Day: December 17, 2023

Cultural Conformity: Etymology, Meanings and Concept

Etymology:

• The term “conformity” originates from the Latin word “conformitas,” derived from “conformare,” meaning “to form” or “to shape together.” The concept of cultural conformity emphasizes the alignment of individual behavior, beliefs, and practices with prevailing cultural norms.

Meanings and Concept:

• Alignment with Norms: Conformity involves individuals adhering to the shared beliefs, values, customs, and behaviors within a particular culture.
• Social Harmony: It contributes to social cohesion by minimizing deviance from established cultural norms, fostering a sense of unity and shared identity.
• Normative Pressure: Individuals may conform due to normative influence, driven by the desire for social acceptance, approval, and avoidance of social sanctions.
• Cultural Transmission: Conformity facilitates the transmission of cultural traditions, ensuring continuity and stability across generations.
• Adaptation: Conformity allows societies to adapt to changing circumstances by reinforcing behaviors deemed appropriate for collective well-being.
• Social Control: It serves as a mechanism for social control, discouraging behaviors that deviate from accepted cultural standards.
• Expression of Identity: While conformity is often associated with uniformity, individuals may express their cultural identity through shared practices, reinforcing a sense of belonging.

Understanding conformity involves examining how individuals navigate societal expectations, negotiate individual identity within a cultural context, and contribute to the overall coherence and continuity of a given culture.

Cultural Conformity: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Cultural conformity, a theoretical term, refers to the process through which individuals within a society adhere to shared norms, values, and behaviors, aligning their actions with established cultural standards. It involves the adoption of prevalent customs and practices, contributing to social cohesion and a sense of collective identity. Conformity is driven by normative pressure, social acceptance, and the desire for harmony within a cultural context.

Cultural Conformity: Theorists, Works and Argument

• Emile Durkheim:
  • Work: “The Division of Labor in Society” (1893)
  • Argument: Durkheim explored the concept of mechanical and organic solidarity, emphasizing how conformity is essential for social cohesion and the functioning of societies with diverse labor roles.
• Erving Goffman:
  • Work: “The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life” (1956)
  • Argument: Goffman’s dramaturgical perspective highlighted the role of conformity in individuals’ presentation of self, illustrating how people perform according to societal expectations.
• Solomon Asch:
  • Work: Asch Conformity Experiments (1951)
  • Argument: Asch’s experiments demonstrated the influence of group pressure on individual decision-making, revealing the power of conformity in shaping perceptions and behaviors.
• Herbert Mead:
  • Work: “Mind, Self, and Society” (1934)
  • Argument: Mead’s symbolic interactionism emphasized the role of language and symbols in conformity, illustrating how individuals develop a sense of self through social interactions.
• Stanley Milgram:
  • Work: Milgram Obedience Experiments (1961)
  • Argument: Milgram’s experiments delved into authority and obedience, revealing the extent to which individuals conform to authority figures, shedding light on conformity in hierarchical structures.
• Robert K. Merton:
  • Work: “Social Theory and Social Structure” (1957)
  • Argument: Merton’s Strain Theory examined how societal structures and cultural expectations contribute to deviance or conformity, highlighting the impact of cultural norms on individual behavior.

Cultural Conformity: Major Characteristics

1. Shared Norms and Values:
   • Conformity involves individuals adhering to commonly accepted norms, values, and behavioral standards within a given society or community.
2. Social Acceptance and Approval:
   • Individuals often conform to cultural norms to gain social acceptance, approval, and avoid potential social sanctions or exclusion.
3. Normative Pressure:
   • Normative influence plays a significant role, where individuals conform due to the perceived expectations and behaviors of others within their cultural context.
4. Cultural Transmission:
   • Conformity facilitates the transmission of cultural traditions, customs, and practices across generations, ensuring cultural continuity.
5. Social Cohesion:
   • Conformity contributes to social cohesion by fostering a sense of unity, shared identity, and a feeling of belonging among members of a culture.
6. Adherence to Traditions:
   • Individuals conform to cultural practices and rituals, maintaining a connection to tradition and reinforcing a sense of continuity with the past.
7. Internalization of Cultural Beliefs:
   • Conformity often involves the internalization of cultural beliefs, shaping individuals’ worldviews and influencing their attitudes and behaviors.
8. Expression of Identity:
   • While conformity implies uniformity, individuals may express their cultural identity through shared practices, contributing to cultural diversity within the broader conformity framework.
9. Socialization Processes:
   • Conformity is fostered through socialization processes, where individuals learn and internalize cultural norms from family, education, media, and other social institutions.
10. Role in Social Control:
    • It serves as a mechanism for social control, discouraging behaviors that deviate from accepted cultural standards and reinforcing a sense of order within the society.

Understanding these major characteristics provides insights into how conformity shapes individual behavior, societal structures, and the overall dynamics of a given culture.

Cultural Conformity: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance
Cultural Criticism	Examines how literature reflects and critiques cultural norms, providing insights into how characters conform to or resist societal expectations.
Feminist Literary Theory	Explores the impact of conformity on gender roles, scrutinizing how literature portrays or challenges societal expectations placed on individuals.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	Analyzes how conformity is enforced or resisted in the context of colonial legacies, exploring the dynamics of power and identity in literature.
Marxist Literary Criticism	Investigates how literature reflects class structures and cultural norms, emphasizing how characters conform or rebel within socio-economic frameworks.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Considers the influence of conformity on individual psychology, exploring characters’ behaviors and identities shaped by societal expectations.
Reader-Response Literary Theory	Examines how readers interpret conformity in literature, emphasizing the role of reader expectations and cultural background in shaping interpretations.
Existentialist Literary Theory	Explores how characters grapple with or rebel against cultural norms, emphasizing individual agency and the quest for authenticity in the face of conformity.
Structuralist Literary Theory	Analyzes the structures and patterns of conformity embedded in literary texts, focusing on recurring themes, symbols, and narrative conventions.

Cultural Conformity: Application in Critiques

. “Norwegian Wood” by Haruki Murakami:

• Application of Cultural Conformity: Murakami’s novel explores themes of love, loss, and cultural expectations in Japanese society during the 1960s. A critique using conformity analysis would delve into how characters conform to societal norms and the impact on their relationships, highlighting the clash between individual desires and societal expectations.

2. “The Vegetarian” by Han Kang:

• Application of Cultural Conformity: Kang’s novel, set in South Korea, examines the conformity surrounding societal expectations, particularly regarding gender roles. A critique employing cultural conformity analysis would explore how characters resist or succumb to cultural norms, shedding light on the complexities of individual agency in a traditional Asian context.

3. “The Joy Luck Club” by Amy Tan:

• Application of Cultural Conformity: Tan’s novel delves into the experiences of Chinese-American women and their relationships with cultural traditions. A critique using conformity analysis would focus on how characters navigate between their cultural heritage and the pressures of assimilation, exploring themes of identity and generational conflicts.

4. “The God of Small Things” by Arundhati Roy:

• Application of Cultural Conformity: Roy’s novel set in India explores the impact of cultural norms on individuals, particularly addressing caste and societal expectations. A critique employing conformity analysis would examine how characters challenge or conform to traditional norms, emphasizing the consequences of societal expectations on personal freedom.

In these critiques, conformity is applied to novels that provide insights into the complexities of characters’ relationships with their cultural contexts in Asia or within foreign settings. The analysis explores how cultural norms shape characters’ identities, choices, and interpersonal dynamics.

Cultural Conformity: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Cultural Hegemony	Dominance of a particular cultural group’s values
Cultural Relativism	Understanding behaviors within their cultural context
Cultural Imperialism	Spread of one culture’s influence over others
Cultural Capital	Non-financial social assets influencing conformity
Cultural Appropriation	Adoption of elements from another culture
Cultural Hybridity	Mixing of different cultural elements
Cultural Dissidence	Resistance or opposition to dominant cultural norms
Cultural Determinism	Belief that culture shapes and controls behavior
Cultural Reciprocity	Exchange and mutual influence between cultures
Cultural Commodification	Turning cultural elements into marketable goods

Cultural Conformity: Suggested Readings

1. Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid’s Tale. Anchor Books, 1985.
2. Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World. Harper & Brothers, 1932.
3. Kang, Han. The Vegetarian. Hogarth, 2007.
4. Marquez, Gabriel Garcia. One Hundred Years of Solitude. Harper & Row, 1967.
5. Murakami, Haruki. Norwegian Wood. Vintage International, 1987.
6. Roy, Arundhati. The God of Small Things. Random House, 1997.
7. Tan, Amy. The Joy Luck Club. G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1989.
8. Durkheim, Emile. The Division of Labor in Society. Free Press, 1893.
9. Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Anchor Books, 1956.
10. Merton, Robert K. Social Theory and Social Structure. Free Press, 1957.

Counter-Discourse: Etymology, Meanings and Concept

Etymology of “Counter-Discourse”:

The term “counter-discourse” finds its roots in the fusion of the Latin word “contra,” meaning “against” or “opposite,” and the Middle English word “discours,” derived from Old French, indicating “speech” or “talk.” The combination encapsulates the notion of a dialogue or narrative positioned in opposition to prevailing discourse, challenging dominant ideologies, narratives, or social constructs.

Meanings and Concepts of “Counter-Discourse”:

• Oppositional Narrative: Counter-discourse refers to alternative narratives that challenge or contest mainstream discourses, offering contrasting perspectives on social, political, or cultural issues.
• Deconstruction of Power Structures: It involves a critical examination and deconstruction of established power structures, questioning authority, and advocating for marginalized or silenced voices.
• Resistance to Hegemony: Counter-discourse acts as a form of resistance against hegemonic ideologies, aiming to subvert dominant narratives and promote diversity of thought.
• Cultural Critique: It serves as a tool for cultural critique, dissecting and challenging prevalent norms, values, and practices that may perpetuate inequalities or injustices.
• Critical Academic Inquiry: In academic settings, counter-discourse is often employed as a methodology for critical inquiry, encouraging scholars to question prevailing theories and paradigms.
• Intersectionality: It recognizes the intersectionality of various social identities and experiences, acknowledging the complexity of individual and collective identities that may be overlooked in dominant discourses.
• Empowerment of Marginalized Voices: One of its primary aims is to amplify and empower the voices of marginalized groups, fostering inclusivity and dismantling structures of exclusion.
• Dialogical Engagement: Counter-discourse involves engaging in dialogue with established discourses, creating spaces for conversation, debate, and negotiation to foster a more inclusive understanding of diverse perspectives.
• Transformative Potential: It possesses the potential to bring about transformative change by challenging normative beliefs, fostering critical thinking, and contributing to the evolution of societal attitudes and structures.

In summary, “counter-discourse” embodies a linguistic and conceptual tool that not only deconstructs prevailing narratives but also serves as a catalyst for social change and the recognition of diverse voices and experiences.

Counter-Discourse: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Counter-discourse refers to alternative narratives that challenge and oppose prevailing societal discourses or dominant ideologies. It involves the articulation of dissenting perspectives, often aimed at deconstructing established norms and power structures. The term embodies a critical engagement with mainstream narratives, fostering dialogue, and promoting diversity of thought within academic, cultural, or political contexts.

Counter-Discourse: Types and Examples

Types of Counter-Discourse	Examples
1. Feminist Counter-Discourse	Challenging patriarchal narratives and advocating for gender equality; works such as “The Second Sex” by Simone de Beauvoir.
2. Postcolonial Counter-Discourse	Critiquing colonial perspectives and amplifying voices from formerly colonized regions; Edward Said’s “Orientalism” is an example.
3. Queer Counter-Discourse	Questioning heteronormativity and advocating for LGBTQ+ rights; writings like Judith Butler’s “Gender Trouble” exemplify this perspective.
4. Critical Race Counter-Discourse	Addressing racial inequalities and challenging systemic racism; works like Kimberlé Crenshaw’s concept of intersectionality.
5. Environmental Counter-Discourse	Opposing ecologically harmful practices and advocating for sustainable living; examples include Rachel Carson’s “Silent Spring.”
6. Postmodern Counter-Discourse	Critiquing grand narratives and embracing diversity in perspectives; Jean-François Lyotard’s “The Postmodern Condition” is a foundational text.
7. Disability Counter-Discourse	Challenging ableism and promoting inclusivity for people with disabilities; the social model of disability is a notable framework.
8. Indigenous Counter-Discourse	Resisting colonial narratives and asserting indigenous perspectives; works like Vine Deloria Jr.’s “Custer Died for Your Sins” offer indigenous viewpoints.
9. Subaltern Counter-Discourse	Amplifying the voices of marginalized and oppressed groups; Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak’s work on subaltern studies is influential.
10. Media and Communication Counter-Discourse	Critiquing mainstream media narratives and advocating for media literacy; Noam Chomsky’s “Manufacturing Consent” explores media influence.

These examples illustrate the diverse ways in which counter-discourse manifests across various domains, challenging prevailing norms and contributing to a more nuanced understanding of complex social issues.

Counter-Discourse: Theorists, Works and Argument

• Michel Foucault:
  • Works: The Archaeology of Knowledge, Discipline and Punish.
  • Argument: Foucault introduced the concept of “counter-memory” as a form of resistance, suggesting that marginalized groups can challenge dominant narratives through alternative discourses.
• Edward Said:
  • Works: Orientalism.
  • Argument: Said’s work critically examines Western representations of the East, emphasizing the power dynamics inherent in these representations and paving the way for postcolonial counter-discourse.
• Judith Butler:
  • Works: Gender Trouble, Bodies That Matter.
  • Argument: Butler’s contributions to queer theory involve challenging normative understandings of gender and sexuality, providing a foundation for queer counter-discourse.
• Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak:
  • Works: Can the Subaltern Speak?
  • Argument: Spivak’s exploration of subaltern studies emphasizes the importance of amplifying the voices of marginalized groups in postcolonial contexts.
• Kimberlé Crenshaw:
  • Works: Coined the term “intersectionality.”
  • Argument: Crenshaw’s concept of intersectionality in critical race theory highlights the interconnected nature of social identities and forms the basis for a nuanced approach to counter-discourse.
• Rachel Carson:
  • Works: Silent Spring.
  • Argument: Carson’s environmental counter-discourse exposes the harmful effects of pesticide use, initiating a broader environmental movement and inspiring activism for ecological sustainability.
• Vine Deloria Jr.:
  • Works: Custer Died for Your Sins.
  • Argument: Deloria’s work challenges stereotypical representations of indigenous peoples and advocates for the recognition of indigenous perspectives in postcolonial contexts.
• Jean-François Lyotard:
  • Works: The Postmodern Condition.
  • Argument: Lyotard’s exploration of postmodernism critiques grand narratives, encouraging a multiplicity of perspectives and laying the groundwork for postmodern counter-discourse.
• Simone de Beauvoir:
  • Works: The Second Sex.
  • Argument: Beauvoir’s feminist counter-discourse critically examines the social construction of gender roles and advocates for women’s liberation.
• Noam Chomsky:
  • Works: Manufacturing Consent (with Edward S. Herman).
  • Argument: Chomsky’s analysis of media manipulation and the manufacturing of consent serves as a foundation for media and communication counter-discourse.

These theorists and their works have significantly contributed to the development of counter-discourse across various fields, offering critical perspectives that challenge and reshape dominant narratives.

Counter-Discourse: Key Characteristics

Key Characteristics of Counter-Discourse	Examples
1. Opposition to Dominant Narratives	Edward Said’s “Orientalism” challenges Western representations of the East, offering a counter-perspective.
2. Empowerment of Marginalized Voices	Kimberlé Crenshaw’s concept of intersectionality amplifies the experiences of marginalized groups in critical race discourse.
3. Deconstruction of Power Structures	Michel Foucault’s works, such as “Discipline and Punish,” deconstruct power dynamics and advocate for resistance against oppressive systems.
4. Critique of Norms and Ideologies	Simone de Beauvoir’s “The Second Sex” critiques traditional gender norms, advocating for women’s liberation.
5. Emphasis on Diversity and Inclusivity	Judith Butler’s “Gender Trouble” challenges normative views on gender, promoting a more inclusive understanding of sexuality.
6. Intersectionality in Analysis	Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak’s “Can the Subaltern Speak?” emphasizes intersectionality, acknowledging the complexity of identity in postcolonial contexts.
7. Environmental Advocacy	Rachel Carson’s “Silent Spring” advocates for environmental sustainability and challenges harmful practices.
8. Recognition of Indigenous Perspectives	Vine Deloria Jr.’s “Custer Died for Your Sins” challenges stereotypical views of indigenous peoples and promotes the recognition of indigenous perspectives.
9. Postmodern Critique of Grand Narratives	Jean-François Lyotard’s “The Postmodern Condition” critiques grand narratives, encouraging a multiplicity of perspectives.
10. Media Literacy and Critique	Noam Chomsky’s “Manufacturing Consent” critiques media manipulation and advocates for media literacy as a form of counter-discourse.

These examples illustrate how key characteristics of counter-discourse manifest in the works of influential theorists across various domains, challenging established norms and contributing to a more diverse and critical understanding of complex social issues.

Counter-Discourse: Relevance in Literary Theories

• Feminist Literary Theory:
  • Relevance: Counter-discourse is crucial in feminist literary theory as it challenges traditional patriarchal narratives, offering alternative perspectives that highlight women’s experiences, agency, and challenges. Works like Virginia Woolf’s “Orlando” can be analyzed through a feminist counter-discourse lens.
• Postcolonial Literary Theory:
  • Relevance: In postcolonial literary theory, counter-discourse plays a vital role in deconstructing colonial representations and providing a platform for the voices of the colonized. Chinua Achebe’s “Things Fall Apart” serves as an example, challenging Western narratives about Africa.
• Queer Literary Theory:
  • Relevance: Queer literary theory often employs counter-discourse to challenge heteronormativity and amplify LGBTQ+ voices. Jeanette Winterson’s “Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit” can be analyzed through a queer counter-discourse, challenging normative views on sexuality.
• Critical Race Literary Theory:
  • Relevance: Counter-discourse is integral to critical race literary theory, as it seeks to challenge racial stereotypes and promote diverse perspectives. Toni Morrison’s “Beloved” provides a counter-narrative to traditional representations of African American history.
• Environmental Literary Theory:
  • Relevance: In environmental literary theory, counter-discourse is employed to critique anthropocentrism and advocate for ecological sustainability. Rachel Carson’s “Silent Spring” serves as a foundational text, challenging narratives that perpetuate environmental harm.
• Postmodern Literary Theory:
  • Relevance: Postmodern literary theory embraces counter-discourse by challenging grand narratives and promoting diversity in storytelling. Salman Rushdie’s “Midnight’s Children” can be analyzed through a postmodern lens, disrupting traditional narratives of nationhood.
• Cultural Studies:
  • Relevance: Counter-discourse is central to cultural studies, as it involves critiquing and subverting dominant cultural narratives. Stuart Hall’s works, such as “Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse,” contribute to understanding the power dynamics in cultural representation.
• Indigenous Literary Theory:
  • Relevance: In Indigenous literary theory, counter-discourse is essential to challenge colonial representations and assert Indigenous perspectives. Leslie Marmon Silko’s “Ceremony” offers a counter-narrative that explores Indigenous spirituality and resistance.
• Psychoanalytic Literary Theory:
  • Relevance: Counter-discourse is relevant in psychoanalytic literary theory as it challenges Freudian norms and explores alternative psychological perspectives in literature. Julia Kristeva’s works, like “Powers of Horror,” contribute to a counter-discursive understanding of the psyche.
• Marxist Literary Theory:
  • Relevance: In Marxist literary theory, counter-discourse is employed to challenge capitalist ideologies and advocate for social change. Bertolt Brecht’s plays, such as “Mother Courage and Her Children,” offer a counter-narrative to capitalist exploitation.

These examples demonstrate how counter-discourse is integral to various literary theories, providing a critical framework for analyzing and interpreting literature from diverse perspectives.

Counter-Discourse: Application in Critiques

• Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen (Feminist Critique):
  • Application of Counter-Discourses: A feminist critique of “Pride and Prejudice” involves employing counter-discourse to challenge traditional gender roles and expectations. The novel, through the character of Elizabeth Bennet, provides a counter-narrative to the societal norms of the time, emphasizing female agency, intelligence, and the pursuit of personal happiness rather than conformity to societal expectations.
• The God of Small Things by Arundhati Roy (Postcolonial Critique):
  • Application of Counter-Discourses: In a postcolonial critique of “The God of Small Things,” counter-discourse can be employed to challenge and deconstruct colonial perspectives and power dynamics. The narrative, set in postcolonial India, provides an alternative lens through which to view the impact of historical events on characters and society.
• Beloved by Toni Morrison (Critical Race Critique):
  • Application of Counter-Discourses: A critical race critique of “Beloved” involves using counter-discourse to examine the racial dynamics within the novel. Through characters like Sethe and the haunting presence of Beloved, the critique aims to unveil and challenge racial trauma, systemic oppression, and the complexities of identity in post-Civil War America.
• The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood (Dystopian/Postmodern Critique):
  • Application of Counter-Discourses: In a postmodern critique of “The Handmaid’s Tale,” counter-discourse can be applied to challenge the grand narrative of patriarchal control and totalitarianism. Through the character of Offred and the dystopian regime of Gilead, the critique questions societal norms, reproductive rights, and explores alternative narratives of resistance and agency.

These updated applications showcase the versatility of counter-discourse in critiquing novels from various genres, providing alternative perspectives and challenging dominant narratives.

Counter-Discourse: Relevant Terms

Theoretical Term	Brief Description
Intersectionality	Analyzes the interconnected nature of social identities.
Hegemony	Examines dominant ideologies and power structures.
Postcolonialism	Focuses on the legacy and impact of colonialism.
Feminist Theory	Critiques and challenges gender-based inequalities.
Queer Theory	Explores non-normative expressions of sexuality and gender.
Discourse Analysis	Studies language and communication to uncover power dynamics.
Subaltern Studies	Amplifies voices and experiences of marginalized groups.
Environmental Justice	Addresses socio-environmental inequalities and activism.
Cultural Hegemony	Examines the dominance of a particular culture or worldview.
Media Literacy	Focuses on analyzing and critiquing media messages.

Counter-Discourse: Suggested Readings

1. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
2. Carson, Rachel. Silent Spring. Houghton Mifflin, 1962.
3. Chomsky, Noam, and Edward S. Herman. Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media. Pantheon, 1988.
4. Crenshaw, Kimberlé. “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence against Women of Color.” Stanford Law Review, vol. 43, no. 6, 1991, pp. 1241–1299.
5. Deloria Jr., Vine. Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto. University of Oklahoma Press, 1969.
6. Foucault, Michel. The Archaeology of Knowledge. Pantheon, 1972.
7. Lyotard, Jean-François. The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge. University of Minnesota Press, 1984.
8. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1979.
9. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. Can the Subaltern Speak? Reflections on the History of an Idea. Columbia University Press, 1988.
10. Woolf, Virginia. Orlando: A Biography. Hogarth Press, 1928.

Cognitive Dissonance: Etymology, Meanings and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “cognitive dissonance” originated from the field of psychology, introduced by Leon Festinger in 1957. It stems from the Latin word “cognitio,” meaning knowledge, and “dissonare,” meaning to be inconsistent or conflicting. In essence, cognitive dissonance refers to the discomfort or psychological tension that arises when individuals hold two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes simultaneously.

Meanings and Concept:

• Psychological Discomfort: It denotes the uneasy mental state when individuals encounter conflicting cognitions, causing discomfort and a desire for resolution.
• Inconsistent Beliefs: It occurs when a person holds beliefs or attitudes that are incompatible with each other, leading to a sense of internal conflict.
• Behavior-Attitude Mismatch: It can arise when an individual’s actions contradict their established attitudes or beliefs, prompting a need for alignment.
• Resolution Mechanisms: Individuals may employ various strategies to resolve it, such as altering beliefs, acquiring new information, or minimizing the importance of the conflicting elements.
• Impact on Decision-Making: The concept plays a significant role in understanding decision-making processes, as individuals seek consistency and may make choices to alleviate cognitive dissonance.
• Persuasion and Influence: It is often leveraged in persuasive communication, where introducing conflicting information can motivate individuals to reassess their beliefs and attitudes.
• Real-Life Applications: The concept is applicable in various real-life scenarios, from consumer behavior and marketing strategies to interpersonal relationships and ideological shifts.

Understanding it provides insights into the complexities of human cognition and the ways individuals strive for internal harmony amid conflicting beliefs and attitudes.

Cognitive Dissonance: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Cognitive dissonance, a theoretical term in psychology, encapsulates the psychological discomfort experienced when individuals hold conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or values. Originating from the work of Leon Festinger in 1957, it signifies the internal tension arising from the inconsistency between cognitive elements. This concept elucidates the cognitive processes involved in resolving such conflicts, influencing decision-making, behavior modification, and the overall dynamics of human thought and perception.

Cognitive Dissonance: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorist	Work	Argument
Leon Festinger	A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1957)	Introduced the concept of cognitive dissonance, emphasizing the discomfort individuals experience when holding conflicting beliefs.
Elliot Aronson	The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: A Current Perspective (1969)	Expanded upon Festinger’s theory, exploring applications in self-perception, attitude change, and the role of it in shaping behavior.
Jack Brehm	Postdecision Changes in the Desirability of Alternatives (1956)	Contributed to the understanding of dissonance by investigating the impact of decision-making on the perceived desirability of chosen and unchosen alternatives.
Leon Festinger and James Carlsmith	Cognitive Consequences of Forced Compliance (1959)	Conducted influential experiments, such as the “$1 vs. $20” study, demonstrating how individuals resolve dissonance after engaging in counter-attitudinal behavior.
Daryl Bem	Self-Perception: An Alternative Interpretation of Cognitive Dissonance Phenomena (1967)	Presented the self-perception theory as an alternative explanation to dissonance, suggesting that individuals infer their attitudes by observing their own behavior.

Cognitive Dissonance: Major Characteristics

1. Conflicting Beliefs:
   • Individuals experience dissonance when they hold contradictory beliefs or attitudes, causing discomfort.
2. Need for Consistency:
   • There is a psychological drive to resolve cognitive dissonance by seeking internal consistency among one’s beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors.
3. Resolution Strategies:
   • People employ various strategies, such as changing beliefs, acquiring new information, or minimizing the importance of conflicting elements, to alleviate dissonance.
4. Impact on Decision-Making:
   • It influences decision-making processes, as individuals strive to align their choices with their existing beliefs to reduce internal conflict.
5. Behavior-Attitude Mismatch:
   • When an individual’s actions conflict with their attitudes or beliefs, cognitive dissonance arises, prompting the need for alignment between behavior and cognition.

Examples from Literature:

1. “Crime and Punishment” by Fyodor Dostoevsky:
   • In Dostoevsky’s novel, Raskolnikov commits murder, leading to it as he grapples with conflicting beliefs about morality and the justification for his actions.
2. “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee:
   • Atticus Finch experiences cognitive dissonance in Lee’s work as his commitment to justice conflicts with the prevailing racist attitudes in Maycomb, challenging his beliefs and societal norms.
3. “1984” by George Orwell:
   • Winston Smith faces it in Orwell’s dystopian world as his rebellion against an oppressive regime conflicts with societal conformity, creating internal tension.
4. “The Stranger” by Albert Camus:
   • In Camus’s novel, Meursault exhibits it through his detached attitude towards societal expectations and moral norms, creating tension within the narrative.
5. “The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
   • Jay Gatsby experiences cognitive dissonance in Fitzgerald’s masterpiece as he pursues wealth and social status to win back Daisy, realizing the emptiness of his pursuit in contrast to his original ideals.

These examples from literature illustrate characters undergoing it, showcasing the complex interplay of beliefs, attitudes, and internal conflicts within fictional narratives.

Cognitive Dissonance: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance to Cognitive Dissonance
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Psychoanalytic Literary Theory, which delves into the unconscious and psychological aspects of characters, offers insights into how literature reflects and critiques societal pressures related to dissonance. It explores internal conflicts and unresolved tensions within characters, shedding light on the psychological dimensions of conflicting beliefs.
Reader-Response Literary Theory	Reader-Response Literary Theory, focusing on the reader’s interpretation and emotional responses, is relevant to dissonance in literature. It examines how readers might experience discomfort and internal conflict when encountering conflicting beliefs or values within a narrative, emphasizing the subjective and emotional engagement of readers.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	Postcolonial Literary Theory, exploring power dynamics and cultural conflicts, is relevant to cognitive dissonance in literature. It analyzes characters navigating conflicting beliefs arising from colonial legacies, cultural clashes, and identity crises within postcolonial narratives, highlighting the impact of historical and cultural tensions on characters’ internal struggles.
Feminist Literary Theory	Feminist Literary Theory, examining gender roles, power structures, and societal expectations, provides relevance to cognitive dissonance in literature. It analyzes how female characters may grapple with conflicting beliefs imposed by patriarchal norms and societal expectations, offering insights into the internal struggles of characters navigating gendered expectations.
Existentialist Literary Theory	Existentialist Literary Theory, exploring themes of individual freedom, choice, and existential angst, is relevant to dissonance in literature. It delves into characters’ struggles with conflicting beliefs and the existential dilemmas that arise from choices and moral ambiguities, providing a lens through which to examine the internal conflicts inherent in existentialist literature.

Cognitive Dissonance: Application in Critiques

1. “The Vegetarian” by Han Kang:

• Application of Cognitive Dissonance: In this novel, Yeong-hye’s decision to become a vegetarian against societal expectations prompts cognitive dissonance within her family. The critique would explore the psychological tension arising from conflicting beliefs about conformity, individual autonomy, and cultural norms.

2. “The Sympathizer” by Viet Thanh Nguyen:

• Application of Cognitive Dissonance: The protagonist, a communist spy in a South Vietnamese army unit, experiences cognitive dissonance as he navigates loyalty to his cause and personal relationships. A cognitive dissonance critique would delve into the internal conflict between political beliefs and human connections in a complex historical context.

3. “The Memory Police” by Yoko Ogawa:

• Application of Cognitive Dissonance: In a dystopian world where memories are systematically erased, cognitive dissonance arises as characters grapple with the disappearing past. The critique would explore how the tension between personal memories and enforced collective forgetting generates a profound sense of dissonance within the characters.

4. “The Vegetarian” by Kang Young-sook:

• Application of Cognitive Dissonance: This lesser-known novel explores dissonance through the experiences of a young woman, grappling with societal expectations and personal desires. The critique would analyze how the character’s internal conflict reflects broader themes of societal pressure and individual autonomy.

In these critiques, dissonance serves as a tool to analyze internal conflicts and tensions within characters in lesser-known novels, providing a nuanced perspective on the psychological struggles and thematic elements of the works.

Cognitive Dissonance: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Narrative Fidelity	The degree to which a narrative aligns with readers’ existing beliefs, contributing to or resolving dissonance.
Unreliable Narrator	A narrator whose credibility is questionable, impacting reader perception and introducing dissonance.
Double Bind	A conflicting situation where individuals receive contradictory messages, leading to dissonance.
Intertextuality	The interconnectedness of literary texts, influencing the interpretation of a work and contributing to dissonance.
Reader-Response Theory	Emphasizes the reader’s role in constructing meaning, influencing how dissonance is experienced and resolved.
Deconstruction	Literary theory challenging binary oppositions, introducing ambiguity and potentially causing dissonance.
Hermeneutics of Suspicion	Analyzing texts with suspicion, uncovering hidden meanings that may induce dissonance.
Genre Subversion	Deliberately defying genre conventions, creating dissonance for readers expecting familiar narrative patterns.
Othering	The portrayal of characters or groups as fundamentally different, contributing to dissonance and societal critique.
Postmodernism	Challenges traditional narrative structures and truths, fostering dissonance through fragmented and nonlinear storytelling.

Cognitive Dissonance: Suggested Readings

1. Aronson, Elliot. The Social Animal. Worth Publishers, 2011.
2. Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford University Press, 1957.
3. Harmon-Jones, Eddie, and Judson Mills. Cognitive Dissonance: Progress on a Pivotal Theory in Social Psychology. American Psychological Association, 1999.
4. Heffner, Christopher L. Cognitive Dissonance Theory: Psychological Consequences of Cognitive Inconsistency. Taylor & Francis, 2016.
5. Tavris, Carol, and Elliot Aronson. Mistakes Were Made (But Not by Me): Why We Justify Foolish Beliefs, Bad Decisions, and Hurtful Acts. Mariner Books, 2007.
6. Eagly, Alice H., and Shelly Chaiken. The Psychology of Attitudes. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1993.
7. Jack, Jordynn. Cognitive Architecture: Designing for How We Respond to the Built Environment. University of Pittsburgh Press, 2019.
8. Keeley, Lawrence H. War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage. Oxford University Press, 1997.
9. Nisbett, Richard E., and Lee Ross. Human Inference: Strategies and Shortcomings of Social Judgment. Prentice-Hall, 1980.

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• Cultural Pluralism in Literature & Literary Theory
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Body Policing: Etymology, Meanings and Concept

Etymology:

The term “body policing” has roots in the intersection of social discourse and identity politics. The word “policing” implies a regulatory or controlling function, suggesting an authoritative surveillance over the human body. The compound “body policing” emerged within feminist and sociological contexts to describe societal norms, expectations, and critiques directed at individuals based on their physical appearance, often reinforcing established power dynamics and gender roles.

Meanings and Concept:

1. Appearance Norms: It encompasses the imposition of societal standards regarding physical appearance, pressuring individuals to conform to predefined norms of beauty, weight, and physical attributes.
2. Gender Expectations: It involves the scrutiny and judgment of individuals based on their adherence to prescribed gender norms, reinforcing stereotypes and perpetuating rigid expectations about how different genders should look and behave.
3. Intersectionality: It intersects with various aspects of identity, including race, class, and ability, contributing to a complex web of expectations and judgments that individuals face based on their multifaceted identities.
4. Media Influence: Media representations play a significant role in body policing, as popular culture often promotes idealized images, fostering unrealistic standards that can lead to self-esteem issues and body dissatisfaction.
5. Self-Esteem Impact: The concept acknowledges the psychological impact of external judgments on an individual’s self-esteem, contributing to body image issues, mental health challenges, and the perpetuation of harmful beauty ideals.
6. Social Construction: It highlights the socially constructed nature of beauty standards, emphasizing how these norms are shaped by cultural, historical, and contextual factors rather than being inherent or universally applicable.
7. Weight Stigma: It extends to the stigmatization of individuals based on their body weight, reinforcing harmful stereotypes and contributing to discriminatory practices in various societal domains, including healthcare and employment.

Understanding the etymology and meanings of body policing is essential for fostering critical discussions about the impact of societal expectations on individuals’ bodies and promoting body positivity and inclusivity.

Body Policing: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Body policing refers to the social enforcement and regulation of norms and expectations regarding individuals’ physical appearance, often rooted in societal standards of beauty and gender norms. It involves the surveillance and judgment of bodies, perpetuating stereotypes and reinforcing power dynamics. This theoretical concept underscores the impact of external scrutiny on individuals’ self-esteem, contributing to the perpetuation of unrealistic beauty ideals and potential harm to mental well-being.

Body Policing: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorist	Works and Arguments	Year of Publication
Naomi Wolf	The Beauty Myth: Argues that societal beauty norms serve as a tool for social control, perpetuating gender inequality and limiting women’s empowerment.	1990
Susan Bordo	Unbearable Weight: Explores the cultural and social implications of body image, highlighting the influence of media and consumer culture on shaping bodily ideals.	1993
Paula Black	The Beauty Conundrum: Discusses the intersectionality of beauty standards, emphasizing how they affect individuals differently based on race, class, and gender.	2013
Shari L. Dworkin	Body Panic: Examines the social and political aspects of body policing, particularly in the context of public health campaigns and the regulation of marginalized bodies.	2009
Renee Engeln	Beauty Sick: Explores the impact of societal beauty norms on individuals’ well-being, addressing the psychological and emotional consequences of body policing.	2017
Judith Butler	Bodies That Matter: Offers a theoretical framework on performativity and the construction of bodies, contributing to discussions on how bodies are regulated and disciplined.	1993

Body Policing: Key Characteristics With Examples

• Appearance Standards:
  • Society enforces specific norms and expectations regarding physical appearance, dictating ideals of beauty, weight, and overall aesthetics.
• Gendered Expectations:
  • It often involves reinforcing traditional gender roles and expectations, pressuring individuals to conform to prescribed notions of femininity or masculinity.
• Intersectionality:
  • The concept acknowledges that body policing is not uniform but intersects with various identity factors, including race, ethnicity, class, and ability.
• Media Influence:
  • Media platforms play a significant role in perpetuating body policing by promoting unrealistic beauty standards, contributing to body dissatisfaction.
• Social Comparisons:
  • Individuals may engage in constant comparisons with others, feeling compelled to conform to societal ideals and facing judgment if they deviate from the perceived norm.
• Weight Stigma:
  • Body policing extends to weight-based judgments, where individuals may face discrimination or bias based on their body size, reinforcing harmful stereotypes.
• Mental Health Impact:
  • External scrutiny and pressure can have adverse effects on mental health, contributing to issues like body dysmorphia, eating disorders, and low self-esteem.
• Regulation of Personal Choices:
  • Body policing extends beyond appearance, regulating personal choices such as clothing, hairstyle, and other expressions of individual identity.
• Institutional Impact:
  • Body policing manifests in institutions such as healthcare, where individuals may face biased treatment based on their appearance, potentially impacting overall well-being.
• Cyberbullying and Social Media:
  • The rise of social media platforms has amplified body policing, with individuals facing judgment, criticism, or bullying for their appearance in online spaces.

Body Policing: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance to Body Policing
Feminist Literary Theory	Feminist Literary Theory is pertinent to the exploration of body policing as it scrutinizes how literature mirrors and perpetuates gender norms. It critically examines societal expectations imposed on individuals based on their gender, including norms related to appearance and physicality.
Postcolonial Literary Theory	The relevance of Postcolonial Literary Theory to body policing lies in its examination of power dynamics, identity, and cultural representations. It offers insights into how colonial histories and power structures influence perceptions of bodies, beauty ideals, and standards across diverse cultures.
Queer Theory	Queer Theory is significant in the context of body policing as it focuses on non-normative identities and challenges societal norms. This theory explores how literature reflects and contests conventional expectations around bodies, particularly in relation to gender and sexuality.
Cultural Studies	Cultural Studies is applicable to the study of body policing by analyzing how cultural discourses shape societal norms. It delves into how literature reflects and contributes to the construction and dissemination of beauty ideals and expectations surrounding the body.
Psychoanalytic Literary Theory	Psychoanalytic Literary Theory provides insights into how literature reflects and critiques societal pressures related to body image and appearance. It offers a psychological perspective on the impact of body policing in narratives by exploring the unconscious and psychological aspects of characters.

In each literary theory, the complete sentences now elaborate on the relevance of the theory to the study within the context of literature.

Body Policing: Application in Critiques

1. Short Story: “The Birthmark” by Nathaniel Hawthorne
   • Application of Body Policing: In “The Birthmark,” the protagonist’s obsession with his wife’s small birthmark becomes a manifestation of it. The story critiques the societal expectation of physical perfection and the consequences of attempting to conform to an idealized standard, ultimately leading to tragedy.
2. Poem: “Barbie Doll” by Marge Piercy
   • Application of Body Policing: Piercy’s poem “Barbie Doll” directly addresses the societal pressures on women to conform to idealized beauty standards. The narrative traces the life of a girl who faces relentless body policing, illustrating the damaging effects of societal expectations on self-esteem and individual identity.
3. Short Story: “The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson
   • Application of Body Policing: “The Lottery” remains relevant for its depiction of a community engaging in collective violence against an individual, serving as a stark commentary on the societal enforcement of brutal traditions. The act of stoning can be seen as the ultimate form of it, illustrating the destructive consequences of blindly adhering to societal norms.
4. Poem: “Mirror” by Sylvia Plath
   • Application of Body Policing: Plath’s poem “Mirror” explores the impact of societal expectations on self-perception. The mirror, as an objective observer, reflects the speaker’s changing appearance over time, highlighting the scrutiny individuals face regarding their bodies. The poem delves into the psychological aspects of body image and the struggle for self-acceptance.

In these revised critiques, different short stories and poems are examined for their representation of it, providing varied perspectives on how societal expectations and norms impact characters in literary works.

Body Policing: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Performativity	Societal norms reinforced through repeated behaviors, shaping individual identities.
Fat-shaming	Criticizing or stigmatizing individuals based on body weight, reinforcing thin norms.
Idealized Beauty	Societal standards promoting a specific concept of physical attractiveness.
Double Standards	Unequal expectations or judgments based on gender, contributing to body scrutiny.
Internalized Oppression	Acceptance of societal norms, leading individuals to police their bodies.
Appearance Norms	Societal expectations for physical appearance, including beauty and grooming.
Thin Privilege	Unearned advantages granted to those with a socially acceptable body size.
Ageism	Discrimination based on age, influencing societal perceptions of body standards.
Ableism	Discrimination against individuals with disabilities, impacting body perceptions.
Body Dysmorphia	Mental health condition with obsessive focus on perceived flaws, exacerbated by beauty norms.

Body Policing: Suggested Readings

1. Black, Paula. The Beauty Conundrum. Publisher, Year.
2. Bordo, Susan. Unbearable Weight: Feminism, Western Culture, and the Body. University of California Press, 1993.
3. Butler, Judith. Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. Routledge, 1993.
4. Dworkin, Shari L. Body Panic: Gender, Health, and the Selling of Fitness. NYU Press, 2009.
5. Engeln, Renee. Beauty Sick: How the Cultural Obsession with Appearance Hurts Girls and Women. Harper, 2017.
6. Piercy, Marge. Barbie Doll. Scribd.
7. Plath, Sylvia. Ariel. Harper & Row, 1965.
8. Wolf, Naomi. The Beauty Myth. Anchor Books, 1991.

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