idea, creating a sense of unity and closure.

Themes: “From The Princess: Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal” by Lord Alfred Tennyson

Transience of Beauty and Time: Tennyson explores the fleeting nature of beauty and the passage of time. The imagery of petals sleeping and the closing of the lily symbolize the ephemeral nature of beauty and experiences. For example, in the lines “Now sleeps the crimson petal, now the white; / Now folds the lily all her sweetness up,” the poet evokes a sense of transience as natural elements transition and withdraw their beauty.
Connection and Intimacy: The poem delves into themes of emotional connection and intimacy between individuals. Lines such as “And all thy heart lies open unto me” and “So fold thyself, my dearest, thou, and slip / Into my bosom and be lost in me” express a deep desire for closeness and unity. Through these lines, Tennyson explores the longing for emotional intimacy and the desire to be fully known and understood by another.

Nature’s Symbolism: Nature serves as a rich source of symbolism throughout the poem, reflecting the emotions and states of mind of the speaker. The imagery of the peacock, the lily, and the meteor contribute to the overall mood and themes of the poem. For instance, the peacock drooping “like a ghost” and the lily folding its petals suggest melancholy and withdrawal, while the silent meteor leaving a shining trail symbolizes the lingering impact of thoughts and emotions.
Sensory Experience and Romanticism: Tennyson employs vivid sensory imagery to evoke a romantic and dreamlike atmosphere. The description of the palace walk, the porphyry font, and the Earth lying “all Danaë to the stars” immerses the reader in the speaker’s world. Through sensory details, the poem evokes a sense of enchantment and invites readers to experience the beauty and emotion conveyed within the verses.

Critical Questions about “From The Princess: Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal” by Lord Alfred Tennyson

Question 1: How does Tennyson use imagery and symbolism to create a sense of intimacy and vulnerability in the poem, and what effect does this have on the reader’s experience?

Tennyson’s use of imagery and symbolism in the poem creates a dreamy and intimate atmosphere, drawing the reader into a private world of emotions. For example, the “crimson petal” and “milk-white peacock” (lines 1 and 5) evoke a sense of delicate beauty, while the “porphyry font” and “bosom of the lake” (lines 3 and 12) suggest a sense of containment and protection. The repetition of “now” throughout the poem also creates a sense of urgency and immediacy, drawing the reader into the speaker’s emotional state. This intimacy and vulnerability create a sense of connection with the speaker, allowing the reader to experience the emotions of the poem more deeply.
Question 2: How does the poem’s use of metaphor and personification contribute to its exploration of the relationship between the speaker and the beloved, and what insights does this offer into the nature of love and desire?
The poem’s use of metaphor and personification creates a sense of fluid boundaries between the speaker, the beloved, and the natural world. For example, the comparison of the beloved to a “ghost” (line 5) and the speaker’s heart to an “open” and vulnerable space (line 8) blurs the lines between self and other. Similarly, the personification of the “firefly” and “meteor” (lines 4 and 9) creates a sense of agency and action in the natural world, mirroring the speaker’s own desires and emotions. This exploration of the relationship between the speaker and the beloved offers insights into the nature of love and desire as a fluid and dynamic force that transcends boundaries and definitions.

Question 3: How does the poem’s use of repetition and rhyme contribute to its musicality and overall effect, and what role does this play in conveying the speaker’s emotions and ideas?
The poem’s use of repetition and rhyme creates a musical quality that enhances the emotional impact of the speaker’s words. The repetition of “now” throughout the poem creates a sense of urgency and emphasis, while the rhyme scheme adds a sense of structure and containment. The use of assonance and consonance, such as in “white” and “night” (lines 5 and 6), adds a further layer of musicality, creating a sense of harmony and continuity. This musicality plays a crucial role in conveying the speaker’s emotions and ideas, creating a sense of flow and continuity that draws the reader into the poem’s world.
Question 4: How does the poem’s exploration of the relationship between the speaker and the beloved reflect and challenge societal norms and expectations around love and relationships, and what implications does this have for our understanding of gender and sexuality?

The poem’s exploration of the relationship between the speaker and the beloved challenges societal norms and expectations around love and relationships by presenting a vision of love as a fluid and dynamic force that transcends boundaries and definitions. The speaker’s use of imagery and metaphor to describe the beloved, as well as the repetition of “now” and the emphasis on intimacy and vulnerability, creates a sense of urgency and immediacy that challenges traditional notions of romantic love. This challenge to societal norms has implications for our understanding of gender and sexuality, offering a vision of love and relationships that is more inclusive and expansive than traditional binary models.

Literary Theories and “From The Princess: Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal” by Lord Alfred Tennyson

Literary Theory	Explanation	Examples from the Poem
New Criticism	New Criticism focuses on close reading of the text itself, examining its formal elements and how they contribute to meaning.	Analyzing the imagery, symbolism, and language used in the poem to uncover its deeper meanings.
		For example, exploring the symbolism of the “crimson petal” and the “white” petal as representations of beauty and time.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Psychoanalytic theory explores the unconscious mind and hidden desires of the characters, often through symbolism and metaphor.	Examining the speaker’s longing for intimacy and connection as expressed through imagery and metaphor.
		For instance, the invitation for the beloved to “slip / Into my bosom and be lost in me” may reflect unconscious desires for unity and emotional closeness.
Feminist Theory	Feminist theory analyzes literature through the lens of gender dynamics, power structures, and representations of women.	Examining how gender roles and expectations influence the relationships depicted in the poem.
		For example, exploring the portrayal of the female figure in the poem and how her agency or lack thereof is represented.
Ecocriticism	Ecocriticism explores the relationship between literature and the environment, examining how nature is depicted and its symbolic significance.	Analyzing the role of nature imagery in conveying themes of transience, beauty, and interconnectedness.
		For instance, examining how the imagery of the lily and the Earth reflects broader ecological themes of growth, decay, and renewal.
Reader-Response	Reader-response theory focuses on the reader’s interpretation and response to a text, considering how individual experiences shape meaning.	Exploring how readers personally connect with the themes and emotions expressed in the poem.
		For example, reflecting on how the poem evokes different emotions or memories for different readers based on their own experiences and perspectives.

Literary Works Similar to “From The Princess: Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal” by Lord Alfred Tennyson

“A Red, Red Rose” by Robert Burns: This poem explores themes of love and the passage of time, similar to Tennyson’s exploration of beauty and transience. Burns uses vivid imagery and metaphor to convey the depth of his emotions.
“To Autumn” by John Keats: Keats’s poem celebrates the beauty of nature and the changing seasons, much like Tennyson’s focus on natural imagery. Both poets use sensory language to evoke a sense of atmosphere and mood.

“She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron: This poem reflects on the beauty of a woman, much like Tennyson’s exploration of beauty in nature. Byron’s poem also emphasizes themes of light and darkness, which resonate with Tennyson’s use of imagery.
“Ode on Melancholy” by John Keats: Keats’s ode explores the bittersweet nature of human experience, similar to Tennyson’s reflection on the transient nature of beauty. Both poets delve into the complexities of emotion and the fleetingness of joy.
“A Dream Within a Dream” by Edgar Allan Poe: Poe’s poem grapples with the elusive nature of reality and perception, echoing Tennyson’s exploration of themes like transience and the intangible nature of beauty. Both poets employ evocative language and imagery to convey deeper philosophical ideas.

Representative Quotations “From The Princess: Now Sleeps the Crimson Petal” by Lord Alfred Tennyson

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Concept
“Now sleeps the crimson petal, now the white;”	The opening line sets a tranquil scene, describing the stillness of nature as petals from flowers rest, indicating the passage of time.	New Criticism: Close examination of the poem’s formal elements, such as imagery and structure, to uncover deeper meanings within the text.
“Nor winks the gold fin in the porphyry font.”	The absence of movement in the goldfish emphasizes the serene atmosphere, contributing to the sense of stillness and quietness in the surroundings.	Ecocriticism: Analysis of how nature imagery reflects broader ecological themes, such as the interconnectedness between human emotions and the natural world.
“And all thy heart lies open unto me.”	The speaker expresses a deep emotional connection with the beloved, suggesting a sense of intimacy and vulnerability in their relationship.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Exploration of unconscious desires and emotions expressed through symbolism and metaphor, revealing hidden aspects of the psyche.
“Now slides the silent meteor on, and leaves	The imagery of the silent meteor leaving a shining furrow parallels the impression left by the beloved’s thoughts in the speaker’s mind.	Reader-Response Theory: Consideration of how individual readers personally connect with the poem’s themes and emotions based on their own experiences and perspectives.
“So fold thyself, my dearest, thou, and slip	The speaker invites the beloved to surrender and become enveloped in their love, echoing the closing of the lily and a sense of unity.	Feminist Theory: Examination of gender dynamics and representations of women in literature, considering the agency or lack thereof portrayed in the poem.

“A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

“A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Jonathan Swift was first published in posthumously in 1765, not appearing in any collection during his lifetime.

Introduction: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

“A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Jonathan Swift was first published in posthumously in 1765, not appearing in any collection during his lifetime. The poem utilizes sharp wit and irony to dismantle the traditional elegy form. Swift employs feigned surprise and exaggerated mourning to expose the supposed general’s lack of true merit

Text: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

His Grace! impossible! what dead!

Of old age too, and in his bed!

And could that mighty warrior fall?

And so inglorious, after all!

Well, since he’s gone, no matter how,

The last loud trump must wake him now:

And, trust me, as the noise grows stronger,

He’d wish to sleep a little longer.

And could he be indeed so old

As by the newspapers we’re told?

Threescore, I think, is pretty high;

’Twas time in conscience he should die

This world he cumbered long enough;

He burnt his candle to the snuff;

And that’s the reason, some folks think,

He left behind so great a stink.

Behold his funeral appears,

Nor widow’s sighs, nor orphan’s tears,

Wont at such times each heart to pierce,

Attend the progress of his hearse.

But what of that, his friends may say,

He had those honours in his day.

True to his profit and his pride,

He made them weep before he died.

Come hither, all ye empty things,

Ye bubbles raised by breath of kings;

Who float upon the tide of state,

Come hither, and behold your fate.

Let pride be taught by this rebuke,

How very mean a thing’s a Duke;

From all his ill-got honours flung,

Turned to that dirt from whence he sprung.

Annotations: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Line	Annotation
His Grace! impossible! what dead!	Swift’s use of “His Grace” is ironic, as it is a title of respect, but the speaker is being sarcastic. The exclamation “impossible!” and “what dead!” convey shock and disbelief at the general’s death, but also hint at the speaker’s insincerity.
Of old age too, and in his bed!	The phrase “of old age” is a euphemism for a natural death, but the addition of “and in his bed” emphasizes the unglamorous and unheroic circumstances of his death. This contrasts with the typical heroic death in battle expected of a great general.
And could that mighty warrior fall?	This rhetorical question expresses mock surprise and disbelief that the general, once powerful and mighty, could actually die. The word “fall” implies a sense of decline and weakness.
And so inglorious, after all!	The word “inglorious” means without glory or honor, emphasizing the general’s unheroic death. The phrase “after all” suggests that despite his past achievements, his death is still unimpressive.
Well, since he’s gone, no matter how,	This line conveys a sense of resignation and indifference to the circumstances of the general’s death. The phrase “no matter how” implies that the speaker doesn’t care about the details of his death.
The last loud trump must wake him now:	The “last loud trump” symbolizes the call to judgment or the final summons. The word “wake” implies that the general is being roused from sleep, suggesting that death is a kind of awakening.
And, trust me, as the noise grows stronger,	The phrase “trust me” is ironic, as the speaker is being sarcastic and untrustworthy. The “noise” refers to the sound of the trumpet, and the phrase “grows stronger” implies that the call to judgment is becoming more insistent.
He’d wish to sleep a little longer.	This line is humorous and ironic, suggesting that the general would rather avoid judgment and sleep a little longer. It pokes fun at the idea that even the mighty general is not ready to face death.
And could he be indeed so old	This line questions the truth of the general’s reported age, suggesting that he might be older than claimed.
As by the newspapers we’re told?	This line references the unreliability of media reports, implying that the general’s age might be exaggerated or distorted for public consumption.
Threescore, I think, is pretty high;	The phrase “threescore” means sixty, and the speaker’s comment that it’s “pretty high” is an understatement, as sixty was considered old in Swift’s time. The irony lies in the speaker’s casual tone, downplaying the significance of the general’s age.
‘Twas time in conscience he should die	This line is sarcastic, suggesting that the general lived too long and it’s a good thing he finally died. The phrase “in conscience” implies a sense of moral obligation, but the speaker is being facetious.
This world he cumbered long enough;	The word “cumbered” means to encumber or hinder, implying that the general’s presence in the world was a burden. The phrase “long enough” suggests that he overstayed his welcome.
He burnt his candle to the snuff;	This metaphor compares the general’s life to a candle, suggesting that he lived excessively and wastefully, burning himself out. The phrase “to the snuff” means to the very end, implying that he exhausted his resources.
And that’s the reason, some folks think,	This line is ironic, as the speaker attributes the general’s death to his excessive lifestyle, but the phrase “some folks think” implies that this is just one opinion among many.
He left behind so great a stink.	This line is an exaggeration, using hyperbole to emphasize the negative impact of the general’s life. The word “stink” implies a strong and unpleasant odor, symbolizing the general’s corrupt and harmful legacy.
Behold his funeral appears,	This line is ironic, as the speaker describes the general’s funeral as if it’s a grand and impressive spectacle, but the tone is sarcastic.
Nor widow’s sighs, nor orphan’s tears,	This line notes the absence of genuine mourning or emotional response to the general’s death. The phrase “widow’s sighs” and “orphan’s tears” implies that even those closest to him are not truly grieving.
Line	Annotation
Nor widow’s sighs, nor orphan’s tears,	This line notes the absence of genuine mourning or emotional response to the general’s death. The phrase “widow’s sighs” and “orphan’s tears” implies that even those closest to him are not truly grieving.
Wont at such times each heart to pierce,	This line is ironic, as it suggests that the general’s death should have caused emotional pain, but the word “wont” means accustomed or usual, implying that this is not the case. The phrase “each heart to pierce” means to affect everyone deeply.
Attend the progress of his hearse.	This line is sarcastic, as it describes the general’s funeral procession as if it’s a grand and impressive spectacle, but the tone is mocking. The word “progress” implies a sense of grandeur and ceremony.
But what of that, his friends may say,	This line is ironic, as it suggests that the general’s friends are downplaying his death and legacy. The phrase “what of that” is a dismissive expression, implying that his friends don’t care about his impact.
He had those honours in his day.	This line references the general’s past achievements and honors, but the phrase “in his day” implies that they are now distant and irrelevant.
True to his profit and his pride,	This line is critical, suggesting that the general was motivated by self-interest and arrogance. The phrase “true to” means loyal or faithful to, but in this case, it implies a negative quality.
He made them weep before he died.	This line is ironic, as it suggests that the general caused others to suffer or grieve during his lifetime, but not in a positive or heroic way. The phrase “before he died” implies that his impact was felt before his death, but not in a lasting or meaningful way.
Come hither, all ye empty things,	This line addresses the empty and vain symbols of power and status, using the phrase “come hither” to summon them. The word “empty” implies a lack of substance or value.
Ye bubbles raised by breath of kings;	This line uses a metaphor to compare the symbols of power to bubbles, implying that they are fragile and ephemeral. The phrase “breath of kings” suggests that they are created and sustained by the whims of powerful people.
Who float upon the tide of state,	This line continues the metaphor, comparing the symbols of power to objects floating on the surface of water. The phrase “tide of state” implies the changing fortunes of political power.
Come hither, and behold your fate.	This line summons the symbols of power to witness their own fate, using the phrase “come hither” to command their attention. The word “behold” implies a sense of spectacle or display.
Let pride be taught by this rebuke,	This line addresses the proud and arrogant, using the word “rebuke” to imply a sense of correction or chastisement. The phrase “let pride be taught” suggests that pride should be instructed or humbled.
How very mean a thing’s a Duke;	This line is satirical, using the word “mean” to imply a sense of worthlessness or insignificance. The phrase “a thing’s a Duke” reduces the title of Duke to a mere object or trinket.
From all his ill-got honours flung,	This line is critical, suggesting that the general’s honors and achievements were gained through corrupt or unjust means. The phrase “ill-got” implies a sense of wrongdoing or illegitimacy.
Turned to that dirt from whence he sprung.	This line uses a metaphor to compare the general’s legacy to dirt or earth, implying that he has returned to his humble origins. The phrase “from whence he sprung” suggests a sense of circularity or return to one’s starting point.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	” The *last loud* trump must wake him now: “	Repetition of initial consonant sounds for musical effect
Amplification	“Threescore, I think, is pretty high; / ‘Twas time in conscience he should die”	Emphasizing a point by repeating or expanding on it
Enjambment	“And could that mighty warrior fall? / And so inglorious, after all!”	Carrying a sentence or phrase over to the next line without a pause
Epigram	“He burnt his candle to the snuff; / And that’s the reason, some folks think, / He left behind so great a stink.”	A witty, satirical remark
Hyperbole	“He left behind so great a stink”	Exaggeration for emphasis or effect
Irony	“His Grace! impossible! what dead! / Of old age too, and in his bed!”	Saying the opposite of what is meant, often to convey contempt or scorn
Juxtaposition	“Behold his funeral appears, / Nor widow’s sighs, nor orphan’s tears”	Placing two contrasting ideas or images side by side
Metaphor	“He burnt his candle to the snuff”	Comparing two unlike things without “like” or “as”
Mock Elegy	Entire poem	A satirical poem that mocks the traditional elegy form
Onomatopoeia	“The last loud trump must wake him now”	Words imitating the sounds they describe
Oxymoron	“inglorious, after all”	Combining two contradictory words or ideas
Paradox	“He made them weep before he died”	A statement that contradicts itself or appears illogical
Personification	“Pride be taught by this rebuke”	Attributing human qualities or actions to non-human entities
Refrain	“Come hither”	Repeating a phrase or line at intervals throughout the poem
Rhyme	Various examples throughout the poem	Using similar sounds in words to create a musical effect
Satire	Entire poem	Using irony, sarcasm, and ridicule to criticize or expose vices or follies
Simile	“Ye bubbles raised by breath of kings”	Comparing two unlike things using “like” or “as”
Symbolism	“Duke”	Using an object, color, or other element to represent an abstract idea or concept
Understatement	“Threescore, I think, is pretty high”	Saying less than what is meant, often for ironic or humorous effect
Wordplay	“stink” (multiple meanings)	Using words with multiple meanings or connotations for clever effect

Themes: “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

The Transience of Fame and Glory: In Swift’s satire, the theme of the fleeting nature of fame and glory is evident. The poem mocks the general’s lack of a heroic demise, emphasizing the irony of a once-mighty warrior meeting an inglorious end in old age. Lines such as “And could that mighty warrior fall? / And so inglorious, after all!” (lines 3-4) underscore the general’s descent from power and significance. Swift highlights how worldly achievements ultimately fade into insignificance with the passage of time, serving as a commentary on the ephemeral nature of human accomplishments.
The Futility of Worldly Honors and Titles: Swift critiques the superficiality of societal recognition, suggesting that honors and titles hold little value in the face of mortality. He derides the emptiness of such accolades, emphasizing their insignificance in the grand scheme of life and death. Lines like “How very mean a thing’s a Duke; / From all his ill-got honours flung” (lines 30-31) underscore the poem’s theme of the emptiness of worldly distinctions. Swift’s satire challenges the notion that social status and titles confer lasting importance, highlighting their transient nature.

Hypocrisy in Mourning Rituals and Social Expectations: The poem addresses the hypocrisy inherent in mourning rituals and societal expectations surrounding death. Despite the general’s lack of genuine mourners, his friends may still seek to claim honor for his past deeds. Swift satirizes this insincerity, critiquing the tendency to prioritize appearances over genuine emotion. Lines such as “But what of that, his friends may say, / He had those honours in his day” (lines 21-22) highlight the discrepancy between public displays of mourning and private motivations. This theme serves as a commentary on the performative nature of social customs related to death.
The Universality of Mortality: Through humor and satire, Swift reminds readers of the universal inevitability of mortality. The poem serves as a stark reminder of the impermanence of human existence and the ultimate equalizer that is death. Lines like “Come hither, and behold your fate. / Let pride be taught by this rebuke” (lines 28-29) underscore the poem’s theme of mortality. Swift’s satire challenges individuals to confront their mortality and consider the futility of worldly pursuits in the face of death. This theme resonates throughout the poem, serving as a sobering reflection on the human condition.

Literary Theories and “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Literary Theory	Explanation	References from the Poem
1. New Historicism	New Historicism examines literary works within the context of historical events, social norms, and cultural attitudes of the time period.	Swift’s satire reflects contemporary views on power, mortality, and societal norms.
	In the poem, Swift critiques the societal obsession with fame and glory, suggesting that the general’s death exposes the transience of worldly honors.	“Threescore, I think, is pretty high; / ’Twas time in conscience he should die” (lines 7-8)
2. Satire	Satire uses humor, irony, and exaggeration to criticize societal follies, vices, or shortcomings.	Swift employs satire to mock the superficiality of societal recognition and the hypocrisy of mourning rituals.
	The poem satirizes the empty rituals of mourning and the insincerity of those who seek to claim honor for the deceased.	“Come hither, all ye empty things, / Ye bubbles raised by breath of kings” (lines 24-25)
3. Deconstruction	Deconstruction challenges binary oppositions and hierarchical structures in texts, revealing contradictions and ambiguities.	Swift deconstructs the notion of fame and glory, highlighting their fleeting nature and ultimate insignificance.
	The poem undermines traditional notions of honor and status, suggesting that titles and accolades are ultimately meaningless.	“How very mean a thing’s a Duke; / From all his ill-got honours flung” (lines 30-31)
4. Reader-Response Criticism	Reader-Response Criticism emphasizes the role of the reader in interpreting a text and considers how individual experiences shape meaning.	Readers may respond to Swift’s satire based on their own views of societal norms and mortality.
	Readers may find Swift’s critique of societal values thought-provoking and may reflect on the transient nature of human achievements.	“And could that mighty warrior fall? / And so inglorious, after all!” (lines 3-4)

Critical Questions about “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

What is the tone of the poem and how is it achieved?

The tone of the poem is satirical, ironic, and sarcastic, achieved through Swift’s use of language, imagery, and rhetorical devices. The speaker’s mock surprise and disbelief at the general’s death (“His Grace! impossible! what dead!”), the use of irony (“And could that mighty warrior fall?”), and sarcasm (“Well, since he’s gone, no matter how”) create a tone that is both critical and humorous. The poem’s use of hyperbole (“He left behind so great a stink”) and metaphor (“He burnt his candle to the snuff”) also contribute to its satirical tone.
What is the speaker’s attitude towards the general and his legacy?
The speaker’s attitude towards the general and his legacy is one of criticism and disdain. The poem portrays the general as a self-interested, arrogant, and corrupt individual who has left behind a negative impact (“He left behind so great a stink”). The speaker also mocks the general’s achievements and honors, reducing them to mere “empty things” and “bubbles raised by breath of kings.” The poem suggests that the general’s legacy is one of harm and suffering, and that his death is not worthy of genuine mourning or praise.

How does the poem use imagery and metaphor to convey its themes?
The poem uses imagery and metaphor to convey its themes of corruption, excess, and the fleeting nature of power and status. The image of the general burning his candle to the snuff suggests a life of excess and waste, while the metaphor of the “bubbles raised by breath of kings” implies that the symbols of power and status are fragile and ephemeral. The poem’s use of hyperbole, such as the “great stink” left behind by the general, also creates vivid imagery that reinforces its themes.
What commentary does the poem offer on the social and political context of its time?

The poem offers a commentary on the social and political context of its time by critiquing the excesses and corruption of the powerful and wealthy. The poem suggests that those in power are often motivated by self-interest and pride, and that their achievements and honors are often gained through corrupt or unjust means. The poem also implies that the symbols of power and status are empty and fleeting, and that true value lies in humility and virtue rather than wealth and prestige. The poem’s satire and irony offer a commentary on the social and political context of Swift’s time, critiquing the excesses of the wealthy and powerful.

Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Essay Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
The Power of Satire	How does Swift’s use of satire in the poem critique the excesses and corruption of the powerful and wealthy, and what impact does this have on the reader?	Through his masterful use of satire, Swift exposes the hypocrisy and superficiality of the general’s legacy, prompting the reader to question the true value of power and status.
Imagery and Theme	How does the poem’s imagery and metaphor contribute to its themes of corruption, excess, and the fleeting nature of power and status, and what insights do these literary devices offer into the human condition?	The poem’s imagery and metaphor, particularly the candle burning to the snuff and the bubbles raised by breath of kings, offer a scathing critique of the human tendency towards excess and corruption, highlighting the transience of earthly achievements.
Death and Legacy	How does the poem use the general’s death and legacy to comment on the fleeting nature of human achievement and the importance of humility and virtue, and what message does this convey to the reader?	Through the general’s empty and fleeting legacy, Swift cautions against the dangers of pride and ambition, emphasizing the importance of humility and virtue in human life and encouraging the reader to prioritize moral character over earthly success.

Literary Works Similar to “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

“The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson – This poem satirizes the human desire for wealth, power, and fame, exploring the futility of worldly ambitions and the inevitability of death.
“The Dunciad” by Alexander Pope – Pope’s mock-epic poem satirizes the literary and cultural figures of his time, lampooning the decline of intellectual standards and the rise of mediocrity.

“The Rape of the Lock” by Alexander Pope – This mock-heroic poem humorously critiques the frivolity and vanity of aristocratic society, focusing on a trivial incident involving the cutting of a woman’s hair.
“The Canterbury Tales” by Geoffrey Chaucer – Chaucer’s collection of tales features a variety of satirical elements, lampooning societal norms, religious hypocrisy, and human folly through the diverse characters and narratives.
“The Flea” by John Donne – While not an elegy, Donne’s metaphysical poem employs wit and irony to explore themes of seduction, persuasion, and the blurring of physical and spiritual boundaries, making it a compelling work of satirical poetry.

Representative Quotations “A Satirical Elegy on the Death of a Late Famous General” by Johnathan Swift

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“His Grace! impossible! what dead!”	The speaker expresses disbelief at the death of the general, emphasizing his high status.	New Historicism: Reflects contemporary views on power and societal norms.
“Threescore, I think, is pretty high; / ’Twas time in conscience he should die”	Swift questions the accuracy of reports regarding the general’s age and suggests it was time for him to die.	Deconstruction: Challenges traditional notions of honor and status.
“How very mean a thing’s a Duke; / From all his ill-got honours flung”	The speaker derides the emptiness of worldly distinctions and titles.	Satire: Critiques the superficiality of societal recognition and the hypocrisy of mourning rituals.
“Come hither, all ye empty things, / Ye bubbles raised by breath of kings”	Swift addresses the vanity and insignificance of those who depend on the favor of kings.	Satire: Mocks the pursuit of worldly honors and the transient nature of power.
“And could that mighty warrior fall? / And so inglorious, after all!”	The speaker questions the lack of a heroic death for the once-mighty general.	New Historicism: Reflects societal expectations of heroism and glory.
“True to his profit and his pride, / He made them weep before he died”	Swift comments on the general’s self-serving nature, causing others to mourn him.	Reader-Response Criticism: Readers may respond based on their views of societal norms and mortality.
“Let pride be taught by this rebuke, / How very mean a thing’s a Duke”	The speaker advises humility in the face of mortality and criticizes the importance placed on titles.	New Historicism: Reflects societal attitudes towards status and humility.