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Anthimeria in Literature

Anthimeria in literature appears to defy the conventional boundaries of words by giving them different shapes and nuances.

Anthimeria in Literature: Introduction

Anthimeria in literature appears to defy the conventional boundaries of words by giving them different shapes and nuances. This literary term involves the strategic and deliberate transformation of a word’s grammatical form to create vivid and unconventional expressions.

Authors employ anthimeria to infuse their language with freshness, versatility, and imaginative flair, allowing nouns to morph into verbs, adjectives into nouns, and verbs into nouns, among other transformations. Such syntactic innovation enhances the linguistic palette of literature, offering writers a nuanced means of conveying emotions, ideas, and perspectives. Anthimeria stands as a testament to the dynamic nature of language within the artistic tapestry of literature.

Anthimeria in Literature: Shakespearean Examples

Example	Play/Work	Explanation
“The nightingale sings with a gall’d throat.”	Romeo and Juliet	Shakespeare transforms the noun “gall” into a verb, portraying the nightingale singing despite having an irritated throat.
“He childed as I fathered.”	The Tempest	Anthimeria is employed as “childed” transforms the noun “child” into a verb, describing the act of parenting or begetting.
“She childed like a girl.”	King Lear	Again, Shakespeare uses anthimeria, turning “child” into a verb to depict the process of giving birth, characteristic of girls.
“The day is almost itself.”	Macbeth	Here, the adjective “itself” is anthimerically employed as a noun, referring to the day nearing its typical state or condition.
“The thunder would not peace at my bidding.”	Henry IV, Part 2	Shakespeare transforms the noun “peace” into a verb, illustrating the inability of thunder to become calm or tranquil at command.

Anthimeria in Literature: Examples

Ray Bradbury’s “Fahrenheit 451“:
- Example: “We need not to be let alone. We need to be really bothered once in a while. How long is it since you were really bothered? About something important, about something real?”
- Explanation: In this example, the noun “bothered” is used as a verb, showcasing anthimeria. The author employs this figure of speech to emphasize the necessity of facing thought-provoking challenges.
F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby“:
- Example: “He smiled understandingly—much more than understandingly. It was one of those rare smiles with a quality of eternal reassurance in it that you may come across four or five times in life.”
- Explanation: Fitzgerald uses anthimeria by transforming the adjective “understanding” into an adverb. This creative usage enhances the description of the character’s smile, adding depth to its meaning.
Langston Hughes’s “Dream Deferred“:
- Example: “What happens to a dream deferred? Does it dry up Like a raisin in the sun?”
- Explanation: Hughes employs anthimeria by turning the noun “deferred” into a verb. This linguistic shift contributes to the poem’s exploration of the consequences and transformations of unfulfilled dreams.
Harper Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird“:
- Example: “Until I feared I would lose it, I never loved to read. One does not love breathing.”
- Explanation: In this instance, Lee uses anthimeria to transform the verb “reading” into a noun, creating a parallel with the essential nature of breathing. The comparison emphasizes the intrinsic value the narrator places on reading.
George Orwell’s “Animal Farm“:
- Example: “All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others.”
- Explanation: Orwell employs anthimeria by using the adjective “equal” as a noun. This satirical phrase underscores the hypocrisy and manipulation present in the story’s political context.
Ernest Hemingway’s “A Farewell to Arms“:
- Example: “I was always embarrassed by the words sacred, glorious, and sacrifice and the expression in vain.”
- Explanation: Hemingway utilizes anthimeria by turning the nouns “sacred,” “glorious,” and “sacrifice” into adjectives. This linguistic choice reflects the protagonist’s discomfort with the idealized language associated with war.
Emily Brontë’s “Wuthering Heights“:
- Example: “Whatever our souls are made of, his and mine are the same.”
- Explanation: Brontë uses anthimeria by transforming the possessive pronoun “his” into a verb. This linguistic innovation adds a poetic and intimate dimension to the expression of shared souls between characters.

Anthimeria in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Anthimeria
Structuralism	Anthimeria can be seen as a deviation from expected linguistic structures. In a structuralist analysis, it may be examined as a disruption or transformation within the system of language, offering insights into underlying patterns.
Semiotics	Within semiotics, anthimeria serves as a signifier that takes on new signified meanings. It highlights the dynamic and evolving nature of language, illustrating how words can adopt different roles and contribute to changing sign systems.
Deconstruction	Anthimeria can be viewed as a deconstructive strategy, challenging fixed categories and the traditional boundaries between parts of speech. It disrupts linguistic norms, inviting readers to question and explore the instability of language.
Reader-Response	From a reader-response perspective, anthimeria engages readers by requiring them to actively interpret the transformed language. The unconventional use of words prompts a reader’s personal and subjective engagement with the text.
New Criticism	New Criticism may analyze anthimeria as a formal aspect of a literary work, examining how the use of this figure of speech contributes to the overall structure and meaning. It may emphasize the aesthetic impact and unity achieved.
Postcolonial Theory	In postcolonial literature, anthimeria can be employed to subvert colonial language and challenge established power structures. It allows authors to reclaim and redefine language, contributing to the broader discourse of postcolonial identity.
Feminist Criticism	Anthimeria may be analyzed through a feminist lens to explore how language, traditionally shaped by patriarchal norms, can be subverted and reconstructed. It enables writers to challenge gendered linguistic conventions and express alternative perspectives.

Please note that the relevance of anthimeria in literary theories is not limited to the examples provided, and its interpretation may vary based on the specific context of each literary work and the theoretical approach applied.

Anthimeria in Literature: Relevant Terms

Literary Term	Definition
Metonymy	Substituting the name of one thing with another closely associated with it.
Synecdoche	Using a part of something to represent the whole or vice versa.
Zeugma	A figure of speech in which a word applies to multiple parts of the sentence.
Antanaclasis	Repetition of a word with a different meaning each time.
Polyptoton	Repeating a word, but in a different form.
Paronomasia	Play on words, often using similar-sounding but different-meaning words.
Catachresis	The use of a word in a way that is not conventionally correct, often for a metaphorical effect.
Syllepsis	A figure of speech in which a word is applied to two others in different senses.
Enallage	Intentional grammatical mistake for emphasis or stylistic effect.
Periphrasis	Using more words than necessary to express an idea.

Anthimeria in Literature: Suggested Readings

Fry, Paul H. The Language of Literature: Linguistic Approaches to Classical Texts. Oxford University Press, 2002.
Crystal, David. English as a Global Language. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Pinker, Steven. The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature. Viking, 2007.

Tannen, Deborah. Talking Voices: Repetition, Dialogue, and Imagery in Conversational Discourse. Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Quirk, Randolph, et al. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Longman, 1985.
Eco, Umberto. Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language. Indiana University Press, 1986.

Orwell, George. Politics and the English Language. Penguin, 2013.
Crystal, David. Making Sense of Grammar. Pearson, 2004.
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press, 2003.

Pinker, Steven. Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language. HarperCollins, 1999.

Anthimeria: A Literary Device

Anthimeria, as a literary device, involves the intentional and creative use of a word in a grammatical form different from its typical function.

Anthimeria: Etymology/Term, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Anthimeria Etymology/Term:

Anthimeria is a linguistic phenomenon derived from the Greek language, where “anthi” means “against” or “in place of,” and “meros” means “part.” This term is used to describe the practice of using a word in a grammatical form or syntactic category different from its original usage, essentially creating a new word class. Anthimeria adds flexibility and creativity to language by allowing words to take on roles beyond their conventional ones.

Literal Meaning:

Grammatical Transformation: Anthimeria involves the transformation of a word from one grammatical form to another. For example, the conversion of a noun into a verb or vice versa.

Conceptual Meaning:

Semantic Shift: Anthimeria often leads to a shift in the semantic interpretation of a word, allowing for novel expressions and figurative language.

Expressive Innovation: This linguistic device is frequently employed for expressive purposes, enabling speakers and writers to convey ideas in a more nuanced or imaginative manner.
Language Evolution: Anthimeria contributes to the evolution of language by expanding the usage of words and adapting them to serve diverse communicative needs.

Anthimeria: Definition as a Literary Device

Anthimeria, as a literary device, involves the intentional and creative use of a word in a grammatical form different from its typical function. It adds versatility to language by allowing nouns to function as verbs, adjectives as nouns, or other grammatical transformations. This technique enhances expressiveness, fosters linguistic innovation, and contributes to the richness of literary expression by breaking conventional usage boundaries.

Anthimeria: Types and Examples

Type of Anthimeria	Definition	Example
Noun to Verb	Transforming a noun into a verb form.	“He decided to chair the meeting.”
Verb to Noun	Changing a verb into a noun form.	“His run was a blur of speed.”
Adjective to Noun	Converting an adjective into a noun.	“She admired the simplicity of the white.”
Noun to Adjective	Turning a noun into an adjective form.	“The forest was a sea of green leaves.”
Adjective to Adverb	Changing an adjective into an adverb form.	“She spoke loud but sang louder.”
Adverb to Adjective	Transforming an adverb into an adjective form.	“He answered in a quick and quiet manner.”

Anthimeria encompasses various grammatical transformations that contribute to the linguistic versatility and expressive power of the English language.

Anthimeria: Examples in Everyday Life

Google (Noun to Verb): “I need to Google that information.”
- Explanation: The brand name “Google,” originally a noun referring to the search engine, is used here as a verb, indicating the action of searching for information online.

Xerox (Proper Noun to Verb): “Please Xerox these documents for me.”
- Explanation: The brand name “Xerox,” a proper noun associated with a copier company, is used as a verb to mean making copies using a photocopier.
Text (Noun to Verb): “I’ll text you the details.”
- Explanation: The noun “text,” referring to a written message, is used as a verb here to convey the action of sending a message via text messaging.
Zoom (Noun to Verb): “Let’s zoom in on this specific aspect.”
- Explanation: The term “zoom,” originally a noun representing a rapid increase in focus, is used as a verb to suggest closely examining or focusing on a particular aspect.

Mic (Noun to Verb): “Can you mic up the speaker for the presentation?”
- Explanation: The noun “mic,” short for microphone, is used as a verb to indicate the action of attaching or setting up a microphone for a speaker.
Friend (Noun to Verb): “I like to friend people on social media.”
- Explanation: The noun “friend,” referring to a person, is used as a verb to describe the action of adding someone as a friend on social media platforms.
Email (Noun to Verb): “I’ll email you the report.”
- Explanation: The noun “email,” representing electronic mail, is used as a verb here to express the action of sending a message or document via email.

Sleep (Noun to Verb): “I need to catch some sleep.”
- Explanation: The noun “sleep,” referring to a state of rest, is used as a verb to convey the act of getting some rest or going to sleep.
Netflix (Proper Noun to Verb): “We decided to Netflix and chill.”
- Explanation: The brand name “Netflix,” originally a proper noun associated with a streaming service, is used as a verb here to mean watching content on the Netflix platform.
Run (Verb to Noun): “It was a good morning run.”
Explanation: The verb “run,” indicating the action of moving swiftly on foot, is used as a noun here to describe a session or instance of running, typically for exercise.

Anthimeria in Literature: Suggested Readings

Fry, Paul H. The Language of Literature: Linguistic Approaches to Classical Texts. Oxford University Press, 2002.
Crystal, David. English as a Global Language. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Pinker, Steven. The Stuff of Thought: Language as a Window into Human Nature. Viking, 2007.

Tannen, Deborah. Talking Voices: Repetition, Dialogue, and Imagery in Conversational Discourse. Cambridge University Press, 2007.
Quirk, Randolph, et al. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. Longman, 1985.
Eco, Umberto. Semiotics and the Philosophy of Language. Indiana University Press, 1986.

Orwell, George. Politics and the English Language. Penguin, 2013.
Crystal, David. Making Sense of Grammar. Pearson, 2004.
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press, 2003.

Pinker, Steven. Words and Rules: The Ingredients of Language. HarperCollins, 1999.

Malleability in Literature & Literary Theory

Malleability: Etymology, Meanings and Concept

Etymology/Term

The term “malleability” traces its roots to the Latin word malleabilis, derived from malleare, meaning “to hammer” or “to shape.” The term originally pertained to the physical property of materials being shaped or molded under pressure, a concept that has metaphorically expanded to encompass a range of attributes beyond the physical realm.

Meanings and Concept:

Physical:
- Refers to the material property allowing it to deform under compressive stress, commonly applied to metals like gold and silver that can be hammered or rolled into thin sheets.

Psychological:
- Describes the adaptability and openness of an individual’s mindset to change or new ideas, reflecting a cognitive flexibility that facilitates learning and growth.
Social:
- Indicates the capacity of societal norms, beliefs, or institutions to evolve or be reshaped over time, acknowledging the dynamic nature of cultural constructs.
Emotional:
- Addresses an individual’s emotional resilience and ability to cope with challenges, suggesting a capacity to adapt and bounce back from adversity.

Conceptual:
- Explores the flexibility of abstract ideas or theories to incorporate new perspectives or insights, emphasizing the dynamic nature of intellectual constructs.

Understanding malleability across these dimensions reveals a nuanced concept that extends beyond its literal material origins, encompassing adaptability, flexibility, and responsiveness in various aspects of the physical, psychological, and social domains.

Malleability: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Malleability, as a theoretical term, denotes the inherent capacity of a system, substance, or concept to undergo deformation, transformation, or adaptation under external influences. It encompasses physical properties, such as the pliability of materials under stress, as well as abstract qualities like cognitive flexibility, societal adaptability, and the receptiveness of ideas to change. The term underscores the dynamic nature of entities to reshape or be reshaped, encapsulating a fundamental attribute of responsiveness and openness within diverse contexts.

Malleability: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorist	Notable Works	Key Argument
Carol S. Dweck	Mindset: The New Psychology of Success	Argues that individuals with a “growth mindset,” embracing the belief in malleability, are more likely to succeed and thrive in various aspects of life.
Michel Foucault	Discipline and Punish, The Archaeology of Knowledge	Examines the malleability of societal institutions and norms, emphasizing how power structures shape and reshape over time.
John Dewey	Democracy and Education	Advocates for educational malleability, asserting that learning environments should adapt to students’ needs, fostering continuous growth and development.
Thomas Kuhn	The Structure of Scientific Revolutions	Proposes the concept of paradigm shifts, highlighting the malleability of scientific frameworks as they evolve to accommodate new theories and perspectives.

These theorists have significantly contributed to the understanding of malleability across various domains, including psychology, sociology, education, and scientific discourse. Their works explore how entities, be they individuals or societal structures, exhibit adaptability and transformation over time.

Malleability: Major Characteristics

Psychological:
- Example from Literature: In Charles Dickens’ “A Christmas Carol,” the character of Ebenezer Scrooge undergoes psychological malleability as he transforms from a miserly and cold-hearted individual to a compassionate and generous man through the intervention of supernatural visitations.
Physical:
- Example from Literature: In Ovid’s “Metamorphoses,” the transformation of the nymph Daphne into a laurel tree exemplifies physical malleability, highlighting the mythical concept of metamorphosis and change in form.

Social:
- Example from Literature: Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice” portrays social malleability through the character of Elizabeth Bennet, who challenges and transcends societal expectations by refusing to conform to traditional gender roles and marrying for love rather than social status.
Emotional:
- Example from Literature: In J.K. Rowling’s “Harry Potter” series, the character of Severus Snape undergoes emotional malleability, revealing complex layers of his personality and emotions as the narrative unfolds, challenging initial perceptions of his character.
Conceptual:
- Example from Literature: George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” exemplifies conceptual malleability as the initial ideals of the animal revolution evolve and are manipulated, demonstrating the shifting nature of political ideologies and power structures.

Literature often serves as a rich source to explore the multifaceted nature of malleability, offering diverse examples that illuminate how characters, ideas, and societies can adapt and transform throughout a narrative.

Malleability: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Malleability
New Criticism	Explores how malleability of character traits or themes within a text contributes to its complexity and depth, influencing the reader’s interpretation.
Deconstruction	Aligns with the idea that texts possess inherent malleability, as deconstruction seeks to unravel fixed meanings and highlight the fluidity of interpretation.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Focuses on the malleability of characters’ psychological states, delving into the transformative nature of emotions, desires, and motivations in literary works.
Feminist Criticism	Examines how societal expectations and gender roles portrayed in literature can exhibit malleability, illustrating shifts in perspectives on women’s roles and identities.
Reader-Response Theory	Acknowledges the malleability of reader interpretation, emphasizing how readers’ responses and experiences shape the meaning and significance of a literary work.
Postcolonial Criticism	Explores the malleability of cultural identities and power dynamics in literature, emphasizing the evolving narratives of postcolonial societies and marginalized voices.
Marxist Criticism	Analyzes how economic structures and social classes depicted in literature can exhibit malleability, reflecting changing societal norms and struggles for economic justice.
Structuralism	Investigates the malleability of recurring patterns and structures within literary works, seeking to identify universal elements while recognizing variations and adaptations.
Postmodernism	Celebrates the malleability of narratives, rejecting fixed meanings and embracing the idea that literary works are open to diverse interpretations and perspectives.
Magical Realism	Explores the malleability of reality within literary contexts, blending fantastical elements with realistic settings to challenge conventional distinctions and encourage flexibility in perception.

Malleability: Application in Critiques

Literary Work	Application of Malleability in Critiques
*To Kill a Mockingbird* by Harper Lee	Malleability is evident in the characters’ evolving perceptions of morality, racial prejudice, and justice in a Southern town, demonstrating societal and moral transformation.
*Frankenstein* by Mary Shelley	The novel explores the malleability of identity, ethics, and societal perceptions as Victor Frankenstein’s creation challenges conventional boundaries, reflecting on the consequences of unchecked scientific ambition.
*The Metamorphosis* by Franz Kafka	Kafka’s work exemplifies the physical and emotional malleability of the protagonist, Gregor Samsa, whose transformation into an insect prompts a reassessment of societal expectations and family dynamics.
*Brave New World* by Aldous Huxley	The critique lies in it regarding societal values and individual autonomy as the novel envisions a dystopian world where technology, conditioning, and consumerism shape human behavior and societal structures.

Malleability: Relevant Terms

Adaptability: Capacity to adjust or change in response to different circumstances.
Flexibility: Ability to bend or alter without breaking, often applied to ideas or structures.

Plasticity: Quality of being easily shaped or molded, applicable to materials or neural networks.
Versatility: Capability to be used in various ways or adapted to different purposes.
Resilience: Capacity to recover quickly from difficulties or setbacks.

Ductility: Material property allowing it to undergo significant deformation without rupture.
Open-mindedness: Willingness to consider and embrace new or different ideas.
Moldability: Quality of being easily shaped or formed, applicable to both physical and abstract entities.

Dynamicity: State of constant change or motion, often associated with evolving systems.
Fluidity: Quality of being smooth and adaptable, allowing for easy transitions or transformations.

Malleability: Suggested Readings

Atwood, Margaret. The Handmaid’s Tale. McClelland and Stewart, 1985.

Dickens, Charles. A Christmas Carol. Chapman & Hall, 1843.
Dweck, Carol S. Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. Random House, 2006.
Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish. Vintage Books, 1977.

Kuhn, Thomas. The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press, 1962.
Rowling, J.K. Harry Potter Series. Scholastic, 1997-2007.
Kafka, Franz. The Metamorphosis. Schocken Books, 1915.

Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1960.
Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. The Macmillan Company, 1916.
Ovid. Metamorphoses. Translated by David Raeburn, Penguin Classics, 2004.

Orwell, George. Animal Farm. Secker and Warburg, 1945.
Shelley, Mary. Frankenstein. Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, & Jones, 1818.

Literalism Bias in Literature & Literary Theory

Literalism Bias: Etymology, Meanings and Concept

Etymology:

The term “literalism bias” stems from the fusion of two fundamental components: “literalism” and “bias.” The word “literalism” originates from the Latin term literalis, meaning “of or relating to letters.” When combined with “bias,” the compound term highlights a predisposition towards interpreting information in a strictly factual or verbatim manner.

Academic Significance:

Literalism bias encapsulates a cognitive inclination or predisposition to interpret information or texts strictly based on their literal meaning, neglecting potential nuances, metaphorical layers, or contextual subtleties. This bias can manifest in various disciplines, impacting how individuals comprehend and respond to written or spoken content.

Meanings and Concept of Literalism Bias

Meaning	Concept
Rigid Interpretation	The inclination to interpret information narrowly, adhering strictly to the explicit, surface-level meaning of the text.
Neglect of Contextual Nuances	Overlooking contextual cues or background information, leading to a myopic understanding of the subject matter.
Limited Engagement with Metaphor	A tendency to overlook metaphorical expressions or symbolic language, resulting in a superficial comprehension.
Resistance to Interpretive Flexibility	Reluctance to entertain multiple interpretations or embrace the fluidity of meaning within a given context.
Risk of Miscommunication	The potential for miscommunication due to a failure to grasp underlying intentions or subtle communicative nuances.
Impact on Critical Thinking	How literalism bias may hinder the development of critical thinking skills by limiting the depth of analysis.

Understanding literalism bias is crucial in academic and professional settings, as it sheds light on how individuals engage with information, emphasizing the importance of cultivating interpretive flexibility for a more comprehensive and nuanced comprehension of content.

Literalism Bias: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Literalism bias refers to a cognitive predisposition wherein individuals interpret information solely based on its explicit, surface-level meaning, neglecting contextual nuances and metaphorical layers. This bias manifests as a rigid adherence to literal interpretations, limiting the depth of understanding and potentially leading to misinterpretation. Recognizing and mitigating literalism bias is crucial for fostering a more nuanced and contextually aware approach to information processing.

Literalism Bias: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorists:

Sigmund Freud:
- Freud’s work delves into the psychoanalytic realm, where he explores the impact of literalism bias in dream analysis. He argues that a strict, literal interpretation of dreams may overlook symbolic elements crucial for understanding unconscious processes.

Jacques Derrida:
- Derrida, a postmodern philosopher, challenges literalism bias through deconstruction. His work emphasizes the multiplicity of meanings in texts, urging readers to go beyond literal interpretations and consider the inherent ambiguity and complexity of language.
George Lakoff:
- Lakoff, a cognitive linguist, examines literalism bias in the context of metaphors. He argues that metaphorical language is pervasive in everyday communication, and a failure to recognize these metaphors can lead to a limited understanding of complex concepts.

Works:

Freud’s “The Interpretation of Dreams” (1899):
- In this seminal work, Freud explores the symbolic nature of dreams, highlighting the pitfalls of interpreting them too literally. He contends that a nuanced understanding of dream symbolism is essential for uncovering latent psychological meanings.

Derrida’s “Of Grammatology” (1967):
- Derrida challenges literal interpretations of language and writing in this influential work. He introduces the concept of deconstruction, advocating for an analysis that goes beyond surface meanings and acknowledges the inherent instability of language.
Lakoff and Johnson’s “Metaphors We Live By” (1980):
- Lakoff and Johnson examine how metaphors shape thought and language. They argue against a purely literal understanding of language, asserting that metaphorical expressions are integral to conceptualizing abstract ideas.

Argument:

Literalism Bias as Cognitive Limitation:
- The theorists collectively argue that succumbing to literalism bias reflects a cognitive limitation, inhibiting individuals from grasping the richness of meaning embedded in symbols, metaphors, and contextual cues.

Impact on Interpretation and Communication:
- They contend that a myopic adherence to literal interpretations hampers effective communication and understanding. By overlooking layers of meaning, individuals risk misinterpreting messages and ideas.
Call for Interpretive Flexibility:
- The overarching argument advocates for interpretive flexibility, encouraging readers and thinkers to move beyond the surface of language and engage with texts in a way that considers metaphorical dimensions, context, and the inherent complexities of communication.

Literalism Bias: Major Characteristics

Characteristics of Literalism Bias	Example from Literature
Rigid Interpretation	In George Orwell’s “Animal Farm,” interpreting the animals’ rebellion only as a literal farm revolt, overlooking its allegorical representation of political ideologies.
Neglect of Contextual Nuances	In William Shakespeare’s “Hamlet,” interpreting Hamlet’s famous soliloquy without considering the broader context of his internal struggle and the play’s themes.
Limited Engagement with Metaphor	In Ray Bradbury’s “Fahrenheit 451,” interpreting the burning of books purely as a literal act without recognizing its metaphorical commentary on censorship and intellectual suppression.
Resistance to Interpretive Flexibility	In Franz Kafka’s “The Metamorphosis,” interpreting Gregor Samsa’s transformation into a giant insect solely as a bizarre event, missing the symbolic exploration of alienation and existentialism.
Risk of Miscommunication	In J.D. Salinger’s “The Catcher in the Rye,” interpreting Holden Caulfield’s colloquial language and slang expressions too literally, overlooking the underlying themes of alienation and teenage angst.
Impact on Critical Thinking	In Arthur Miller’s “The Crucible,” interpreting the Salem witch trials solely as historical events without recognizing the allegorical commentary on McCarthyism and societal hysteria.

Literalism Bias: Relevance in Literary Theories

New Criticism:
- Literalism bias challenges the foundational principles of New Criticism, which emphasizes close reading and analysis of the text itself. Critics influenced by literalism bias may focus solely on surface-level meanings, neglecting the broader cultural, historical, or symbolic contexts.

Deconstruction:
- Deconstruction, with its emphasis on questioning binary oppositions and exploring language’s inherent instability, directly confronts literalism bias. Deconstructive readings aim to unravel fixed meanings, encouraging a more fluid interpretation that goes beyond literal constraints.
Psychoanalytic Criticism:
- Literalism bias in psychoanalytic criticism can hinder the exploration of the subconscious. Freudian and Jungian analyses often involve interpreting symbols and metaphors, and a strict adherence to literalism may impede uncovering the hidden psychological dimensions within a text.
Feminist Criticism:
- Feminist critics often delve into the subtext of literature, unveiling implicit gender dynamics and power structures. Literalism bias may undermine feminist readings by overlooking nuanced portrayals of gender roles, reinforcing traditional stereotypes instead.

Reader-Response Theory:
- Literalism bias challenges the interactive nature of reader-response theory, which emphasizes readers’ active engagement with a text. Readers influenced by literalism may limit their responses to surface-level interpretations, neglecting personal and subjective reactions.
Postcolonial Criticism:
- In postcolonial criticism, literalism bias may lead to a simplistic understanding of cultural representations. Postcolonial theorists often advocate for a nuanced analysis that considers the complexities of colonial histories, identities, and power dynamics.
Marxist Criticism:
- A literalistic approach in Marxist criticism may overlook the symbolic representations of class struggle and economic disparities in literature. Marxist theorists encourage a deeper analysis that goes beyond literal economic references to explore underlying social structures.

Structuralism:
- This ges the structuralist emphasis on identifying recurring patterns and underlying structures in literature. Structuralist readings may suffer if confined to a strictly literal interpretation, ignoring the broader structural elements at play.
Postmodernism:
- Postmodernism, with its skepticism toward grand narratives and fixed meanings, aligns with a critique of literalism bias. Postmodern literary theories often celebrate the multiplicity of meanings and resist reducing texts to singular, fixed interpretations.

Understanding literalism bias in the context of these literary theories is essential for appreciating the diverse ways in which texts can be interpreted and critiqued, moving beyond a simplistic adherence to literal meanings.

Literalism Bias: Application in Critiques

Literary Work	Application of Literalism Bias in Critiques
*The Catcher in the Rye* by J.D. Salinger	A literal interpretation of Holden Caulfield’s rebellious behavior might overlook the novel’s deeper exploration of alienation, loss, and the challenges of transitioning to adulthood.
*One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest* by Ken Kesey	Focusing solely on the events within the mental institution without considering the metaphorical implications may miss the critique of societal norms, authority, and individual autonomy.
*Slaughterhouse-Five* by Kurt Vonnegut	Interpreting the time-travel elements too literally could obscure the novel’s anti-war message, as Vonnegut uses the non-linear narrative to convey the senselessness and trauma of war.
*The Handmaid’s Tale* by Margaret Atwood	A strictly literal approach to the dystopian society may overshadow Atwood’s feminist critique of patriarchy, reproductive rights, and the consequences of religious extremism.

Literalism Bias: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Literalism Bias	Strict interpretation of information, overlooking nuances.
Deconstruction	Challenges fixed meanings, emphasizes language instability.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores psychological dimensions in literature.
Feminist Criticism	Analyzes literature with a focus on gender dynamics.
Reader-Response Theory	Considers subjective reader responses in literary analysis.
Postcolonial Criticism	Examines literature in the context of colonial histories.
Marxist Criticism	Interprets literature through the lens of class struggle.
Structuralism	Identifies recurring patterns and structures in literature.
Postmodernism	Rejects grand narratives, embraces ambiguity and diversity.
Magical Realism	Blends fantastical elements with realistic settings.

Literalism Bias: Suggested Readings

Derrida, Jacques. Of Grammatology. Translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Johns Hopkins UP, 1976.

Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Avon Books, 1965.
Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. Metaphors We Live By. University of Chicago Press, 1980.
Orwell, George. 1984. Harcourt, Brace & World, 1949.

Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. Little, Brown and Company, 1951.
Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. Edited by Harold Jenkins, Arden Shakespeare, 1982.
Bradbury, Ray. Fahrenheit 451. Ballantine Books, 1953.

Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Alfred A. Knopf, 1987.
Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1925.
García Márquez, Gabriel. One Hundred Years of Solitude. Harper & Row, 1970.

Linear Narrative in Literature & Literary Theory

Linear narrative, as a theoretical term, refers to a storytelling structure characterized by a chronological and sequential progression of events from beginning to end.

Linear Narrative: Etymology/Term, Meaings and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “linear narrative” finds its roots in the Latin word “linearis,” meaning “pertaining to a line.” In academic discourse, a linear narrative refers to a storytelling structure characterized by a chronological and sequential arrangement of events. The narrative unfolds in a straightforward manner, progressing from a beginning through a middle to an end, reflecting a clear cause-and-effect relationship between events. This term has been widely employed in various disciplines, including literature, film studies, and digital storytelling, to describe narratives that follow a conventional, time-ordered progression.

Meanings and Concepts:

Chronological Progression:
- Linear narratives unfold in a chronological order, with events presented in the order in which they occur.

Cause-and-Effect Relationships:
- Events in a linear narrative are typically linked by cause-and-effect relationships, creating a coherent and easily understandable storyline.
Traditional Storytelling:
- Linear narratives align with traditional storytelling structures, providing a familiar and accessible format for audiences.
Character Development:
- The linear format allows for the development of characters over time, as their experiences shape and evolve throughout the narrative.

Clarity and Coherence:
- Linear narratives offer clarity and coherence, making it easier for audiences to follow the storyline without complex temporal shifts.
Narrative Arc:
- Linear narratives often follow a traditional narrative arc, with an introduction, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.
Reader/Viewer Engagement:
- The straightforward nature of linear narratives can enhance reader or viewer engagement, as the progression is intuitive and easy to follow.

Temporal Linearity:
- Linear narratives maintain temporal linearity, presenting events in a straight line without significant flashbacks, flash-forwards, or disruptions.
Conventional Story Endings:
- Linear narratives typically lead to conventional story endings, providing a sense of resolution and closure for the audience.
Critiques and Limitations:
- Some critiques of linear narratives include a potential lack of innovation and the oversimplification of complex stories, as the structure may not accommodate non-linear elements or unconventional storytelling techniques.

Linear Narrative: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Linear narrative, as a theoretical term, refers to a storytelling structure characterized by a chronological and sequential progression of events from beginning to end. In a linear narrative, the events unfold in a straightforward manner, presenting a clear cause-and-effect relationship between successive elements. This conventional format is often associated with traditional storytelling, offering a coherent and easily comprehensible arrangement of the narrative elements.

Linear Narrative: Theorists, Works, and Argument

Theorists:

Aristotle: In Poetics, Aristotle expounded on the principles of dramatic structure, emphasizing a well-constructed plot with a clear beginning, middle, and end. His work laid the foundation for understanding narrative coherence.
E.M. Forster: Author of Aspects of the Novel, Forster contributed to narrative theory by delineating the concept of “story” as a chronological sequence of events. His insights underscored the importance of linear progression in storytelling.

Joseph Campbell: Known for The Hero with a Thousand Faces, Campbell proposed the monomyth theory, a universal narrative structure often following a linear pattern. The hero’s journey involves distinct stages, contributing to a cohesive and linear narrative.
Vladimir Propp: In Morphology of the Folktale, Propp analyzed folktales, identifying recurring narrative functions. His work highlighted the importance of sequential and linear story elements in traditional narratives.
Christopher Booker: Author of The Seven Basic Plots: Why We Tell Stories, Booker argued for seven archetypal story structures. Many of these plots involve a linear progression, tracing characters from an initial situation to a resolution.

Works:

Homer:
- Notable Works: Iliad and Odyssey
- Homer’s epics exemplify linear narratives, recounting heroic exploits in a chronological and sequential manner.

Jane Austen:
- Notable Work: Pride and Prejudice
- Austen employs a linear narrative structure, guiding readers through romantic entanglements with clear chronology.

George Orwell:
- Notable Work: 1984
- Orwell utilizes a linearity in narrative to depict the dystopian progression of events, emphasizing cause-and-effect relationships.

F. Scott Fitzgerald:
- Notable Work: The Great Gatsby
- Fitzgerald employs a lineariy narrative to unfold tragic events, illustrating cause-and-effect dynamics in Jazz Age society.

Akira Kurosawa:
- Notable Work: Rashomon
- While a filmmaker, Kurosawa challenges narratives, presenting multiple perspectives on events, questioning a single, linear truth.

Main Argument about Linear Narrative Term:

Linear narrative, as theorized by these scholars and exemplified in various works, underscores the chronological and sequential arrangement of events in storytelling. The concept emphasizes a clear cause-and-effect relationship, providing coherence and accessibility to audiences. Whether explored through ancient epics, classic novels, or modern films, the term encapsulates a fundamental structure in which events unfold in a straightforward manner, contributing to the comprehensibility and engagement of a narrative.

Linear Narrative: Major Characteristics

Chronological Progression:
- Example: In Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen, events unfold chronologically, following the progression of the characters’ relationships from initial meetings to eventual resolutions.

Cause-and-Effect Relationships:
- Example: George Orwell’s 1984 employs a linear narrative structure, illustrating the cause-and-effect dynamics of a dystopian society’s progression under totalitarian rule.
Character Development:
- Example: In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby, the linear narrative allows for the development of Jay Gatsby and other characters as their stories evolve over time.
Clear Narrative Arc:
- Example: Homer’s Odyssey follows a clear narrative arc as Odysseus embarks on a journey, faces challenges, and eventually returns home, adhering to a linear structure.

Temporal Linearity:
- Example: In One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez, despite the novel’s complex narrative, events unfold linearly, tracing the Buendía family’s history through generations.
Traditional Storytelling:
- Example: William Shakespeare’s Hamlet adheres to a narrative, presenting the events in Denmark in a sequential manner, leading to the tragic resolution.
Reader Engagement:
- Example: Agatha Christie’s mystery novels, such as Murder on the Orient Express, often employ linear narratives to engage readers in solving a crime step by step.

Resolution and Closure:
- Example: In the classic fairy tale Cinderella, the linear narrative leads to the resolution of Cinderella’s hardships and her eventual happily-ever-after.
Avoidance of Flashbacks/Flash-forwards:
- Example: Ernest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea maintains a linear structure, recounting the fisherman’s struggle without significant temporal disruptions.
Predictable Progression:
- Example: J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone follows a linear narrative as Harry navigates through his first year at Hogwarts, presenting a predictable chronological progression.

Linear Narrative: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Linear Narrative
Structuralism	Linear narrative aligns with structuralist analysis, emphasizing clear cause-and-effect relationships within the narrative structure.
Formalism	In formalist literary theories, linear causation aids in understanding the progression of plot elements and their impact on the overall form and structure of a literary work.
New Criticism	New Criticism often explores the linear causation of events in a text to uncover hidden meanings, emphasizing the interconnectedness of elements in the work.
Realism	Linear narrative is crucial in realist literature, as it reflects the cause-and-effect relationships inherent in depicting everyday life and societal dynamics realistically.
Naturalism	Similar to realism, naturalism in literature relies on linear causation to depict characters’ lives as influenced by deterministic forces, such as environment and heredity.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Linear causation can be relevant in psychoanalytic criticism by tracing the psychological cause-and-effect relationships in characters’ actions and motivations within a narrative.
Marxist Literary Criticism	In Marxist literary analysis, linear causation helps identify and analyze the socio-economic factors and class conflicts that shape the events and characters in a literary work.
Feminist Literary Criticism	Linear narrative is relevant in feminist literary criticism to examine the cause-and-effect relationships related to gender dynamics, power structures, and societal expectations in texts.
Postcolonial Literary Criticism	Linear causation may be explored in postcolonial literature to understand the historical and colonial influences that shape the characters’ identities and the unfolding of events.
Postmodern Literary Criticism	Linear narrative is often challenged or deconstructed in postmodern literary theories, emphasizing fragmented narratives and non-linear structures that subvert traditional causal relationships.

Linear Narrative: Application in Critiques

Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen:
- Application: Austen’s use of a linear narrative structure allows for a clear depiction of the evolving relationships between characters, following a chronological progression.
- Critique: While the linear approach aids in understanding character development, a critique might argue that it oversimplifies the complexities of social dynamics and emotional nuances, potentially limiting a more nuanced exploration of the characters’ motivations.

One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel Garcia Marquez:
- Application: Despite the novel’s magical realism, Marquez employs a linear narrative, tracing the Buendía family’s history in a chronological manner.
- Critique: Some critics may argue that the linear structure simplifies the intricate and non-linear nature of the novel’s themes, potentially diminishing the impact of its experimental storytelling.

1984 by George Orwell:
- Application: Orwell’s use of a linear narrative effectively communicates the dystopian progression of events, illustrating the cause-and-effect dynamics of totalitarian control.
- Critique: While the linear structure enhances clarity, a critique might suggest that it limits the exploration of the psychological complexities of the characters and the broader socio-political commentary.

The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
- Application: Fitzgerald employs a linear narrative to unfold the tragic events surrounding Jay Gatsby, adhering to a chronological progression.
- Critique: Critics may argue that the linear structure, while providing clarity, may oversimplify the novel’s exploration of the American Dream, societal decadence, and the nuanced motivations of the characters.

Linear Narrative: Relevant Terms

Term	Brief Description
Chronology	Sequential arrangement of events in chronological order.
Causality	The relationship between cause and effect within the narrative.
Plot Structure	The organization and arrangement of events in a story.
Temporal Linearity	The linear progression of time within the narrative.
Narrative Arc	The trajectory of a story, including exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution.
Cause-and-Effect	The principle that events are connected through a causal relationship.
Storytelling Tradition	Conventional methods and styles of narrating a story.
Character Development	The evolution and changes undergone by characters over the course of the narrative.
Closure	The resolution or conclusion of a story, providing a sense of completeness.
Linear Structure	The organization of a narrative in a straightforward, chronological sequence.

Linear Narrative: Suggested Readings

Barthes, Roland. S/Z: An Essay. Hill and Wang, 1974.
Chatman, Seymour. Story and Discourse: Narrative Structure in Fiction and Film. Cornell University Press, 1978.
Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby. Scribner, 1925.

Genette, Gérard. Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method. Cornell University Press, 1983.
Hemingway, Ernest. The Old Man and the Sea. Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1952.
Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Alfred A. Knopf, 1987.

Prince, Gerald. A Dictionary of Narratology. University of Nebraska Press, 1987.
Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. Little, Brown and Company, 1951.

Situational Irony in Literature

Situational Irony in Literature: Introduction

Situational irony in literature, a narrative technique that deliberately deviates from anticipated outcomes, enriches storytelling by introducing unexpected twists that challenge conventional expectations. Through this literary device, authors craft compelling scenarios where the disparity between what is anticipated and what transpires serves to engage, surprise, and provoke thought in the reader. It is a nuanced tool that adds layers of complexity, humor, or tragedy to the narrative, fostering a deeper connection between the audience and the unfolding story.

Situational Irony in Literature: Shakespearean Examples

Play	Example	Explanation
Romeo and Juliet	Romeo purchases poison to be with Juliet in death.	The audience knows Juliet is not dead, but Romeo is unaware, creating a tragic situation where his well-intentioned act results in an unintended and ironic outcome.
Macbeth	Macbeth believes he is invincible due to the witches’ prophecies.	His false sense of security leads to his downfall, as the prophecies are meant to deceive him, creating a situation where his misplaced confidence becomes ironic.
Hamlet	Hamlet’s attempt to expose Claudius through a play-within-a-play.	The play mirrors Claudius’s guilt, making Hamlet’s strategy unexpectedly successful and revealing the king’s conscience, creating a situation of dramatic irony.
Othello	Othello’s trust in Iago, who manipulates him against Desdemona.	Othello believes Iago is his loyal advisor, leading to tragic consequences as he acts on misinformation, creating a situation where the character’s trust becomes ironic.
A Midsummer Night’s Dream	Bottom’s transformation into an ass by Puck’s magic.	The comedic irony arises from the fact that Bottom, who is already a humorous character, becomes an unwitting source of amusement to others due to his literal transformation.

Situational Irony in Literature: Examples

“The Gift of the Magi” by O. Henry:
- Situation: Jim sells his watch to buy combs for Della’s hair, while Della sells her hair to buy a chain for Jim’s watch.
- Explanation: The characters’ well-intentioned sacrifices result in ironic gifts that are rendered useless, highlighting the depth of their love.
“The Necklace” by Guy de Maupassant:
- Situation: Madame Loisel borrows an expensive necklace to wear to a party but loses it.
- Explanation: The borrowed necklace, thought to elevate her status, leads to a life of poverty and hardship, showcasing the irony of desire and appearance.
“Oedipus Rex” by Sophocles:
- Situation: Oedipus vows to uncover the truth about the city’s plague, not realizing he is the cause.
- Explanation: Oedipus’s pursuit of truth and justice unwittingly brings about his own downfall, exemplifying dramatic irony.
“The Truman Show” (Film):
- Situation: Truman discovers his entire life is a reality TV show, unbeknownst to him.
- Explanation: Truman’s genuine reactions and choices are manipulated for entertainment, creating a situation of profound irony regarding the nature of his reality.
“Animal Farm” by George Orwell:
- Situation: Animals rebel against human oppression to establish a utopian society but end up with a new form of tyranny.
- Explanation: The animals’ quest for freedom results in a government more oppressive than the one they initially opposed, demonstrating the irony of revolutionary ideals.
“The Lottery” by Shirley Jackson:
- Situation: The townspeople conduct a seemingly innocent lottery that culminates in a brutal stoning.
- Explanation: The juxtaposition of a mundane event with a shocking outcome highlights the dark and ironic nature of blind adherence to tradition.
“The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge:
- Situation: The crew punishes the albatross-shooting mariner, but their actions lead to their own demise.
- Explanation: The crew’s misguided sense of justice results in their ironic punishment, emphasizing the theme of interconnectedness and consequences.
“The Cherry Orchard” by Anton Chekhov:
- Situation: The characters, faced with financial ruin, cannot part with their cherished cherry orchard.
- Explanation: The refusal to adapt to changing circumstances and the attachment to the orchard symbolize the ironic nature of clinging to the past.
“Fight Club” by Chuck Palahniuk:
- Situation: The protagonist creates an anti-materialist and anti-consumerist group that becomes a destructive cult.
- Explanation: The group’s ironic transformation from a critique of consumerism to a violent movement highlights the unpredictability of countercultural movements.
“Catch-22” by Joseph Heller:
- Situation: Soldiers who try to avoid dangerous missions are deemed insane, but the desire to avoid danger is considered a rational response.
- Explanation: The paradoxical and absurd nature of the “catch-22” rule underscores the satirical commentary on bureaucracy and war.

Situational Irony in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Situational Irony
Structuralism	Situational irony challenges structural patterns, disrupting expectations and inviting analysis of narrative deviations.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Irony can serve as a tool to reveal unconscious desires, conflicts, and contradictions within characters and their actions.
Feminist Criticism	Examining how situational irony affects female characters can illuminate underlying power dynamics and societal norms.
Marxist Criticism	Irony in literature may expose and critique social inequalities, class struggles, and the contradictions within societal structures.
Postcolonial Criticism	Situational irony can be employed to reveal the unintended consequences and cultural clashes arising from colonial encounters.
Deconstruction	Deconstructive analysis can focus on the disruptions created by situational irony, challenging binary oppositions and fixed meanings.
Reader-Response Criticism	Situational irony invites varied reader interpretations, emphasizing the role of individual perspectives in shaping literary meaning.
New Historicism	The examination of situational irony in literature can shed light on historical contexts, revealing shifts in power dynamics and cultural attitudes.
Cultural Studies	Situational irony can be explored to understand how cultural norms and values are challenged, reinforced, or subverted in literature.
Formalism	Formalist analysis may focus on the structural elements of situational irony, such as plot twists and narrative devices, devoid of external influences.

Situational Irony in Literature: Relevant Terms

Term	Description
1. Situational Irony	Discrepancy between expected and actual outcomes in a given situation.
2. Dramatic Irony	Audience knows crucial information unknown to the characters.
3. Cosmic Irony	Events in the universe thwart human expectations.
4. Verbal Irony	A character says something but means the opposite.
5. Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but may reveal a deeper truth.
6. Foreshadowing	Clues or hints that suggest future events in a narrative.
7. Incongruity	Lack of harmony between elements, often used to create comedic effect.
8. Juxtaposition	Placement of contrasting elements for emphasis or comparison.
9. Satire	Use of humor, irony, or ridicule to criticize or mock societal issues.
10. Subversion	Deliberate undermining or overturning of established norms or values.

Situational Irony in Literature: Suggested Readings

Aristotle. Poetics. Translated by Malcolm Heath, Penguin Classics, 1996.
Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.

Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Basic Books, 2010.
Kafka, Franz. The Trial. Translated by Breon Mitchell, Schocken Books, 1999.
Molière. Tartuffe. Translated by Richard Wilbur, Harcourt Brace, 1963.

Poe, Edgar Allan. The Cask of Amontillado. In Great Short Works of Edgar Allan Poe, edited by G. R. Thompson, Harper Perennial, 2015.
Sophocles. Oedipus Rex. Translated by David Grene, University of Chicago Press, 1991.
Swift, Jonathan. A Modest Proposal. In A Modest Proposal and Other Satirical Works, edited by Robert A. Greenberg, Dover Publications, 2006.

Wilde, Oscar. The Importance of Being Earnest. Dover Publications, 1990.
Woolf, Virginia. To the Lighthouse. Harcourt Brace, 1989.

Situational Irony: A Literary Device

Situational irony is a literary device characterized by a discrepancy between what is expected to happen and what actually occurs in a given situation.

Situational Irony: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Etymology/Term:

Situational irony, rooted in the Greek word “eironeia,” refers to a literary device where the outcome of a situation is markedly different from what was expected. This incongruity creates a sense of surprise or amusement for the audience, as the reality of the situation contrasts with the anticipated or intended outcome. Situational irony is a powerful tool used in literature, drama, and everyday communication to evoke a range of emotions, from humor to poignancy.

Literal Meaning:

In its literal sense, situational irony involves a discrepancy between what is expected to happen and what actually transpires in a given situation.
This form of irony often manifests as a twist of fate, where events unfold in a manner contrary to the characters’ or audience’s expectations.

The unexpected turn of events adds depth to storytelling, as it challenges conventional narrative patterns and keeps the audience engaged by subverting their assumptions.

Conceptual Meaning:

Conceptually, situational irony extends beyond the confines of literature and storytelling to encompass the broader spectrum of life’s twists and turns.
In real-world scenarios, situational irony can be observed when the outcome of a situation defies logical or reasonable expectations.

This facet of irony serves as a reflection of life’s unpredictability and the inherent ambiguity of human experiences.
It encourages individuals to appreciate the complexity of circumstances and embrace the irony inherent in the unfolding of events.

Situational Irony: Definition as a Literary Device

Situational irony is a literary device characterized by a discrepancy between what is expected to happen and what actually occurs in a given situation. It involves an unexpected twist or reversal of circumstances, challenging the audience’s or characters’ preconceived notions. This form of irony is employed to create humor, tension, or a deeper understanding of the complexities inherent in the narrative.

Situational Irony: Types and Examples

Type of Situational Irony	Description	Example
1. Cosmic Irony	Events in the universe conspire to thwart human expectations.	A fire station burns down while firefighters are celebrating Fire Prevention Week.
2. Dramatic Irony	Audience is aware of crucial information unknown to the characters.	In Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet,” the audience knows Juliet is alive, but Romeo believes she is dead.
3. Environmental Irony	The setting contradicts the expected outcome.	A health food store owner dies of a heart attack.
4. Historical Irony	The outcome is contrary to historical expectations.	The Titanic, touted as unsinkable, sinks on its maiden voyage.
5. Socratic Irony	A person pretends ignorance to expose the ignorance of others.	A knowledgeable teacher asks a student to explain a basic concept.

Situational Irony: Examples in Everyday Life

Weather Forecast Surprise:
- Expectation: The weather forecast predicts a sunny day for an outdoor picnic.
- Reality: It unexpectedly rains, forcing everyone to stay indoors.

Delayed Flight Announcement:
- Expectation: Passengers anticipate an on-time departure.
- Reality: The announcement informs them of a significant delay, causing frustration.

“Healthy” Fast Food:
- Expectation: Opting for a salad at a fast-food restaurant for a healthier choice.
- Reality: The salad ends up having more calories than a burger due to dressing and toppings.

Parking Ticket during Charity Event:
- Expectation: Attending a charity event, thinking it’s a good cause.
- Reality: Returns to find a parking ticket, contributing unintentionally to city funds.

Emergency Room Wait:
- Expectation: Going to the ER for prompt medical attention.
- Reality: Spends hours waiting, despite the urgency of the situation.

“Low-Fat” Dessert Indulgence:
- Expectation: Choosing a low-fat dessert for a guilt-free treat.
- Reality: Discovers it’s not as healthy as expected due to hidden sugars and additives.

Noisy “Quiet” Library:
- Expectation: Visiting a library for a quiet study environment.
- Reality: Construction noise or a lively event disrupts the expected tranquility.

Broken Elevator in Fitness Center:
- Expectation: Taking the elevator to the gym for a workout.
- Reality: The elevator is out of order, encouraging an unintended workout on the stairs.

Calorie-Burning Ice Cream:
- Expectation: Choosing a brand of ice cream marketed as helping with weight loss.
- Reality: Realizes it’s a regular ice cream with clever marketing tactics.

Quiet Zone on Public Transportation:
- Expectation: Sitting in the designated “quiet zone” for a peaceful journey.
- Reality: Fellow passengers engage in loud conversations, defeating the purpose of the quiet zone.

Situational Irony in Literature: Suggested Readings

Aristotle. Poetics. Translated by Malcolm Heath, Penguin Classics, 1996.
Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
Freud, Sigmund. The Interpretation of Dreams. Translated by James Strachey, Basic Books, 2010.

Kafka, Franz. The Trial. Translated by Breon Mitchell, Schocken Books, 1999.
Molière. Tartuffe. Translated by Richard Wilbur, Harcourt Brace, 1963.
Poe, Edgar Allan. The Cask of Amontillado. In Great Short Works of Edgar Allan Poe, edited by G. R. Thompson, Harper Perennial, 2015.

Sophocles. Oedipus Rex. Translated by David Grene, University of Chicago Press, 1991.
Swift, Jonathan. A Modest Proposal. In A Modest Proposal and Other Satirical Works, edited by Robert A. Greenberg, Dover Publications, 2006.
Wilde, Oscar. The Importance of Being Earnest. Dover Publications, 1990.

Woolf, Virginia. To the Lighthouse. Harcourt Brace, 1989.

Symploce in Literature

Symploce in literature, a powerful rhetorical device, holds significant importance in literature for its ability to elevate the impact and artistry of written expression.

Symploce in Literature: Introduction

Symploce in literature, a powerful rhetorical device, holds significant importance in literature for its ability to elevate the impact and artistry of written expression. This unique combination of anaphora and epistrophe serves as a linguistic tool that not only captivates readers but also reinforces central themes within a narrative. By repeating words or phrases at both the beginning and end of successive clauses or sentences, symploce creates a rhythmic resonance that lingers in the minds of readers, emphasizing key concepts and fostering a sense of unity and coherence. Its utility lies in providing authors with a structured and deliberate means to underscore critical ideas, evoke emotion, and enhance the overall aesthetic quality of their prose. In literature, symploce stands as a testament to the nuanced craftsmanship writers employ to leave a lasting imprint on their audience, enriching the reader’s experience through a carefully woven tapestry of repetition and meaning.

Symploce in Literature: Shakespearean Examples

Play	Example	Explanation
Hamlet	To be or not to be, that is the question. To die, to sleep—	Shakespeare employs symploce to emphasize the existential dilemma faced by Hamlet. The repetition of “To be” and “To die” reinforces the gravity of the decision, intensifying the soliloquy.
Macbeth	Fair is foul, and foul is fair. Hover through the fog and filthy air.	This example from the witches’ chant in Act 1, Scene 1 of “Macbeth” showcases symploce as it intertwines opposites. The repetition underscores the play’s theme of moral ambiguity and the inversion of values.
Othello	Put out the light, and then put out the light.	In this line, spoken by Othello in Act 5, Scene 2, Shakespeare uses symploce to emphasize the extinguishing of both Desdemona’s life and the metaphorical light of Othello’s reason, heightening the tragic climax.
Romeo and Juliet	Good night, good night! Parting is such sweet sorrow. That I shall say good night till it be morrow.	The repetition of “Good night” serves as a poignant farewell in Juliet’s speech, enhancing the emotional resonance of the moment and capturing the bittersweet essence of parting in the play.

Symploce in Literature: Examples

Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice”:

“It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife.”

Austen employs symploce to emphasize the societal expectation and irony surrounding the pursuit of marriage among affluent single men.
F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby”:
- “So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.”
- Fitzgerald uses symploce in the novel’s conclusion to highlight the relentless struggle against the inexorable passage of time and the haunting pull of the past.
George Orwell’s “1984”:
- “War is peace. Freedom is slavery. Ignorance is strength.”
- Orwell employs symploce as a striking element of the Party’s propaganda, reinforcing the novel’s theme of the manipulation of language and reality.
Harper Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird”:
- “You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view, until you climb into his skin and walk around in it.”
- Lee uses symploce to underscore the importance of empathy and understanding, emphasizing the transformative power of seeing the world from another’s perspective.
Ray Bradbury’s “Fahrenheit 451”:
- “There must be something in books, things we can’t imagine, to make a woman stay in a burning house; there must be something there. You don’t stay for nothing.”
- Bradbury employs symploce to evoke contemplation on the profound impact of literature and its ability to convey intangible but powerful truths.
Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude”:
- “Many years later, as he faced the firing squad, Colonel Aureliano Buendía was to remember that distant afternoon when his father took him to discover ice.”
- Marquez uses symploce to create a sense of circularity and inevitability, linking the opening and closing scenes of the novel.
J.K. Rowling’s “Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone”:
- “It takes a great deal of bravery to stand up to our enemies, but just as much to stand up to our friends.”
- Rowling employs symploce to highlight the different, yet equally challenging, aspects of courage in the wizarding world.
Ernest Hemingway’s “The Old Man and the Sea”:
- “He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-four days now without taking a fish.”
- Hemingway uses symploce to establish the solitude and struggle of the old man at the heart of the narrative.
Toni Morrison’s “Beloved”:
- “124 was spiteful. Full of a baby’s venom.”
- Morrison uses symploce to infuse a sense of malevolence and foreshadowing into the opening lines of the novel, setting a tone for the haunting narrative that follows.
Khaled Hosseini’s “The Kite Runner”:
- “For you, a thousand times over.”
- Hosseini employs symploce to express enduring loyalty and love, creating a poignant refrain that echoes throughout the novel.Bottom of Form

Symploce in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Symploce in Literature
Formalism/Structuralism	Examines the formal structure of texts. Symploce, as a figure of speech combining anaphora and epistrophe, contributes to the rhythmic and structural elements of poetry or prose. It can be analyzed to understand how repetition serves structural or thematic purposes.
New Criticism	Focuses on the intrinsic qualities of the text. Symploce’s use of repetition may be analyzed to uncover layers of meaning within the text and to explore how the intertwining of anaphora and epistrophe enhances the overall literary effect.
Reader-Response Theory	Emphasizes the role of the reader’s interpretation. Readers may respond to symploce by considering how the repeated elements affect their understanding and emotional engagement with the text. Interpretation may vary based on individual responses.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Explores the psychological motivations of characters and authors. Symploce’s repetition may be analyzed in terms of how it reflects or contributes to the psychological aspects of characters, revealing subconscious patterns, conflicts, or desires.
Feminist Criticism	Investigates gender roles and representations. Symploce can be examined in the context of how it reinforces or challenges traditional gender norms within the text. The repetition may convey messages related to power dynamics and gendered language.
Postcolonial Criticism	Focuses on literature from postcolonial perspectives. Symploce’s use of repetition may be explored in terms of how it reflects or challenges colonial influences on language and culture, contributing to a nuanced understanding of postcolonial texts.
Cultural Studies	Examines the social and cultural context of literature. Symploce can be analyzed in relation to cultural patterns and norms, shedding light on how language choices, especially repetition, contribute to the construction of meaning within a specific culture.

This table provides a brief overview of how symploce can be relevant within various literary theories, highlighting its potential contributions to the analysis of form, reader response, psychological aspects, gender dynamics, postcolonial perspectives, and cultural contexts in literature.

Symploce in Literature: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Symploce	A rhetorical device combining elements of anaphora and epistrophe, using repetition at both the beginning and end of successive clauses or sentences.
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.
Epistrophe	Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses.
Parallelism	The use of similar grammatical structures in phrases or sentences for rhetorical effect.
Rhetorical Device	A technique used to enhance the persuasiveness or effectiveness of communication.
Figurative Language	Expressive use of language beyond its literal meaning, often for artistic effect.
Chiasmus	A rhetorical device in which the order of terms in the first clause is reversed in the second.
Literary Trope	A common or recurring theme or motif in literature.
Antithesis	The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas or words within the same sentence or paragraph.
Rhetorical Question	A question asked for effect, not requiring an answer.

Symploce in Literature: Suggested Readings

Johnson, Robert. A Logic Book: Fundamentals of Reasoning. Wadsworth Publishing, 2017.

Baronett, Stan. Logic. Oxford University Press, 2018.
Hurley, Patrick J. A Concise Introduction to Logic. Cengage Learning, 2016.
Copi, Irving M. and Carl Cohen. Introduction to Logic. Pearson, 2017.

Bergmann, Merrie, James Moor, and Jack Nelson. The Logic Book. McGraw-Hill Education, 2019.
Sainsbury, R. M. Logical Forms: An Introduction to Philosophical Logic. Wiley-Blackwell, 2019.
Copi, Irving M., Carl Cohen, and Kenneth McMahon. Introduction to Logic. Pearson, 2017.

Epstein, Richard L. Critical Thinking. Cengage Learning, 2016.
Paul, Richard, and Linda Elder. Critical Thinking: The Nature of Critical and Creative Thought. Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.
Resnik, Michael D. Choices: An Introduction to Decision Theory. University of Minnesota Press, 1987.

Symploce: A Rhetorical Device/Term

Symploce is a rhetorical device characterized by the simultaneous repetition of words or phrases at both the beginning and end of successive clauses or sentences.

Symploce: Etymology/Term, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Symploce: Etymology/Term

Symploce, derived from the Greek words “sym” (together) and “plokein” (to braid or interweave), is a rhetorical device that intricately combines elements of both anaphora and epistrophe. This term, rooted in classical rhetoric, has evolved to become a powerful tool in modern discourse. Symploce involves the repetition of one or more words at both the beginning and end of successive clauses or sentences, creating a nuanced and impactful rhetorical effect. As a stylistic device, it serves to emphasize key ideas, enhance coherence, and engage the audience by weaving a rhetorical pattern that leaves a lasting impression.

Literal and Conceptual Meanings

Literal Meaning:

Repetition Structure: Symploce involves the repetition of words or phrases at the beginning and end of successive clauses or sentences.
Structural Braiding: The literal meaning can be likened to the braiding or interweaving of linguistic elements, creating a rhythmic and cohesive structure.

Conceptual Meaning:

Emphasis and Intensification: Symploce is employed to highlight and intensify specific points or themes within a discourse, making them more memorable to the audience.
Rhetorical Impact: Beyond its structural aspects, the conceptual meaning of symploce lies in its ability to enhance the rhetorical impact of a message, fostering a deeper connection between the speaker or writer and the audience.

Symploce: Definition as a Rhetorical Device

Symploce is a rhetorical device characterized by the simultaneous repetition of words or phrases at both the beginning and end of successive clauses or sentences. It combines elements of anaphora and epistrophe, creating a rhythmic and impactful pattern. This device is employed to emphasize key ideas, enhance coherence, and engage the audience through the strategic repetition of language.

Symploce: Types and Examples

Type	Example
Word Repetition	In hardship, we find strength. In adversity, we find courage.
Phrase Repetition	Not only does he strive for success, but he also perseveres through challenges.
Mixed Repetition	They conquer fear with determination; they conquer doubt with conviction.
Multi-sentence Symploce	In the face of uncertainty, we stand united. In times of trial, we find resilience. In moments of despair, we discover our true strength.

Symploce: Examples in Everyday Life

Encouragement:
- “In difficult times, we support each other. In moments of despair, we find strength within ourselves.”
Workplace Motivation:
- “At work, we face challenges head-on. We overcome obstacles with determination and celebrate success with humility.”
Parental Advice:
- “In parenting, patience is key. In discipline, consistency is vital. Through both, we nurture our children with love.”

Friendship Bonds:
- “With friends, we share laughter in joy. In sorrow, we lend a listening ear. In every moment, our bonds grow stronger.”
Learning and Growth:
- “In education, we face difficulties. In perseverance, we discover knowledge. Through both, we evolve and grow.”
Fitness and Health:
- “In exercise, we challenge our bodies. In proper nutrition, we fuel our health. In both, we achieve holistic well-being.”

Time Management:
- “At work, we prioritize tasks. At home, we balance responsibilities. In managing time, we find harmony.”
Environmental Stewardship:
- “Through recycling, we reduce waste. Through conservation, we protect ecosystems. In both, we contribute to a sustainable future.”
Relationship Dynamics:
- “In love, we cherish moments. In conflicts, we seek understanding. Through both, relationships endure.”

Personal Development:
- “In self-reflection, we find purpose. In setting goals, we achieve aspirations. Through both, we navigate our journey of personal development.”

Symploce in Literature: Suggested Readings

Johnson, Robert. A Logic Book: Fundamentals of Reasoning. Wadsworth Publishing, 2017.
Baronett, Stan. Logic. Oxford University Press, 2018.
Hurley, Patrick J. A Concise Introduction to Logic. Cengage Learning, 2016.

Copi, Irving M. and Carl Cohen. Introduction to Logic. Pearson, 2017.
Bergmann, Merrie, James Moor, and Jack Nelson. The Logic Book. McGraw-Hill Education, 2019.
Sainsbury, R. M. Logical Forms: An Introduction to Philosophical Logic. Wiley-Blackwell, 2019.

Copi, Irving M., Carl Cohen, and Kenneth McMahon. Introduction to Logic. Pearson, 2017.
Epstein, Richard L. Critical Thinking. Cengage Learning, 2016.
Paul, Richard, and Linda Elder. Critical Thinking: The Nature of Critical and Creative Thought. Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.

Resnik, Michael D. Choices: An Introduction to Decision Theory. University of Minnesota Press, 1987.

Paralipsis in Literature

Paralipsis in literature emerges where a writer intentionally draws attention to something while claiming to pass over it or ignore it.

Paralipsis in Literature: Introduction

Paralipsis in literature emerges where a writer intentionally draws attention to something while claiming to pass over it or ignore it. Through this technique, authors create a sense of irony or emphasize a point indirectly. By explicitly stating that certain information will be omitted or ignored, the author sparks curiosity in the reader and encourages them to consider the undisclosed details. This device allows for layers of meaning to be conveyed, as readers engage in the act of decoding hidden messages and subtext within the text.

Paralipsis in Literature: Shakespearean Examples

Play	Context	Example
Hamlet	Hamlet uses paralipsis to address his mother’s remarriage and the ghost’s revelation about King Claudius.	Original: “I will not speak with her.” Paralipsis: “I will not speak with her but speak of her.”
Othello	Iago employs paralipsis to insinuate Cassio’s involvement with Desdemona without making direct accusations.	Original: “I know not that; but such a handkerchief—I am sure it was your wife’s—did I today see Cassio wipe his beard with.” Paralipsis: “If it be that.”
Julius Caesar	Mark Antony uses paralipsis to subtly criticize the conspirators while claiming he won’t denounce them.	Original: “I come not, friends, to steal away your hearts. I am no orator, as Brutus is.” Paralipsis: “I am no orator, as Brutus is, but, as you know me all, a plain, blunt man.”
Macbeth	Macbeth employs paralipsis to indirectly reveal his murderous intentions regarding King Duncan.	Original: “That which would be feared.” Paralipsis: “I say, we will have no more marriages.”
Richard III	Richard uses paralipsis to subtly accuse Queen Elizabeth of being responsible for the deaths of her relatives.	Original: “But, madam, you are not so aggrieved; / There is no cause.” Paralipsis: “But, madam, I know when, and therefore know well, that she knows.”

Paralipsis in Literature: Examples

· The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:

Context: Nick Carraway introduces Gatsby’s mysterious past without directly delving into the details.
Example: “I’m not going to tell you his whole biography; I’ll simply say that he’s the son of some wealthy people.”

· To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee:

Context: Scout narrates a confrontation without explicitly stating the outcome.
Example: “I won’t tell you how I fought Cecil Jacobs, but I can tell you I nearly forgot to say my prayers that night.”

· 1984 by George Orwell:

Context: Orwell uses paralipsis to address the surveillance state without explicitly discussing its implications.

Example: “I won’t dwell on the Thought Police, but let’s just say they have their ways.”

· The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger:

Context: Holden Caulfield mentions certain events without providing explicit details.
Example: “I won’t talk about what I did after I went home that night, but you can bet it was pretty depressing.”

· One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez:

Context: García Márquez uses paralipsis to allude to a character’s fate without explicit disclosure.
Example: “I won’t say how or when, but Renata Remedios would be lost forever.”

· Brave New World by Aldous Huxley:

Context: Huxley introduces a significant element of the society without explicitly detailing it.

Example: “I won’t go into the specifics of the conditioning, but suffice it to say it begins at a very young age.”

· The Great Expectations by Charles Dickens:

Context: Pip hints at an important revelation without explicitly disclosing it.
Example: “I won’t go into the details of my benefactor’s identity, but let’s just say it was both surprising and life-changing.”

· The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne:

Context: Hawthorne uses paralipsis to allude to Hester Prynne’s sin without explicitly naming it.
Example: “I won’t specify the nature of her transgression, but the scarlet letter she wore spoke volumes.”

· The Old Man and the Sea by Ernest Hemingway:

Context: Hemingway uses paralipsis to allude to the sharks without explicitly describing their actions.

Example: “I won’t go into the details of the battle with the sharks, but Santiago’s struggle was far from over.”

Paralipsis in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Paralipsis
Reader-Response Theory	Invites readers to actively engage with the text, filling in gaps and making interpretations. Paralipsis can create a sense of mystery, encouraging readers to participate in the construction of meaning.
Formalism/Structuralism	Examines the structure of a text. Paralipsis can be seen as a structural element, affecting the overall composition by highlighting what is left unsaid. It contributes to the form and rhythm of the narrative.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Involves exploring the unconscious mind. Paralipsis can be a tool for unveiling repressed thoughts or desires indirectly, allowing authors to address sensitive or taboo subjects through veiled language.
Feminist Criticism	Offers a lens for analyzing gender roles and power dynamics. Paralipsis can be used to critique or challenge traditional gender norms by subtly drawing attention to issues while appearing to disregard them.
Postcolonial Theory	Examines the impact of colonialism. Paralipsis can be a strategy for expressing resistance, allowing writers to convey suppressed voices and experiences without directly confronting colonial powers.
Marxist Criticism	Focuses on social and economic structures. Paralipsis can be employed to critique class disparities indirectly, highlighting social issues without explicitly addressing them and thus avoiding censorship.
Deconstructionism	Emphasizes the instability of language and meaning. Paralipsis aligns with the idea that meaning is not fixed, as it involves drawing attention to what is deliberately left unsaid, leaving room for multiple interpretations.
Cultural Studies	Explores the intersection of culture, power, and identity. Paralipsis can be used to navigate complex cultural issues, allowing authors to address sensitive topics by both acknowledging and deflecting them.

Paralipsis in Literature: Relevant Terms

Paralipsis: Rhetorical device emphasizing a point by pretending to pass over it.
Irony: Conveying a meaning opposite to the literal sense of the words.

Subtext: Unspoken or implied message beneath the surface of the text.
Ambiguity: Deliberate use of unclear language, allowing for multiple interpretations.
Euphemism: Substituting a mild or indirect expression for a harsh or blunt one.

Satire: Use of humor, irony, or ridicule to criticize or mock people or society.
Understatement: Downplaying the importance of something for rhetorical effect.
Implication: Suggested meaning or significance not explicitly stated.

Sarcasm: Mocking or ridiculing through irony, often with a cutting edge.
Ellipsis: Omission of words for brevity or to create a sense of unfinished thought.

Paralipsis in Literature: Suggested Readings

Johnson, Robert. A Logic Book: Fundamentals of Reasoning. Wadsworth Publishing, 2017.

Baronett, Stan. Logic. Oxford University Press, 2018.
Hurley, Patrick J. A Concise Introduction to Logic. Cengage Learning, 2016.
Copi, Irving M. and Carl Cohen. Introduction to Logic. Pearson, 2017.

Bergmann, Merrie, James Moor, and Jack Nelson. The Logic Book. McGraw-Hill Education, 2019.
Sainsbury, R. M. Logical Forms: An Introduction to Philosophical Logic. Wiley-Blackwell, 2019.
Copi, Irving M., Carl Cohen, and Kenneth McMahon. Introduction to Logic. Pearson, 2017.

Epstein, Richard L. Critical Thinking. Cengage Learning, 2016.
Paul, Richard, and Linda Elder. Critical Thinking: The Nature of Critical and Creative Thought. Rowman & Littlefield, 2013.
Resnik, Michael D. Choices: An Introduction to Decision Theory. University of Minnesota Press, 1987.