Day: August 24, 2023

Etymology of Soliloquy

The word soliloquy originates from the Latin term, soliloquium, which comprises two words: soli means “alone,” and loqui means “to speak. In other words, it originally meant to speak alone or to talk to oneself.

Meanings of Soliloquy

Literally, it is a type of speech delivered by a character alone on stage. The character reveals their inner emotions, thoughts or feelings through this speech.

Soliloquy in Grammar

• Singular : Use singular nouns and singular verbs when referring to a single instance.
  • Example: “The soliloquy delivered by Hamlet in Act III is famous.”
• Multiple Soliloquies: Use plural nouns and plural verbs when discussing multiple instances.
  • Example: “In Shakespeare’s plays, soliloquies reveal inner thoughts.”

Definition of Soliloquy

As a literary device, it refers to a speech a character gives when alone on the stage in a play. It is a way for a character to express their inner thoughts and feelings to the audience, often revealing motivations and emotions not revealed through other forms of expression.

These speeches are often longer than other forms of dialogue, while a lack of response from other characters shows their specific feature.

Types of Soliloquy

Type	Explanation	Example in Literature
Introspective Soliloquy	Character reflects internally on their thoughts and feelings, revealing self-discovery.	“To be, or not to be: that is the question…” – Hamlet by William Shakespeare
Monologue Soliloquy	Lengthy speech expressing a character’s thoughts, ideas, and opinions.	“All the world’s a stage, and all the men and women merely players…” – As You Like It by William Shakespeare
Self-Addressed Soliloquy	Character speaks to themselves as if they were another person, revealing their innermost thoughts and motivations.	“Is this a dagger which I see before me, the handle toward my hand?” – Macbeth by William Shakespeare
Revelatory	Used to reveal important information or plot points to the audience.	“Now is the winter of our discontent made glorious summer…” – Richard III by William Shakespeare
Explanatory Soliloquy	Provides background information or context for the events of the play or story.	“Two households, both alike in dignity…” – Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
Emotional	Expresses strong emotions such as anger, sorrow, or love.	“O Romeo, Romeo! Wherefore art thou Romeo?” – Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare
Confessional Soliloquy	Character confesses secrets or misdeeds, revealing guilt or shame.	“O, what a rogue and peasant slave am I!” – Hamlet by William Shakespeare
Interpreting	Character interprets events, giving their own opinion or analysis.	“Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears…” – Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare
Exclamatory Soliloquy	Character passionately exclaims emotions or feelings.	“O, pardon me, thou bleeding piece of earth…” – Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare
Decision-Making	Character weighs options and makes a decision, revealing their thought process and reasoning.	“To thine own self be true…” – Hamlet by William Shakespeare

Literary Examples of Soliloquy

Literary Work	Example	Explanation
Hamlet by William Shakespeare	Act III, Scene I: “To be, or not to be, that is the question.”	Hamlet’s famous soliloquy contemplates the value of life and the fear of death. He weighs the suffering of existence against the uncertainty of the afterlife. This introspective moment reflects Hamlet’s internal struggle and philosophical pondering.
Macbeth by William Shakespeare	Act V, Scene V: “Out, out, brief candle! Life’s but a walking shadow, a poor player.”	Here, Macbeth reflects on life’s transience and futility. He likens life to a fleeting shadow and a mere actor’s performance. The soliloquy captures Macbeth’s disillusionment and remorse as his ambition-driven actions lead to a hollow existence.
Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare	Act II, Scene II: “But, soft! what light through yonder window breaks?”	Romeo’s soliloquy reveals his awe at seeing Juliet for the first time. He compares her beauty to the brilliance of the sun, showcasing the intensity of his infatuation. The soliloquy emphasizes the romantic and passionate nature of Romeo’s feelings for Juliet.
Othello by William Shakespeare	Act III, Scene III: “Haply for I am black… Must be to loathe her.”	Othello’s soliloquy delves into his insecurities about his race and age, leading to suspicions of his wife’s infidelity. He wrestles with feelings of inadequacy and betrayal, ultimately deciding to cope by convincing himself to hate her. The soliloquy highlights Othello’s internal turmoil.
The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger	Chapter 3: “I’m the most terrific liar… It’s terrible.” (Holden Caulfield)	Holden Caulfield’s soliloquy reveals his tendency to lie habitually. He acknowledges his inclination to fabricate even trivial details and explains that this habit serves as a defense mechanism to shield his vulnerabilities. The soliloquy provides insight into Holden’s complex character.

These examples and explanations illustrate how soliloquies offer deep insight into characters’ thoughts, emotions, and the themes of the literary works.

Suggested Readings

1. Clemen, Wolfgang. Shakespearean Soliloquies: A Study in Technic and Character. Methuen Drama, 2016.
2. Hirsh, James E. Shakespeare and the History of Soliloquies. Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 2003.
3. MacKay, Carol. Soliloquy in Nineteenth-Century Fiction. Springer, 1987.

Introduction

In literature, setting refers to the time and place in which a story unfolds. It serves as a fundamental literary device that contributes to the overall atmosphere, mood, and context of a narrative.

How to Create Setting

Creating a setting for a story is not only a fun activity but also a rewarding one. Here are some steps to follow when creating a setting:

Step	Explanation	Example
1. Considering the Genre and Tone	The setting should align with the type of story being told.	Genre: Horror Tone: Dark and eerie Setting: An abandoned haunted house with creaking floorboards, flickering lights, and mysterious shadows.
2. Decide on the time period and location	The historical context, geography, climate, and culture of the place will influence the setting.	Time Period: Ancient Greece Location: Incorporating details like marble columns, togas, and references to Greek mythology to accurately portray the historical and cultural context.
3. Develop the physical environment	Describe the physical aspects of the setting, including landmarks, terrain, architecture, and other features.	Physical Environment: A coastal town with sandy beaches, crashing waves, colorful beach houses, and a bustling boardwalk.
4. Add sensory details	Engage the readers’ senses by incorporating smells, sounds, textures, and other sensory elements.	Sensory Details: Describing the aroma of freshly baked bread from a local bakery, the sound of seagulls squawking overhead, and the feel of a cool ocean breeze on the skin to transport readers to a bustling seaside town.
5. Consider the social and cultural context	Explore the beliefs, values, customs, and traditions of the people inhabiting the setting.	Social and Cultural Context: Incorporating ceremonies, folklore, and local customs in a small village setting to reflect the community’s culture and enhance the authenticity of the setting.
6. Use Figurative Language	Employ metaphors and similes to add depth and texture to the setting descriptions.	Figurative Language: Comparing a bustling city street during rush hour to a river flowing with a steady stream of cars helps the readers visualize the constant movement and energy of the setting.
7. Revise and Edit	Ensure consistency with the story, and evaluate if the setting aligns with the overall tone and theme.	Revision and Editing: Making adjustments during the editing process to emphasize or tone down certain sensory details or cultural elements to maintain coherence and enhance the story’s impact.

Benefits of Using Setting

The use of setting can greatly enhance the overall effectiveness of a piece of writing in several ways. For example;

1. Creating Atmosphere: The setting establishes a specific mood or tone, immersing readers within the narrative’s ambiance. For instance, a story set in a desolate landscape elicits foreboding, while one in a welcoming environment evokes comfort.
2. Polishing Characterization: The setting serves to illuminate characters by revealing aspects such as their dwelling or their interaction with their surroundings, conveying information about their personality, social standing, and values.
3. Adding Depth: A well-crafted setting contributes depth and complexity to a narrative by incorporating details about the physical environment, societal structures, and cultural norms, thereby offering readers a rich and immersive experience.
4. Establishing Context: The setting provides vital contextual information, enhancing readers’ comprehension of the narrative’s events and characters. For instance, a story set in a specific historical era or cultural milieu offers insights into the socio-political and economic forces that shaped the characters’ lives during that period.

Setting in Literary Theory

Literary Theory	Critique	Practical Example
Liberal Humanism	Views it as a reflection of cultural values and a backdrop for character interactions. It reveals motives, desires, and autonomy.	Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen explores early 19th-century English society as a context for character autonomy and social conventions.
Formalism and New Criticism	Sees setting as a dynamic element shaping a text’s meaning, contributing to mood, symbolism, and narrative structure.	“Hills Like White Elephants” by Ernest Hemingway uses a train station in Spain to emphasize tension and decision-making.
Structuralism and Post-Structuralism	Considers it a system of signifiers with cultural and linguistic codes. It signifies historical and cultural associations.	Beloved by Toni Morrison uses a haunted house to explore the legacy of slavery in American society.
Postcolonialism	Asserts that setting reveals colonial power dynamics. It reflects the cultural and political systems of the colonizer and colonized.	Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe examines a pre-colonial Igbo village in Nigeria to explore the impact of colonialism on African societies.
Indigenous Critical Theory	Views it as integral to Indigenous culture, emphasizing its connection to land, place, and spirituality.	Ceremony by Leslie Marmon Silko portrays the Laguna Pueblo reservation in New Mexico as a living entity intertwined with Indigenous culture.

Suggested Readings

1. Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms. Wadsworth Publishing, 2014.
2. Cresswell, Tim. Place: A Short Introduction. Wiley, 2004.
3. Hauge, David. Writing Screenplays That Sell. Collins Reference, 2001.
4. Hemingway, Ernest. The Old Man and the Sea. Scribner, 1995.
5. Lodge, David. The Art of Fiction. Penguin, 1992.
6. Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Vintage, 2004.
7. Silko, Leslie Marmon. Ceremony. Penguin, 2006.
8. Stott, Rebecca. Darwin’s Ghosts: The Secret History of Evolution. Random House, 2012.

Etymology of Setting

The word “setting” originates “settan,” an archaic word used during the Middle ages to mean “to put in place” or “to fix.”

Its etymology could go back to Proto-Germanic root “*satjanan,” which shares a common ancestor with the Old Norse “setja” and the Gothic “satjan.”

The word “setting” evolved to cover various shades of meaning such as the act of arranging or placing something in a particular position as well as the context or environment in which something is located or takes place.

Meanings of Setting

The word “setting” has undergone significant semantic expansion and has come to encompass a wide range of meanings related to placement, context, and configuration.

Setting in Grammar

In grammar, “setting” is a singular noun that functions as a subject, object, or complement in a sentence. For example:

Subject:

• “The setting of the sun was breathtaking.”
• “In historical novels, the setting often plays a significant role.”

Object:

• “She meticulously described the setting of the scene.”
• “We need to change the setting on the thermostat.”

Complement:

• “The artist”s painting captured the serene setting of a lakeside cabin.”
• “The success of the play relied heavily on the atmospheric setting created by the stage design.”

Definition of Setting as a Literary Device

The setting includes physical elements such as geography, climate, and architecture, as well as social and cultural elements such as language, customs, and political systems. It could be used to create symbolic or metaphorical associations with the themes and characters of the story.

Common Examples of Setting

Example of Setting	Details and Real Example
Cities	Urban settings such as New York City, Paris, or Tokyo, can provide a rich backdrop for stories that explore themes such as loneliness, alienation, and social inequality. For example, in the novel “The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald, the glittering and opulent setting of 1920s New York City serves as a reflection of the characters’ aspirations, excesses, and the stark divisions between the wealthy and the working class.
Small towns	Small towns evoke a sense of community and familiarity but are also used to explore themes of conformity, tradition, and small-mindedness. A real example of this is in Harper Lee’s novel To Kill a Mockingbird where the setting of the small town of Maycomb, Alabama, becomes a microcosm of the deeply ingrained racism and social divisions of the 1930s American South.
Rural areas	Rural areas, such as farms, forests, or mountains, provide a stark contrast to urban settings and are used to explore themes of isolation, self-sufficiency, and rugged individualism. Walden by Henry David Thoreau shows the setting of the remote cabin in the woods highlighting the author’s quest for simplicity, self-reflection, and critique of modern society. Or Manor Farm in Animal Farm provides a good example of a rural setting.
Historical periods	Settings in historical periods, such as medieval Europe or Victorian England, can be used to explore themes such as power, class, and social change. A notable example is George Orwell”s novel 1984 where the dystopian setting of a totalitarian regime in a futuristic society serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of authoritarianism and the suppression of individual freedom.
Fantasy worlds	Fictional settings, such as the wizarding world of Harry Potter or the dystopian future of The Hunger Games, can be used to explore themes such as imagination, otherness, and rebellion. J.R.R. Tolkien”s Middle-earth, as depicted in The Lord of the Rings series, provides a fantastical setting that enables the exploration of heroism, friendship, and the battle between good and evil.
Outer space	Science fiction settings, such as outer space or other planets explore the themes of exploration, discovery, and the unknown. The film “Interstellar” directed by Christopher Nolan showcases a setting of the space to demonstrate the themes of human survival, the nature of time, and the pursuit of knowledge.

Literary Examples of Setting

Literary Work	Extract	Explanation
From The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	“The city seen from the Queensboro Bridge is always the city seen for the first time, in its first wild promise of all the mystery and beauty in the world.”	In this extract, Fitzgerald describes the view of New York City from the Queensboro Bridge. The passage captures the excitement and allure of the city during the 1920s, emphasizing its potential for mystery and beauty, which sets the tone for the novel’s exploration of wealth, decadence, and the American Dream.
From Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte	“I have just returned from a visit to my landlord—the solitary neighbour that I shall be troubled with. This is certainly a beautiful country! In all England, I do not believe that I could have fixed on a situation so completely removed from the stir of society.”	This extract is the opening of Wuthering Heights and introduces the isolated and remote setting of the novel. The narrator expresses appreciation for the beauty of the countryside but also notes the lack of human society, foreshadowing the novel’s themes of isolation, passion, and the supernatural.
From To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee	“Macomb was an old town, but it was a tired old town when I first knew it. In rainy weather the streets turned to red slop; grass grew on the sidewalks, the courthouse sagged in the square.”	Harper Lee paints a beautiful picture of the small Southern town of Maycomb, Alabama, setting the scene for the novel. The description conveys the town’s worn-down appearance and the sense of stagnation and decay that characterize it, reflecting the social and racial tensions central to the story.
From Tess of the D’Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy	“The village of Marlott lay amid the north-eastern undulations of the beautiful Vale of Blakemore, or Blackmoor, a part of Wessex rarely visited by sightseers or excursionists, and less accessible than many remote quarters of the world.”	This extract introduces the rural countryside setting of Tess of the D’Urbervilles in Wessex, England, during the late 19th century. The description highlights the picturesque and idyllic nature of the landscape, with rolling hills and meadows, setting the stage for the novel’s exploration of Tess’s life in this pastoral environment.

These excerpts and explanations provide insight into the settings and atmospheres created by these renowned authors, setting the stage for their respective literary works.

Suggested Readings

1. Tuan, Yi-Fu. Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience. University of Minnesota Press, 2001.
2. Loomba, Ania, et al. editors. Postcolonial Studies and Beyond, Duke University Press, 2005, pp. 185-188.
3. Harjo, Joy, et al., editors. Reinventing the Enemy”s Language: Contemporary Native Women”s Writings of North America, W.W. Norton & Company, 1997.
4. Rivkin, Julie, and Michael Ryan, editors. Literary Theory: An Anthology, 3rd ed., Blackwell Publishing, 2004.

Introduction

Satire is a literary and rhetorical device that employs humor, irony, and exaggeration to criticize or ridicule societal flaws, human foibles, political absurdities, or moral shortcomings.

It serves as a powerful form of social commentary, using a sharp and often satirical tone to challenge prevailing norms, institutions, and behaviors, with the ultimate aim of prompting critical reflection and fostering social change. Through its multifaceted techniques, satire offers a nuanced and critical lens through which to dissect and scrutinize various aspects of human society and culture.

How to Create Satire

Creating satire in a fictional work requires careful thought and planning. Here are some steps to help you create effective satire:

Step	Points	Example
Identify Target	i. Choose a specific target or subject	Target: Celebrity culture
	ii. Consider the relevance and significance
	iii. Research and gather information
Determine the tone	i. Decide the desired emotional impact	Tone: Biting and critical
	ii. Consider the appropriateness of the target and message
	iii. Find inspiration from existing satirical works
Exaggerate	i. Identify specific traits, behaviors, or situations	Exaggeration: Celebrities obsessing over their fame and constantly seeking attention
	ii. Push the boundaries
	iii. Consider consequences
Use irony and sarcasm	i. Employ verbal irony	Irony: A celebrity claiming to be “just like everyone else” while living an extravagant lifestyle
	ii. Utilize situational irony
	iii. Incorporate biting sarcasm
Create memorable characters	i. Develop characters embodying traits	Character: An overly self-obsessed celebrity who believes they are the center of the universe
	ii. Ensure characters are relatable
	iii. Consider character interactions and conflicts
Use humor	i. Employ wordplay, puns, or clever language	Humor: A celebrity giving a speech filled with empty, clichéd phrases that sound profound but lack substance
	ii. Create absurd or comical situations
	iii. Consider the timing and pace of humor
Edit and refine	i. Review with a critical eye	Reviewing and refining dialogue to ensure the satire is sharp and impactful
	ii. Remove unnecessary points
	iii. Seek feedback and make revisions

Benefits of Satire

Satire offers various benefits, including:

1. Raising Awareness: Satire draws attention to important social and political issues by exposing flaws, hypocrisies, and absurdities. By using humor to highlight serious problems, satire can engage and educate people who might otherwise be disinterested or apathetic.
2. Promoting Critical Thinking: Satire encourages people to think critically about the world around them. By challenging conventional wisdom, norms, and conventions, and exposing the flaws in common beliefs and practices, satire helps people develop a more nuanced and informed perspective.
3. Providing Entertainment: It is a form of entertainment. It provides a welcome respite from the stresses and challenges of routinized life. Through making people laugh and smile, satire improves public mood and outlook, and helps them cope with difficult situations.
4. Creativity: Satire requires creativity and originality. By challenging writers and artists to think outside of the box and come up with innovative ways to criticize society, satire gives birth to creativity and inspires new ideas.
5. Promoting Change: It is a powerful tool for social and political transformations. Exposing the injustices and inequalities in society and calling for reform is an easy task for a satirist, who inspires people to take action and demand change.

In short, satire could be a valuable and effective form of communication, having the potential to inform, educate, entertain, and inspire.

Satire and Literary Theory

Satire is a literary genre employed in various forms and could be analyzed using various literary theories. Here are some examples of literary theories that could be applied to satire:

Literary Theory	Critique of Satire	Practical Example
New Criticism	New Criticism focuses on close readings of the text, emphasizing formal elements like structure, style, and imagery.  It helps analyze satire through its use of irony, structure, form, genre, and literary techniques (e.g., hyperbole, metaphor, imagery) to convey its message.	Example: It is used for analyzing Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” by examining its use of irony, structure, and hyperbole to criticize British oppression in Ireland and advocate for social change.
Marxism	Marxism examines literature from a socio-economic perspective, looking at how it reflects and reinforces social hierarchies and power structures. It analyzes satire’s role in challenging or reinforcing societal power structures, critiquing class hierarchies, or critiquing capitalism.	Example: It is used for studying George Orwell’s Animal Farm to understand how satire is used to critique the abuse of power and the emergence of a new elite class, reflecting Marxist themes of class struggle.
Feminism	Feminism focuses on gender roles and stereotypes in culture, social discourse, and literature. It analyzes this device to see how it critiques patriarchal structures, challenges attitudes toward women, and subverts or reinforces gender norms and stereotypes.	Example: It is used fore examining the works of Jane Austen to explore how her satirical portrayals of marriage and gender roles in the 19th century challenge societal expectations and empower female characters.
Postcolonialism	Postcolonialism examines how literature reflects and critiques colonialism and its legacy. It analyzes this device to critique colonial attitudes, stereotypes, and the ongoing effects of colonialism on societies and cultures.	Example: It is used for analyzing Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart to understand how satire is used to challenge European colonial narratives and explore the impact of colonialism on Igbo society in Nigeria.

These critiques provide insights into how satire functions within different literary theories, shedding light on its role in critiquing and reflecting various aspects of society and culture.

Suggested Readings

1. Bakhtin, Mikhail. Rabelais and His World. Indiana University Press, 1984.
2. Combe, Kirk, and Brian A. Connery, eds. Theorizing Satire: Essays in Literary Criticism. St. Martin’s Press, 1995.
3. Highet, Gilbert. Anatomy of satire. Vol. 1353. Princeton University Press, 2015.
4. Hutcheon, Linda. Irony, Satire, and Parody in Canadian Fiction. Indiana University Press, 2000.
5. Swift, Jonathan. A Modest Proposal. Penguin Classics, 2003.
6. Waugh, Patricia. Literary Theory and Criticism: An Oxford Guide. Oxford University Press, 2006.

Etymology of Satire

The word “satire” originates from the Latin word “satura.” It means a mixture or medley. It was common in ancient Rome used in a form of poetry, having mixed different styles and subjects. With time, the meaning of “satire” evolved to refer to a literary work that specifically uses irony, sarcasm, and ridicule as tools to criticize or expose human follies, or vices or wrongdoings.

Meanings of Satire

Characteristics of Satire
Literary Genre	It is a literary genre.
Elements	It uses humor, irony, and exaggeration.
Targets	Criticizes or reveals human follies, vices, wrongdoings, social vices, or political stupidity.
Tone	Often employs a sharp, biting tone.
Targets of Critique	Challenges authority, hypocrisy, and stupidity.
Purpose	Aims to provoke critical thinking.
Ultimate Goal	Seeks to bring about social change.

Satire in Grammar

• Singular Noun: “satire” is a singular noun.
• Plural Verb in Sentences: In a sentence, “satire” takes a plural verb. This is because it refers to a genre with multiple works or instances of satire.
• Correct Usage: For example, “Satire is a powerful tool for social commentary” demonstrates the correct use of “satire” as a singular noun.
• Incorrect Usage: “Satire are a powerful tool for social commentary” is an incorrect use of “satire” as a plural noun.
• Subject-Verb Agreement: Interestingly, it can be correct to say “Satire often provoke laughter and reflection” instead of “Satire often provokes laughter and reflection.” In this case, the plural verb “provoke” agrees with the plural subject “satire.”

Definition of Satire as a Literary Device

As a literary device, it is used within various genres of literature, such as novels, plays, poems, or essays. It involves using other literary devices such as irony, sarcasm, or wit with the aim to expose and criticize human follies, flaws, hypocrisy, or foolishness.

Types of Satire

Type	Detail	Example
Horatian satire	It has been named after the Roman satirist Horace. It uses a gentle, playful, and lighthearted tone to criticize human folly and social vices. Its main objective is to amuse and entertain rather than offend or outrage.	Oscar Wilde’s play “The Importance of Being Earnest” shows the use of witty dialogue and comedic situations intended to satirize the upper-class society of the time, mocking their trivial concerns and superficial values.
Juvenalian satire	It has been named after the Roman satirist Juvenal. This type of satire is harsh, bitter, and angry. It uses sarcasm, invective, and moral indignation to attack political corruption, social injustice, and moral decadence.	George Orwell, Animal Farm is a powerful example of Juvenalian satire, as he allegorically criticizes totalitarian regimes and their abuse of power by depicting a group of farm animals who overthrow their human owner only to end up oppressed by the revolutionary pigs who take full control.
Menippean satire	This type of satire is complex and hybrid. It combines different genres such as satire, parody, and fantasy. It uses a surrealistic and absurd style to criticize the inconsistencies and contradictions of human nature and society.	Terry Gilliam’s film “Brazil” satirizes bureaucracy, totalitarianism, and technology by creating a dystopian world where bureaucracy stifles individuality and freedom. The film uses satire, dark humor, and surreal visuals to criticize the dehumanizing effects of an overly bureaucratic society.
Satire in verse	This type of satire uses poetic language and poetic devices such as rhyme, meter, and stanza to criticize social or political issues.	Alexander Pope’s mock epic “The Rape of the Lock” is a mock-heroic poem that satirizes the triviality and vanity of high society of the 18th-century England. The poem uses poetic techniques to exaggerate a trivial incident involving the cutting of a lock of hair. The purpose is to criticize the shallow values and social norms of those times.
Parody	This type imitates and exaggerates the style, tone, or content of a literary to mock or criticize it.	“Scary Movie” is a parody that mocks and satirizes the conventions and tropes of the horror genre by exaggerating and subverting them for comic effect. The film ridicules popular horror films, turning their serious elements into comedic absurdity.
Irony	This type uses language that implies the opposite of what is actually said or done. It aims to criticize or expose the hypocrisy, ignorance, or stupidity of individuals, groups, or societies.	Jonathan Swift’s essay “A Modest Proposal” suggests that the impoverished Irish should sell their children as food. This is how it is using irony to criticize the indifference of the ruling class toward the poor and expose the absurdity of their proposed solutions to social problems.

Common Examples of Satire

It is found in various forms in everyday life and communication, such as:

Type	Detail
Political Cartoons	Many editorial cartoons use it to mock politicians, their policies, or even current events.
Late-Night Talk Shows	Comedians often use satire to make fun of politicians, celebrities, and current events in their monologues.
Social Media Memes	This is a new cultural genre. Several memes use it to criticize or mock people or issues humorously.
TV Shows and Movies	Satirical TV shows and movies, such as “The Daily Show” and “Saturday Night Live,” use humor to criticize politicians and social issues.
Advertising	Some advertisements use satire to mock their competitors.
Literature	It is used in literary pieces such as novels, short stories, and poetry. Jonathan Swift’s “A Modest Proposal” and George Orwell’s Animal Farm are two popular works in this connection.
Stand-up comedy	Many comedians use satire to criticize societal issues or popular culture.

Literary Examples of Satire

1. Animal Farm by George Orwell

This short novel is a satirical allegory of the Russian Revolution and the rise of Stalinism. The animals on the farm led by pigs overthrow their human owner, Mr. Jones and create their own government led by the same pigs. This new regime eventually becomes corrupt and oppressive as that of Mr. Jones. Through this story, Orwell criticizes the corruption and authoritarianism of Soviet-style communism and the conduct of the revolutionaries who become as much corrupt as the old ruling class.

• Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift

This fiction prose comprising travelogues is a satire on English society and politics of the 18th century. The main character, Lemuel Gulliver, travels to various fantastical lands, such as Lilliput, each representing a different aspect of society with short, long, and distorted versions of human beings engaged in bizarre behavior. Through Gulliver’s observations and experiences, Swift criticizes the hypocrisy, greed, and corruption of his contemporary society.

• Catch-22 by Joseph Heller

 This postmodern novel is a satire on war and bureaucracy. Set during WWII, the novel follows the trajectory of the exploits of Captain John Yossarian, an American bombardier, who is trying to avoid going on more missions. The book’s title refers to a catch-22 situation in which a requirement for a situation to be true is also the requirement for it to be false. Through the absurdity of Yossarian’s situation and the bureaucracy of the military, Joseph Heller criticizes the senselessness and absurdity of war.

• “The Importance of Being Earnest” by Oscar Wilde

This beautiful and witty play is a satire on Victorian society and its social norms. The plot of the play revolves around two men both using the name “Ernest” to escape their social obligations and pursue their romantic interests. Through witty dialogue and comic situations, Wilde criticizes the superficiality and hypocrisy of Victorian society.

• Don Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes

This chivalric romance shows the use of this device on the idealization of knighthood. The main character, Don Quixote, is a middle-aged gentleman who becomes delusional. He thinks he is a knight-errant, setting out on various adventures. Through Don Quixote’s misguided actions and the reactions of those around him, Cervantes criticizes the romanticization of chivalry and the impracticality of idealism.

Suggested Readings

1. Bakhtin, Mikhail. Rabelais and His World. Indiana University Press, 1984.
2. Combe, Kirk, and Brian A. Connery, eds. Theorizing Satire: Essays in Literary Criticism. St. Martin’s Press, 1995.
3. Highet, Gilbert. Anatomy of satire. Vol. 1353. Princeton University Press, 2015.
4. Hutcheon, Linda. Irony, Satire, and Parody in Canadian Fiction. Indiana University Press, 2000.
5. Swift, Jonathan. A Modest Proposal. Penguin Classics, 2003.
6. Waugh, Patricia. Literary Theory and Criticism: An Oxford Guide. Oxford University Press, 2006.

Introduction to Sarcasm

Sarcasm is also a rhetorical device, serving as a form of indirect communication, challenging social norms, expressing dissatisfaction, or engaging in social commentary through the veil of apparent praise or agreement.

How to Create Sarcasm

Tip	Practical Step	Example
Use the Right Tone	Adopt a dry, mocking, or exaggerated tone of voice or writing style to convey your true intent.	“Oh, sure, I absolutely love doing extra work on weekends.”
Play with Words	Use double meanings or use words that convey the opposite of your true intention to add a sarcastic twist.	“Wow, your brilliant plan to procrastinate until the last minute is truly inspiring.”
Be Unexpected	Surprise others with unexpected and clever responses that catch them off guard while maintaining humor or pointedness.	“Of course, I’d love to attend your 5-hour lecture on the history of paperclips.”
Avoid Offense	Consider your audience and refrain from sarcasm that may be misconstrued or perceived as an insult.	“Great job breaking the printer… again.”
Practice, Practice, Practice	Hone your sarcasm skills by practicing with friends or family, and experiment with different tones and phrasing.	“No, I haven’t practiced sarcasm enough. It’s only my 10,000th attempt today.”

Benefits

It has several potential benefits in social situations, including:

1. Humor: It could be a form of humor that lightens the mood and makes people laugh. When used appropriately, sarcasm is a clever and witty way of making a point.
2. Assertiveness: It is a way of asserting oneself in a conversation or debate. It could be a way of expressing disagreement or criticism without being overtly confrontational or aggressive.
3. Social Bonding: It also bonds you with others who share a similar sense of humor. When used among friends or colleagues who understand and appreciate the style of humor, sarcasm builds rapport and a sense of shared identity.
4. Critical Thinking: It is also a form of questioning assumptions and biases. By using sarcasm to poke holes in arguments or highlight contradictions, it encourages critical thinking and intellectual engagement.
5. Emotional Regulation: It means managing emotions. Using humor to defuse tense situations leads to a reduction in stress and anxiety and the promotion of a more positive emotional state.

Sarcasm and Literary Theory

Sarcasm is often analyzed in literary theories, particularly in the fields of rhetoric and linguistics. Here are a few examples of literary theories that relate to sarcasm:

Literary Theory	Critique of Sarcasm	Practical Example
Pragmatics	Pragmatic analysis focuses on contextual use and its ability to convey meaning even when the words themselves seem to contradict the intended message. – Examines how sarcasm relies on shared knowledge, social cues, and contextual factors to successfully communicate its intended meaning.	Example: In a sarcastic tone, someone says, “Oh, that’s just what I needed!” when receiving an unwelcome gift. The meaning is conveyed through the context and tone, not the literal words.
Rhetoric	Rhetorical analysis explores its persuasive power and its role in influencing an audience’s perception or challenging arguments. – Investigates how sarcasm can be used to make a point, evoke emotional responses, or undermine opposing viewpoints through its ironic and satirical nature.	Example: A political satirist uses sarcasm to criticize a politician’s stance, highlighting the absurdity of the argument and making the audience question the politician’s position.
Semiotics	Semiotic analysis views it as a sign or symbol, examining how it functions as a form of communication within a broader system of signs. – Explores the relationship between sarcasm, irony, and other forms of figurative language, analyzing how they contribute to the layered and nuanced meanings conveyed through sarcasm.	Example: Analyzing a piece of literature where a character’s sarcastic remarks symbolize their underlying discontent or serve as a commentary on the society depicted in the text.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Psychoanalytic analysis delves into the unconscious motivations behind its usage, highlighting its potential role as a defense mechanism or a means of expressing repressed emotions. – Investigates how sarcasm can serve as a coping mechanism for dealing with anger, frustration, or conflicting emotions, providing an outlet for the expression of unconscious desires or unconscious conflicts.	Example: A character uses it as a defense mechanism to mask their feelings of insecurity and inadequacy, using humor to deflect from their deeper emotional issues.

Suggested Readings

1. Clare, Colebrook. Irony in the Work of Philosophy. University of Nebraska Press, 2007.
2. Gibbs, Raymond W., Jr. Irony in Talk among Friends. Routledge, 2018.
3. Hutcheon, Linda. Irony’s Edge: The Theory and Politics of Irony. Routledge, 2016.
4. Limon, John. Stand-Up Comedy in Theory, or, Abjection in America. Duke University Press, 2000.
5. Pawlak, Matthew C. “How to be sarcastic in Greek: Typical means of signalling sarcasm in the New Testament and Lucian.” Humor 32.4 (2019): 545-564.
6. Dorfman, Lawrence, and Naccarato, James Michael. The Sarcasm Handbook. United States, Skyhorse, 2017.
7. Kreuz, Roger. Irony and Sarcasm. United Kingdom, MIT Press, 2020.
8. Napoli, James. The Official Dictionary of Sarcasm: A Lexicon for Those of Us who are Better and Smarter Than the Rest of You. United States, Sterling Publishing Company, Incorporated, 2010.
9. Smith, Aaron. The Art of Sarcasm. N.p., CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2016.