May 4, 2023 - English Studies

“Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

To fling my arms wide

In some place of the sun,
To whirl and to dance

Till the white day is done.
Then rest at cool evening
Beneath a tall tree

While night comes on gently,
Dark like me
That is my dream!

To fling my arms wide
In the face of the sun,
Dance! Whirl! Whirl!

Till the quick day is done.
Rest at pale evening . . .
A tall, slim tree . . .

Night coming tenderly
Black like me.

Introduction

Written by Langston Hughes, an African American figure of the Harlem Renaissance, the poem “Dream Variations” demonstrates African American experience prevalent in the early 20th century. It appeared in his compilation of poetry, entitled The Weary Blues published in 1926. Soon the poem became a talk of the town and won places in anthologies and textbooks across the world. Known for its eloquent portrayal of the African American culture, the poem demonstrates musicality and tones specifically associated with the community of the poet. Furthermore, its exaltation of liberty and the splendor of nature, coupled with its in-depth examination of the intricate sentiments of the African American community, has made it a wonderful literary piece.

Annotations of “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

“To fling my arms wide” (line 1): This is the opening line of the poem which suggests a sense of liberation and freedom as the speaker wants to “fling” his arms wide, perhaps suggesting his desire to break free from the social constraints.
“In some place of the sun” (line 2): The phrase “some place of the sun” invokes a sense of warmth, light, and hope, suggesting a desire for a better life.
“To whirl and to dance / Till the white day is done” (lines 3-4): The image of whirling and dancing suggests a sense of joy and celebration, while “the white day” may refer to a sense of brightness and clarity.

“Then rest at cool evening / Beneath a tall tree” (lines 5-6): The idea of resting at “cool evening” under a “tall tree” suggests a desire for peace and tranquility after a day of joyful activity.
“While night comes on gently” (line 7): The gentle coming of night may symbolize a sense of comfort and safety, especially in contrast to the harsh realities of the world.
“Dark like me” (line 8): The phrase “dark like me” suggests a sense of identification with others who share the speaker’s skin color, and may allude to the struggles and injustices faced by African Americans.

“That is my dream!” (line 9): The exclamation mark emphasizes the intensity and importance of the speaker’s dream, suggesting that it is a powerful motivating force in their life.
“To fling my arms wide” (line 10): The repetition of this line suggests that the speaker is still focused on the desire for freedom and liberation.
“In the face of the sun” (line 11): The phrase “in the face of the sun” may suggest a desire to confront the world with confidence and strength.

“Dance! Whirl! Whirl!” (line 12): The repetition of “whirl” and the use of exclamation marks suggest a sense of urgency and excitement, as if the speaker is encouraging someone to dance with great enthusiasm.
“Till the quick day is done” (line 13): The phrase “quick day” suggests a sense of fleeting time, and the speaker is urging to dance until the day ends, perhaps implying to live life to the fullest.
“Rest at pale evening” (line 14): The word “pale” creates a sense of peacefulness and calmness, suggesting the end of the day. The speaker encourages the dancers to rest, possibly implying the importance of taking breaks and enjoying downtime.

“A tall, slim tree” (line 15): This line presents a visual image of a tree. The use of “tall” and “slim” creates an image of elegance and gracefulness. It’s possible that the speaker is admiring nature’s beauty and encouraging the dancers to take notice of it.
“Night coming tenderly” (line 16): The use of “tenderly” creates a sense of gentleness and softness, suggesting a peaceful transition from day to night. The speaker may be appreciating the beauty of the natural world and encouraging the dancers to do the same.
“Black like me” (line 17): The use of “black” creates a sense of darkness, which could be interpreted as a metaphor for death or the unknown. The phrase “like me” suggests a personal connection or identification with this darkness. It’s possible that the speaker is reflecting on their own mortality or encouraging the dancers to confront their fears and embrace the unknown.

Literary Devices in “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

First Verse	Second Literary Device	Third Meanings and Functions
In some place of the sun,	Imagery	Conveys the speaker’s aspiration for brightness
To whirl and to dance	Repetition	Reiterates the speaker’s desire for movement
Till the white day is done	Metaphor	Refers to the completion of a fulfilled life
Then rest at cool evening	Imagery	Conveys the speaker’s desire for tranquility
Beneath a tall tree	Imagery	Emphasizes the speaker’s desire for nature and peace
While night comes on gently	Imagery	Conveys the idea of the end of life
Dark like me—	Simile	Compares the speaker’s skin color to darkness
That is my dream!	Repetition	Reiterates the speaker’s desire for their dream
Dance! Whirl! Whirl!	Repetition	Reiterates the speaker’s desire for movement
Till the quick day is done	Metaphor	Refers to the completion of a fulfilled life
Rest at pale evening . . .	Imagery	Conveys the speaker’s desire for tranquility
Black like me.	Simile	Compares the speaker’s skin color to darkness

Sound and Poetic Devices in “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

Literary Device	Examples/Reference	Meanings and Functions
Alliteration	“dance, whirl, whirl” (line 12)	n this poem, alliteration is used to create a musical effect and to emphasize certain words or phrases. For example, the repeated “w” sound in “whirl, whirl” emphasizes the speaker’s desire to dance and move freely.
Assonance	“some place of the sun” (line 2), “tall, slim tree” (line 15)	Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds in words that are close to each other. In this poem, assonance is used to create a musical effect and to emphasize certain words or phrases. For example, the repeated “o” sound in “some” and “sun” emphasizes the speaker’s desire to find a warm and bright place.
Consonance	“white day is done” (line 4), “cool evening” (line 5)	Consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds in words that are close to each other. In this poem, consonance is used to create a musical effect and to emphasize certain words or phrases. For example, the repeated “d” and “t” sounds in “day” and “done” emphasize the passing of time, while the repeated “n” sound in “evening” emphasizes the speaker’s desire for a peaceful rest.
End Rhyme	“done/sun” (lines 4-5), “tree/me” (lines 6-8), “done/sun” (lines 13-14), “tree/me” (lines 15-17)	End rhyme is the repetition of the same sound at the end of two or more lines of poetry. In this poem, end rhyme is used to create a musical effect and to emphasize the last words of each line. The repeated rhyme scheme of ABAB CDCD emphasizes the speaker’s dream and desire to find peace and rest.
Rhyme Scheme	ABAB CDCD	The rhyme scheme is the pattern of end rhymes in a poem. In this poem, the rhyme scheme is ABAB CDCDE, which creates a musical effect and helps to unify the poem. The repeated rhyme scheme emphasizes the speaker’s dream and desire for rest and peace.
Diction	“whirl”, “dance”, “rest”, “cool”, “tenderly”	Diction is the choice of words and phrases used in a poem. In this poem, the diction is simple and direct, using concrete nouns and active verbs to convey the speaker’s dream and desire. The use of words like “whirl”, “dance”, and “rest” emphasizes the speaker’s desire for movement and rest, while the use of words like “cool” and “tenderly” emphasizes the speaker’s desire for comfort and care.
Stanza Type	Quatrain	The stanza type in this poem is a pair of quatrains. The first quatrain consists of lines 1-4, while the second quatrain consists of lines 10-13. Both quatrains follow a similar structure and use the same rhyme scheme of ABAB CDCDE. The use of quatrains helps to organize the poem and emphasizes the speaker’s desire for movement, rest, and peace.
Tone	Celebratory and Optimistic	The tone of Langston Hughes’ poem “Dream Variations” is celebratory and hopeful. The speaker expresses a desire to break free from the constraints of societal norms and to experience the freedom and joy of life. The use of exclamation marks and the repetition of words such as “whirl” and “dance” convey a sense of excitement and enthusiasm.

Functions of Literary Devices in “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

Imagery: Imagery means using images. Here Hughes uses sensory language to create specific images. Actually, he wants to evoke the same dream that he has dreamed for his specific readers. For example, he has used the image of “fling my arms wide,” along with “whirl and dance” and then the image of “rest at cool evening” to show how African Americans enjoy life. He has also used the image of a tree to show comfort and peace. Some other natural images, too, point to his suggestive use of language. These types of images help his readers to realize dreams that Hughes wants them to enjoy.
Repetition: The repetition of phrases such as “fling my arms wide,” “whirl and dance,” and “black like me” emphasizes the speaker’s desire for freedom and equality in the American society. This repetition also serves his own purpose that is to create a musical quality in his poem to reinforces its central message. This specific message is central to the culture of the African American community.
Symbolism: “Dream Variations” show the use of several symbols specific for the African American culture. For example, the use of the tall tree and the darkness of night are symbols of the speaker’s desire for equality with the white in the American culture. The tall tree also represents growth and the possibility of reaching new heights, while the darkness of night represents the speaker’s identity as an African American individual. This function of symbolism helps the readers to understand the deeper meanings.

Allusion: Hughes uses several allusions to point to his African American heritage. Therefore, they serve the right purpose of their usage. For example, the phrase “black like me” is an allusion to John Howard Griffin’s book of the same name. This allusion is significant in that it seeks to explore the experience of a white man adopting simile color by making himself black to experience life as an individual from African American community. This allusion points to Hughes’ art that lies in contextualizing this experience to highlight the suffering and resultant struggle of the African American community to win equal rights.

Themes in “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

Identity: The theme of identity is central to the poem “Dream Variations” and its main idea of racial inequality. Hughes has used repetitions such as “dark like me” to emphasize his racial identity and the ways in which this identity shapes his experience of the world. He is of the view that our identities are an integral part of our person, and that denying someone the right to fully express and embody their identity is the worst type of oppression. By emphasizing his African American identity, the poet asserts the value and importance of this identity against racist stereotyping and discrimination.
Freedom: The theme of freedom in “Dream Variations” is perhaps the most overtly expressed theme due to the speaker’s constant engagement with ideas related to free movements such as dancing, whirling, and flinging arms wide to express his/her desire for liberation. The poem suggests that freedom is a fundamental human right available to all regardless of race. It also suggests that true freedom involves more than just the absence of physical restraints—it involves the ability to express oneself fully, to move through the world with joy and confidence, and to experience a sense of belonging and connection with others.

Hope: The poem “Dream Variations” show the theme of hope through different images. The images of the sun, pale evening, and the tall tree are suggestive of the good times ahead. It shows that despite systemic oppression, it is possible to harbor a good vision of th better world and to work to turn that vision into a reality. By expressing this hope, Hughes demonstrates inspiration and motivation for readers who share his dream of equality, freedom and equal rights.
Resistance: Truly like African Americans, “Dream Variations” shows the thematic strand of resistance against racial oppression. Articulating the dream of freedom and equality, Hughes asserts the existence of his community, rejecting the dehumanization that comes with inequality and discrimination. The poem suggests that resistance takes many forms, from the act of dreaming to dancing wildly. By refusing to be defined by the limitations imposed upon them by a racist society, Hughes asserts humanity and dignity of his community.

Literary Theories and “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

Formalist Theory: The formalism literary theory emphasizes the form and structure of a literary work instead of its content, author, context or themes. “Dream Variations” shows Hughes using repetitions, rhythm, and rhyme to create musicality. For example, the repetition of the phrase “To fling my arms wide” in lines 1 and 10 emphasizes the speaker’s wish to have full freedom like others around him. The repetition of the words such as “whirl” and “dance” in lines 3 and 12 show the poet enjoying freedom in a free mood. The same is the case of its rhyming pattern such as the use of rhyme in lines 6 and 7 and lines 15 and 16 demonstrate musicality as well as excitement that come with freedom.

Postcolonial Theory: Postcolonial theory focuses on colonialism and its impacts on colonies after its retreat including power structure, power relations and discourse. When it comes to “Dream Variations”, it seems that Hughes demonstrates the desire for freedom and equality among African Americans. He has used phrases such as “To whirl and to dance / Till the white day is done” in lines 3 and 4 to express his desire to free his community from the vicious cycle of power relations under white supremacy and associated oppression. The use of the phrase “Dark like me” in line 8, too, stresses upon his identity as an African American and suggests a connection to the broader struggle for racial justice.
Reader-Response Theory: Reader-response centers on readings in interpreting a literary piece, leaving other aspects. In this connection, it seems that “Dream Variations” invites the readers to have consciousness of Hughes’s dream for freedom. He has demonstrated it through the use of the first-person point of view in lines 1-9 and 10-17، creating a sense of intimacy and personal connection with his readers. The reader feels further attracted to his cause due to the use of sensory language throughout the poem such as “cool evening” in line 5 and “tall, slim tree” in line 15.
Cultural Studies Theory: Cultural studies theoretical concept examines a literary piece through the lens of how culture shapes the society and vice versa. “Dream Variations” shows that the cultural experiences and aspirations of African Americans through Hughes’s eyes. He has used phrases such as “Beneath a tall tree” in lines 6 and 15 to show a connection with African American cultural traditions. Some symbols such as the trees, too, point to African American resilience and strength. Some other phrases such as “Black like me” in line 17 directly emphasizes Hughes’s identity as an African American person and highlights the importance of representation and visibility in African American culture.

Essay Topics, Questions and Thesis Statements about “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

Topic: The role of African American vernacular traditions in “Dream Variations”

Question: How does Langston Hughes draw on African American vernacular traditions in “Dream Variations,” and what effect does this have on the poem’s themes and messages?

Thesis Statement: Through his use of colloquial language and rhythmically charged phrases, Langston Hughes evokes the rich traditions of African American music and speech in “Dream Variations,” emphasizing the importance of cultural continuity and resilience in the face of systemic oppression.

Topic: Relationship between form and content in “Dream Variations”

Question: How does the form of “Dream Variations” – particularly its use of repetition and refrain – reinforce its themes and messages?

Thesis Statement: Through its use of a tight, repetitive form, “Dream Variations” emphasizes the speaker’s desire for freedom and self-expression, while also reinforcing the poem’s larger message about the importance of cultural resistance and self-affirmation in the face of systemic racism.

Topic: The influence of jazz and blues on “Dream Variations”

Question: How does Langston Hughes draw on the musical forms of jazz and blues in “Dream Variations,” and what effect does this have on the poem’s themes and messages?

Thesis Statement: Langston Hughes evokes the rich musical traditions of jazz and blues in “Dream Variations,” emphasizing the importance of cultural innovation and creativity as a means of resisting and transcending oppression through his use of syncopated rhythms, improvisational phrasing, and bluesy tonality.

Topic: Gender and race in “Dream Variations”

Question: How does Langston Hughes explore the intersection of gender and race in “Dream Variations,” and what effect does this have on the poem’s themes and messages?

Thesis Statement: “Dream Variations” highlights the ways in which gender and race intersect in the experiences of African American women and men, underscoring the importance of intersectional solidarity and resistance in the face of systemic oppression though gender-neutral language and emphasis on the speaker’s physical movements and bodily sensations.

Short Questions-Answers about “Dream Variations,” by Langston Hughes

What is the central message of “Dream Variations”?

The central message of poem “Dream Variations” is the dream of Hughes for freedom and self-expression against racist and oppressive system. He gives vent to his expression to his dream of flinging arms wide, dancing and whirling in the sun, and then resting beneath a tall tree to show that he wants freedom for his community. The central message from Hughes is that people of color have a right to self-expression and cultural freedom despite the oppressive system suppressing their identities and personas. Emphasizing the beauty of his color and culture, he underscores the importance of cultural resistance and self-affirmation against such systematic oppression.

How does Langston Hughes use repetition and refrain in “Dream Variations”?

Langston Hughes uses repetition and refrain to support his argument that is also the central message of “Dream Variations.” It is the expression of freedom and identity. Repetitions of phrases such as “To fling my arms wide” and “Dance! Whirl! Whirl!” shows how he emphasize his desire for freedom and assertion of the rights of African American community. Similarly, the refrain “Black like me” also emphasizes the importance of cultural identity and resistance against cultural oppression. Repeating these phrases, Hughes supports his idea that people of color also have a right to express themselves and feel the sense of freedom.

How does the form of “Dream Variations” contribute to its themes and messages?

The tight and repetitive form of “Dream Variations” demonstrates assertive expression of the desire of Hughes for freedom and self-expression. This form also underscores the main argument about cultural survival, strength and identity against oppression. The poem’s short and tight lines as well as repetitive structure create a sense of urgency. It seems stressing upon main point of freedom. Whereas the poem’s rhythmic structure is concerned, it seems imitating the movements of Hughes’s dream, creating a sense that body and physical expressions are important for cultural recognition and identity formation. Also, the use of repetition and refrain within the given form of the poem also shows the significance of cultural identity, recognition as well as resilience, highlighting the ways in which people of color seek power, strength and inspiration from their cultural heritage to win freedom and the right to express themselves freely.

What is the significance of the final lines of “Dream Variations,” which compare the night to the speaker’s skin color?

The final lines of “Dream Variations” show the skin color of the poet, emphasizing his experience of the world shaped by his racial identity. They also highlight the importance of his cultural recognition and his heritage. However, their significance in their use of seeking strength from the identity and origin to overcome systemic racism and oppression lies in their direct and concise expression. They show a comparison between Hughes’s skin color and the darkness of night to show his awareness of his racial identity. This is how they underscore the ways in which systemic racism seeks to limit and oppress people of color. By affirming the beauty and worth of their own skin color and cultural identity, the poet highlights the importance of self-affirmation and cultural resistance.

Synecdoche

Etymology and Meanings of Synecdoche

The term “synecdoche” is a derivative of Greek word “synekdoche” meaning “simultaneous understanding.” It is a combination of two words: “syn” meaning “together” and “ekdoche” meaning “interpretation.” The term entered English in the late 16th century to describe a figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole, or the whole is used to represent a part.

Synecdoche means a part of something is used to represent the whole, or doing the opposite. It is a literary device used to add layers of meaning to a text or speech by drawing attention to specific parts or elements of a larger concept or object. By using a synecdoche, writers and speakers can make their language more vivid, memorable, and effective in conveying their message. Examples of synecdoche include using “wheels” to refer to a car or “the Crown” to refer to the monarch of a country.

Synecdoche in Grammar

Grammatically, synecdoche is a singular noun with plural verb agreement. For example, we would say “Synecdoche is a literary device” rather than “Synecdoche are a literary device.” This is because “synecdoche” is a singular noun, even though it represents a figure of speech that involves substituting a part for the whole or vice versa. The verb used to describe “synecdoche” must agree with its singular form, just like any other singular noun.

Definition of Synecdoche

Synecdoche is a literary device that involves using a part of something to represent the whole or using the whole to represent a part. It is a type of metonymy, which is a broader term for the use of one term to stand in for another. In literature, synecdoche is often used to create vivid and memorable imagery, as well as to convey deeper meanings and themes.

Types of Synecdoche

There are several types of synecdoche used in literature and other forms of writing. Here are some examples:

Part-for-whole: This type of synecdoche uses a part of something to refer to the whole thing. For example, “nice wheels” to refer to a car or “he’s got a new set of threads” to refer to a new outfit.

Whole-for-part: This type of synecdoche uses the whole to refer to a part of something. For example, “The White House announced today” to refer to the President or “All hands on deck” to refer to the entire crew of a ship.
Material-for-object: This type of synecdoche uses a material to refer to the object made from it. For example, “silver” to refer to cutlery or “bricks and mortar” to refer to a building.
Object-for-owner: This type of synecdoche uses an object to refer to its owner. For example, “check out his new ride” to refer to someone’s new car or “she’s got a new set of wheels” to refer to someone’s new bike.

Container-for-contents: This type of synecdoche uses a container to refer to its contents. For example, “the pot is boiling” to refer to the contents of the pot or “the bottle is empty” to refer to the liquid that was in the bottle.

Common Examples of Synecdoche

Here are some common examples of synecdoche in everyday language:

“Lend me a hand” – This uses the part “hand” to represent the whole person, who is being asked for help.

“Nice wheels” – This uses the part “wheels” to represent the whole car, which is being complimented.
“The pen is mightier than the sword” – This uses the part “pen” to represent writing or literature, which is being compared to the whole concept of violence and warfare, represented by the word “sword.”
“Cleveland won by six runs” – This uses the city “Cleveland” to represent the baseball team from that city, who won the game.

“The suits on Wall Street” – This uses the clothing item “suits” to represent the entire group of people who work in finance and business in New York City’s financial district, known as “Wall Street.”
“He’s a new face around here” – This uses the part “face” to represent the whole person, who is new to the area or organization.

Literary Examples of Synecdoche

**From To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee:**

Extract: “Maycomb County had recently been told that it had nothing to fear but fear itself.” Explanation: This line uses the synecdoche of “Maycomb County” to refer to the people who live there. The fear that the people are being told they have nothing to fear is not just a fear of the physical place, but a fear of the people and events that occur within it.

From The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

Extract: “I’m going to make a big request of you today,” he said, turning to us. “So I thought you ought to know something about me. I didn’t want you to think I was just some nobody.” Explanation: In this sentence, Gatsby uses the synecdoche of “nobody” to refer to his low social status. By referring to himself as a “nobody,” Gatsby is highlighting his lack of importance in society.

From Hamlet by William Shakespeare:

Extract: “The body is with the king, but the king is not with the body. The king is a thing–” Explanation: In this line, Hamlet is using the synecdoche of “the king” to refer to the physical body of the king, rather than the person himself. By separating the king’s body from his identity, Hamlet emphasizes the idea of mortality and the separation of the physical body from the soul.

From “Song of Myself” by Walt Whitman:

Extract: “I loaf and invite my soul, / I lean and loaf at my ease observing a spear of summer grass.”

Explanation: In this sentence, Whitman uses the synecdoche of “a spear of summer grass” to represent the entire natural world. The image of the grass spear represents the interconnectedness of all things in nature.

From “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot:

Extract: “These fragments I have shored against my ruins.”

Explanation: In this line, Eliot uses the synecdoche of “fragments” to represent the memories and experiences that make up a person’s life. By using this synecdoche, Eliot emphasizes the idea that even when a person’s life seems to be in ruins, they can still cling to their memories and experiences as a way of rebuilding themselves.

How to Create Synecdoche in a Fictional Work

To create and use synecdoche in your writing, follow these steps:

Identify the whole and the part: Choose a whole concept or object that you want to represent, and then identify a smaller part of it that can stand in for the whole.
Use the part to represent the whole: Use the smaller part to represent the whole concept or object throughout your writing. You can use this in various ways, such as in descriptions, dialogue, or metaphors.

Make sure the context is clear: Ensure that the reader understands the context in which you are using the synecdoche. If the context is unclear, your meaning may be lost.
Be creative: Synecdoche can be a powerful tool in creating memorable and vivid writing. Don’t be afraid to experiment with unusual or unexpected ways of using it.

Example: Instead of saying “the entire city was in a state of panic,” you could write “every heart in the city raced with fear.” In this sentence, “heart” represents the whole person, and the fear they are feeling. This creates a more vivid image in the reader’s mind, and makes the emotional impact of the panic more immediate and visceral.

Benefits of Synecdoche

Using synecdoche in your writing can offer several benefits, such as:

Creating vivid images: Synecdoche can help you create more vivid and memorable images in the reader’s mind. By using a smaller part to represent the whole concept or object, you can create a more immediate and visceral impact.
Adding depth to descriptions: Synecdoche can also add depth and nuance to your descriptions. By choosing a specific part to represent the whole, you can highlight certain aspects or qualities of the object or concept you’re describing.

Simplifying complex ideas: Synecdoche can also be used to simplify complex ideas. By using a smaller part to represent the whole, you can distill complex concepts into a more manageable and accessible form.
Enhancing rhetorical devices: Synecdoche can be used to enhance other rhetorical devices, such as metaphor and hyperbole. By using synecdoche within these devices, you can create even more striking and memorable writing.

Overall, using synecdoche in your writing can help you create more engaging and impactful writing, while also simplifying complex ideas and enhancing other rhetorical devices

Synecdoche and Literary Theory

Synecdoche is a common literary device used across various literary theories and approaches. Here are some examples:

New Criticism: In New Criticism, synecdoche is often used to analyze the way language is used to create meaning in a text. By focusing on the use of specific parts to represent the whole, New Critics analyze the nuances and complexities of a text’s language.
Reader-Response Criticism: Reader-Response critics examine the ways in which readers interact with a text, and how the reader’s personal experiences and beliefs shape their interpretation. Synecdoche can be used to help readers engage with a text by connecting the parts they see to the larger whole.

Postmodernism: In postmodern literature, synecdoche can be used to highlight the fragmented and interconnected nature of modern life. By using parts to represent the whole, postmodern authors explore the disorienting and disjointed experience of living in a complex, interconnected world.
Feminist Criticism: Feminist critics may use synecdoche to highlight the way women’s bodies are used to represent the whole of their gender. This can be used to critique the objectification and marginalization of women in literature and society.

In short, synecdoche is a versatile literary device that can be used across a wide range of literary theories and approaches to create meaning and deepen analysis.

Suggested Readings

Culler, Jonathan. Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford UP, 2011.

Genette, Gerard. Figures of Literary Discourse. Columbia UP, 1982.

Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., U of California P, 1991.

Lotman, Yuri. “2. From The Structure of the Artistic Text.” Culture and Communication. Academic Studies Press, 2020. 48-60.

Gorlée, Dinda L. “Wittgenstein’s persuasive rhetoric.” Semiotica 2016.208 (2016): 49-77.

Pun

Etymology and Meanings of Pun

Etymology of Pun:

The word “pun” comes from the Old English word “pund” or “pound,” which means “to beat” or “to strike.” The term evolved over time to refer to a play on words or a humorous use of a word with multiple meanings. In fact, the use of puns has been recorded as far back as ancient Egypt and Greece, showing that this type of wordplay has been around for centuries.

Meaning of Pun:

A pun is a form of wordplay that uses a word, or words, that have multiple meanings or sounds that are similar, to create a humorous effect. Puns can be used to add humor to a conversation, to make a joke, or to convey a double meaning in a clever way. Puns can also be used to create wordplay in literature and poetry, adding depth and complexity to the text. While puns may be seen as a type of low-brow humor, they have been used by some of the greatest writers and thinkers in history, including William Shakespeare and James Joyce.

Pun in Grammar

“Pun” is a singular noun, but it can take a plural verb when referring to multiple instances of puns. For example:

“That pun is hilarious!” (singular noun with singular verb)
“Those puns are hilarious!” (singular noun with plural verb)

This is because “pun” is a countable noun, meaning it can be counted and quantified. When referring to multiple puns, we use a plural verb to match the plural noun.

Definition of Pun

It is a term involving the use of a word or phrase having multiple meaning, or sounds like another word with a different meaning, to create a humoros or witty effect. Puns can be used to add complexity to a text, to create wordplay, and to convey a double meaning in a clever way. Puns are often used in literature, poetry, and comedy to add depth, humor, and interest to the text.

Types of Puns

There are several types of puns, including:

Homographic puns: These puns use words that are spelled the same but have different meanings, such as “I used to be a baker, but I couldn’t raise the dough.”

Homophonic puns: These puns use words that sound the same but have different meanings, such as “Why was the math book sad? Because it had too many problems.”
Compound puns: These puns involve combining two or more words to create a new phrase with a humorous effect, such as “I’m studying a tome history of glue. I just can’t seem to put it down.”
Recursive puns: These puns involve repeating a pun within a pun, such as “I’m reading a book on anti-gravity. It’s impossible to put down.”

Visual puns: These puns use visual cues or images to create a humorous effect, such as a cartoon that shows a cat wearing a necktie with the caption “cat-tie.”
Linguistic puns: These puns involve playing with language itself, such as using words with multiple meanings, or creating a new word by combining existing words, such as “I’m reading a book on teleportation. It’s bound to take me places.”
Numerical puns: These puns use numbers or mathematical concepts to create a humorous effect, such as “Why was six afraid of seven? Because seven eight nine.”

Reversal puns: These puns involve reversing the meaning of a common phrase or idiom, such as “Why did the tomato turn red? Because it saw the salad dressing!”
Spoonerism puns: These puns involve swapping the initial sounds of words in a phrase, such as Why did the tomato turn red? Because it saw the salad dressing! (Spoonerism: “saw the salad dressing” instead of “saw the sad lad stressing”)
Synonym puns: These puns use synonyms or similar-sounding words to create a humorous effect, such as “I’m reading a book on the history of velcro. It’s a gripping tale.”

Cultural puns: These puns involve references to cultural or historical events or figures, such as “I told a joke about a roof, but it went over my head.”
Name puns: These puns use a person’s name or a fictional character’s name to create a humorous effect, such as “Why did the scarecrow win an award? Because he was outstanding in his field.”
Onomatopoeic puns: These puns use words that imitate sounds to create a humorous effect, such as “I’m reading a book on anti-gravity. It’s uplifting!”

Celebrity puns: These puns involve references to famous people or their work, such as “I told my wife she was drawing her eyebrows too high. She looked surprised.”
Location puns: These puns involve references to a specific place or location, such as “Why did the bicycle fall over? Because it was two-tired.”

Common Examples of Pun

Puns are often used in everyday conversation, advertisements, and media. Here are some common examples of puns:

“I’m reading a book on anti-gravity. It’s impossible to put down.”
“Time flies like an arrow; fruit flies like a banana.”
“I’m a big fan of whiteboards. They’re re-markable!”

“I told my wife she was drawing her eyebrows too high. She looked surprised.”
“I used to be a baker, but I couldn’t raise the dough.”
“I’m so punny, I should be punted!”

“I’m reading a book on teleportation. It’s bound to take me places.”

Literary Examples of Pun

Here are six literary examples of puns from various genres, along with an explanation and context:

From Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare:

In Act II, Scene 4, Mercutio is trying to locate Romeo, and makes a pun on the word “blind” when he says, “Why, Romeo, he is already dead; stabbed with a white wench’s black eye; run through the ear with a love song; the very pin of his heart cleft with the blind bow-boy’s butt-shaft.”

Explanation: Mercutio is using the word “blind” in two different senses: as an adjective describing Cupid, the blind god of love, and as a noun referring to an arrow, which is the weapon Cupid uses to shoot people with. The pun adds humor to the scene, while also highlighting the theme of love and its dangerous consequences in the play.

From The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde:

In Act III, Jack Worthing says, “The truth is rarely pure and never simple,” to which Algernon Moncrieff replies, “The truth is rarely pure and never simple. Modern life would be very tedious if it were either, and modern literature a complete impossibility!”

Explanation: Algernon is making a pun on Jack’s words by repeating them and adding a humorous twist to them. By doing so, Algernon is highlighting the theme of artifice and superficiality in the play.

From The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain: In Chapter 8, Huck Finn says, “I don’t want to go fooling around much where there’s snakes. Stick a toad in your hair for fun.”

Explanation: Huck is using the word “toad” in two different senses: as a literal amphibian, and as a slang term for a blemish or pimple. The pun adds humor to the scene, while also highlighting Huck’s naivete and lack of education.

“The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe:

In the famous poem, the narrator says, “Tell me what thy lordly name is on the Night’s Plutonian shore!” The Raven replies, “Nevermore.”

Explanation: The Raven’s response is a pun, as it can be interpreted as a straightforward answer to the narrator’s question, or as a play on the word “name” – the Raven is saying that it has no name, and will never say anything else.

From The Sun Also Rises by Ernest Hemingway:

In Chapter 13, Bill Gorton says, “You are all a lost generation,” to which Lady Brett Ashley replies, “Don’t talk like a character in a novel.”

Explanation: Lady Brett is making a pun on the fact that she and her friends are, in fact, characters in a novel. The pun highlights the theme of disillusionment and aimlessness in the Lost Generation.

From The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer:

In “The Miller’s Tale,” Absolon the clerk says, “Alas, my heart is broken right in two! / One half is yours, the other half is too!” when he is rejected by Alison.

Explanation: Absolon is using the word “heart” in two different senses: as a literal organ, and as a metaphor for his love for Alison. The pun adds humor to the scene, while also highlighting the theme of courtly love in medieval literature.

How to Create Pun in a Fictional Work

Creating puns in a fictional work can be a fun and effective way to add humor, depth, and complexity to your writing. Here are some tips for creating puns in a fictional work:

Be aware of your words: Look for words that have multiple meanings or sounds similar to other words. This will allow you to create puns that are both clever and effective.

Use context: Consider the context of your story and use puns that fit the tone and style of your work. This will help your puns feel more natural and less forced.
Keep it subtle: Puns that are too obvious or forced can be distracting and take away from the overall impact of your work. Keep your puns subtle and let your readers discover them on their own.
Be creative: Don’t be afraid to experiment with different types of puns, such as homophones, homonyms, and wordplay. This will help you create puns that are both unique and memorable.

Use puns sparingly: While puns can be effective, using them too often can become tiresome and take away from the overall impact of your work. Use puns sparingly and strategically to make the biggest impact on your readers.

In short, creating puns in a fictional work requires a combination of creativity, awareness, and subtlety. With a little practice and experimentation, you can use puns to enhance the humor, depth, and complexity of your writing.

Benefits of Pun

There are several benefits to using puns in your writing, including:

Humor: Puns are a great way to add humor and wit to your writing. They can lighten the tone of serious subject matter, making it more accessible to readers.
Memorable: Puns are often memorable because they require a moment of mental gymnastics for the reader. This can make them more likely to remember your writing and engage with it on a deeper level.
Wordplay: Puns are a form of wordplay that can add depth and complexity to your writing. They require you to think creatively about language, which can result in more nuanced and interesting writing.

Cultural references: Puns can be used to reference cultural phenomena or current events, making your writing more relevant and relatable to readers.
Versatility: Puns can be used in a variety of genres, from humor to satire to literary fiction. This makes them a versatile tool for any writer looking to add complexity and nuance to their work.

In short, using puns in your writing can help you connect with readers, add humor and depth to your work, and make your writing more memorable and engaging.

Pun and Literary Theory

Puns can be analyzed through various literary theories, including:

Structuralism: Structuralism emphasizes the relationships between elements within a text. Puns can be analyzed as linguistic structures that reveal connections between different meanings and signifiers.
Semiotics: Semiotics focuses on how signs and symbols create meaning. Puns can be analyzed as a form of sign or symbol that communicates multiple meanings simultaneously.

Postmodernism: Postmodernism challenges the idea of fixed, objective meanings and emphasizes the role of language and subjectivity in creating meaning. Puns can be analyzed as a way of destabilizing meaning and calling into question the authority of language.
Feminism: Feminist literary theory emphasizes how gender shapes language and culture. Puns can be analyzed as a way of challenging traditional gender roles and language norms.
Psychoanalytic theory: Psychoanalytic theory emphasizes the role of the unconscious in shaping language and meaning. Puns can be analyzed as a form of linguistic play that reveals the unconscious desires and fears of the writer and/or reader.

In short, puns can be analyzed through a variety of literary theories, depending on the particular focus of the analysis. They can reveal the connections between linguistic structures, the ways in which language creates meaning, and the role of language and culture in shaping identity and subjectivity.

Suggested Readings

Adams, Michael. Slayer Slang: A Buffy the Vampire Slayer Lexicon. Oxford University Press, 2003.

Beaton, Kate. Hark! A Vagrant. Drawn and Quarterly, 2011.

Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Canterbury Tales. Edited by Jill Mann, Penguin Classics, 2005.

Shakespeare, William. Much Ado About Nothing. Edited by F. H. Mares, Cambridge University Press, 2005.

Wilde, Oscar. The Importance of Being Earnest. Edited by Michael Patrick Gillespie, Norton Critical Editions, 2006.