Day: January 5, 2024

Mimetic Criticism: Definition and Concept

Definition:

Mimetic criticism, rooted in literary and cultural analysis, focuses on the representation of reality and the imitation of life within artistic works. This critical approach explores how art mirrors the world, attempting to imitate and depict aspects of human existence, society, and nature. It delves into the ways in which artistic expression reflects, mimics, or distorts reality to convey deeper meanings and resonate with the human experience.

Concept:

• Imitation and Representation: Mimetic criticism emphasizes the artist’s attempt to imitate or represent reality in their work, examining the fidelity of the artistic representation to the actual world.
• Mimesis and Human Experience: The concept of mimesis involves the portrayal of human actions, emotions, and societal structures within art, aiming to capture the essence of lived experiences and convey a sense of reality.
• Truth and Illusion: Mimetic critics explore the tension between truth and illusion in art, questioning how accurately artistic representations reflect reality and whether the distortion of truth serves a purpose in conveying deeper truths about the human condition.

Mimetic Criticism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists	Works	Arguments
Aristotle	Poetics	– Emphasized the concept of mimesis as the imitation of reality in art.
Erich Auerbach	Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature	– Examined how literature mirrors historical and social contexts, emphasizing the representation of reality in narrative form.
René Girard	Violence and the Sacred	– Introduced the concept of mimetic desire, exploring how individuals imitate the desires of others and the role of violence in human culture.
Northrop Frye	Anatomy of Criticism	– Explored the relationship between literature and society, emphasizing the mimetic function of literature in reflecting and shaping cultural values.
Wolfgang Iser	The Act of Reading: A Theory of Aesthetic Response	– Focused on the reader’s role in completing the mimetic process, arguing that meaning in literature emerges through the interaction between text and reader.
Judith Butler	Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity	– Applied mimetic concepts to gender identity, challenging traditional norms and questioning the imitation of socially constructed gender roles.

Note: This table provides a concise overview, and each theorist and work can be explored further for a more in-depth understanding of their contributions to mimetic criticism.

Mimetic Criticism: Key Principles

• Mimesis as Imitation:
  • Example: In Shakespeare’s “Othello,” Iago’s manipulation of others through deception reflects the imitation of cunning and deceit in human behavior.
• Representation of Reality:
  • Example: In Charles Dickens’ “Oliver Twist,” the portrayal of Victorian society’s injustices reflects a mimetic representation of the socio-economic realities of the time.
• Reflection of Human Experience:
  • Example: J.D. Salinger’s “The Catcher in the Rye” captures the internal struggles and adolescent experiences of the protagonist, Holden Caulfield, offering a reflection of human emotions.
• Cultural and Social Commentary:
  • Example: George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” uses anthropomorphic animals to satirize and mimic political events, providing a commentary on societal and political structures.
• Mimetic Desire and Conflict:
  • Example: In F. Scott Fitzgerald’s “The Great Gatsby,” the characters’ desires for wealth and social status lead to conflicts and imitate the societal pursuit of the American Dream.
• Realism in Literature:
  • Example: Gustave Flaubert’s “Madame Bovary” meticulously details the ordinary life of Emma Bovary, illustrating the real and often tragic consequences of unfulfilled desires.
• Reader Engagement and Interpretation:
  • Example: In Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude,” readers actively engage in interpreting the symbolism and magical realism to construct meaning, highlighting the reader’s role in the mimetic process.

These principles showcase how mimetic criticism explores the imitation of reality, human experiences, and societal dynamics within literary works, contributing to a deeper understanding of the relationship between art and life.

Mimetic Criticism: Criticism Against It

• Neglect of Artistic Creativity:
  • Critics argue that mimetic criticism tends to overlook the artistic creativity and innovation present in works of art, reducing them to mere imitations of reality and neglecting the transformative power of the artist’s imagination.
• Subjectivity and Interpretation:
  • Critics contend that the concept of mimesis does not account for the subjective nature of human experience and interpretation, and thus, it oversimplifies the complexities of artistic representation.
• Limitation to Realism:
  • Some argue that mimetic criticism primarily focuses on realistic works, leaving out more abstract or experimental forms of art that may not adhere to a direct imitation of reality.
• Cultural Relativity:
  • Critics assert that the mimetic approach may not be universally applicable, as different cultures have varied perceptions of reality, and what constitutes an accurate imitation may differ across societies.
• Neglect of Formal Elements:
  • Mimetic criticism often places less emphasis on the formal elements of art, such as style, language, and structure, leading some critics to argue that it provides an incomplete understanding of the artistic work.
• Dynamic Nature of Reality:
  • Opponents suggest that the mimetic concept assumes a static and fixed reality, whereas the postmodern perspective argues for a more dynamic and fluid understanding of reality, challenging the mimetic framework.
• Failure to Address Symbolism and Allegory:
  • Critics argue that mimetic criticism may struggle to adequately engage with symbolic or allegorical works where the representation is not a direct imitation but rather a symbolic commentary on reality.
• Overemphasis on Representation, Underemphasizing Expression:
  • Some argue that mimetic criticism overly focuses on the representation of external reality, potentially undermining the importance of artistic expression and the artist’s unique voice in shaping meaning.
• Inadequacy in Analyzing Non-Visual Arts:
  • Critics suggest that mimetic criticism may not be as applicable or effective when analyzing non-visual arts, such as music or abstract poetry, where the concept of imitation might be less straightforward.

These criticisms highlight the limitations and potential shortcomings of mimetic criticism in capturing the diverse and complex nature of artistic expression.

Mimetic Criticism: Application in Critiques

1. William Shakespeare’s “Macbeth” (1606):
   • Mimesis as Imitation: The play imitates the destructive consequences of unchecked ambition, as Macbeth’s rise to power and subsequent fall mirrors the potential pitfalls of unrestrained ambition in human nature.
   • Representation of Reality: The portrayal of political intrigue and the psychological effects of guilt and paranoia reflects the socio-political realities of Shakespeare’s time, providing a mirror to the anxieties of his audience.
2. George Orwell’s “1984” (1949):
   • Cultural and Social Commentary: Orwell’s dystopian novel serves as a stark imitation of totalitarian regimes, offering a powerful commentary on the dangers of unchecked government power and surveillance.
   • Reflection of Human Experience: The protagonist Winston’s struggle against oppression and the suppression of individuality resonates with universal themes of resistance and the human desire for autonomy.
3. Gabriel Garcia Marquez’s “One Hundred Years of Solitude” (1967):
   • Realism in Literature: While incorporating magical realism, the novel imitates the socio-political history of Latin America, providing a nuanced reflection of the region’s complexities and challenges.
   • Reader Engagement and Interpretation: The intricate narrative structure encourages readers to actively engage in interpreting the symbolism and allegorical elements, adding layers to the mimetic process.
4. Harper Lee’s “To Kill a Mockingbird” (1960):
   • Mimetic Desire and Conflict: The racial tensions and legal conflicts in the novel imitate the societal struggles against racial injustice, portraying the mimetic desires for justice and equality during the 1930s in the American South.
   • Representation of Reality: Through the character of Atticus Finch, the novel mirrors the ethical struggles and moral dilemmas faced by individuals when confronted with deeply ingrained societal prejudices.

In each of these examples, mimetic criticism helps illuminate how the works engage with the imitation of reality, representation of human experiences, and cultural and social commentary. It provides a lens through which we can appreciate the ways literature mirrors and comments on the world around us.

Mimetic Criticism: Terms Used in It

Term	Definition
Mimesis	Imitation or representation of reality within artistic works.
Mimetic Desire	Imitation of the desires or behaviors of others in social contexts.
Realism	Faithful representation of reality in literature or art.
Representation	Depiction or portrayal of aspects of reality within a work of art.
Cultural Commentary	Artistic expression providing insights or critiques on societal values.
Mimetic Process	The dynamic interaction between the artwork and the observer or reader.
Imitation of Life	Artistic representation attempting to mirror elements of human existence.
Artistic Fidelity	The degree to which a work of art faithfully imitates or represents reality.

Mimetic Criticism: Suggested Readings

1. Auerbach, Erich. Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature. Princeton University Press, 1953.
2. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
3. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
4. Garcia Marquez, Gabriel. One Hundred Years of Solitude. Harper & Row, 1970.
5. Girard, René. Violence and the Sacred. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977.
6. Orwell, George. 1984. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1949.
7. Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. Little, Brown and Company, 1951.
8. Shakespeare, William. Macbeth. Edited by Barbara Mowat and Paul Werstine, Folger Shakespeare Library, 1992.
9. Taylor, Charles. The Ethics of Authenticity. Harvard University Press, 1991.
10. Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1960.

Humor Theory: Etymology/Term, Definition, Concept

Etymology/Term:

The word “humor” in the context of humor theory originates from the ancient Greek word “humor,” meaning fluid or liquid. This term was used by ancient physicians to describe bodily fluids, believing that the balance of these fluids in the body influenced a person’s temperament and health. Over time, the meaning evolved to include a person’s disposition, and eventually, it became associated with the quality of being amusing or entertaining.

Definition:

Humor, in the realm of humor theory, refers to the quality of being amusing, entertaining, or enjoyable, often eliciting laughter or a sense of amusement. It is a subjective and culturally influenced phenomenon that involves the perception of incongruities, absurdities, or deviations from expected norms.

Concept:

• Incongruity Theory: This concept suggests that humor arises from the unexpected or incongruent elements in a situation. Jokes or comedic situations often involve surprising twists or deviations from typical patterns, leading to a humorous response.
• Relief Theory: Developed by Sigmund Freud, this theory posits that humor serves as a release of psychological tension or taboo thoughts. Laughter, in this context, is a way for individuals to cope with societal restrictions or personal anxieties.
• Superiority Theory: According to this perspective, humor emerges when individuals perceive themselves as superior to others or situations. Jokes often involve the ridicule or mockery of someone else, providing a sense of superiority to the audience.
• Incongruity-Resolution Model: Building on incongruity theory, this model suggests that humor arises when there is a resolution of incongruities. The brain processes incongruent information, and when a punchline or resolution is presented, it triggers laughter as a cognitive response.
• Cultural and Social Influences: Humor is highly influenced by cultural and social norms. What is considered funny varies across cultures and societies, reflecting shared values, taboos, and societal norms. Understanding cultural context is crucial in analyzing and appreciating different forms of humor.

Humor Theory: Theorists, Works, Arguments

Theorist	Notable Works	Key Arguments
Aristotle	Poetics	– Humor as catharsis in drama.
Thomas Hobbes	Human Nature	– Superiority theory, humor as a form of scorn.
Immanuel Kant	Critique of Judgment	– Incongruity theory, humor as the unexpected.
Sigmund Freud	Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious	– Relief theory, humor as a release of tension.
Henri Bergson	Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic	– Mechanical incongruity, humor in rigidity and automatism.
Ludwig Wittgenstein	Philosophical Investigations	– Language games and how they contribute to humor.
Mary Douglas	Purity and Danger	– Taboo humor, exploring social norms through laughter.
Arthur Koestler	The Act of Creation	– Bisociation, the joining of unrelated cognitive frames in humor.
John Morreall	Taking Laughter Seriously	– Humor as play, the role of incongruity in humor.
Victor Raskin	Semantic Mechanisms of Humor	– Script-based semantic theory, analyzing humor through script deviations.

Humor Theory: Key Principles

• Incongruity:
  Humor often arises from incongruities, or unexpected elements, in a situation. This principle suggests that the human mind finds amusement in the unexpected or the deviation from typical patterns.

Example: In Oscar Wilde’s play “The Importance of Being Earnest,” the characters create humor through their use of ironic statements and paradoxes, introducing incongruities that challenge conventional expectations.

• Relief:
  Sigmund Freud’s relief theory posits that humor serves as a release of psychological tension or taboo thoughts. Laughter, in this context, becomes a coping mechanism for individuals to address societal restrictions or personal anxieties.

Example: George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” uses allegory and satire to provide a humorous yet critical commentary on societal and political issues, offering a release for readers to engage with complex themes through humor.

• Superiority:
  This principle, associated with Thomas Hobbes, suggests that humor arises when individuals perceive themselves as superior to others or situations. Jokes often involve the ridicule or mockery of someone else, providing a sense of superiority to the audience.

Example: In Jane Austen’s “Pride and Prejudice,” the humor is often derived from the characters’ social missteps and misunderstandings, allowing readers to feel a sense of superiority as they observe the characters’ foibles.

• Bisociation:
  Coined by Arthur Koestler, bisociation involves the joining of unrelated cognitive frames in humor. It emphasizes the juxtaposition of disparate ideas, leading to a surprising connection that elicits laughter.

Example: In Lewis Carroll’s “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland,” the absurd and fantastical situations that Alice encounters, such as a tea party with the Mad Hatter, showcase bisociation by combining unrelated elements in a humorous manner.

• Cultural Context: Humor is intricately shaped by cultural and social norms, demanding an awareness of the cultural backdrop for a nuanced interpretation and appreciation of diverse comedic forms. What amuses one culture might not resonate universally, highlighting the significance of context in humor comprehension.

Example: In Arundhati Roy’s “The God of Small Things,” humor is threaded with cultural intricacies and societal nuances of post-colonial India. Readers must delve into the cultural context to fully grasp the satirical elements and wit, enriching the overall understanding of the novel’s humor.

Humor Theory: Application in Literary Critiques

• Incongruity Analysis: Examining how incongruities contribute to humor helps identify instances where the unexpected or absurd elements deviate from typical patterns. Literary critics can explore how authors employ incongruity to create laughter or provoke thought.

Example: In Mark Twain’s “The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn,” incongruity is evident in the disparity between Huck’s naive perspective and the complex moral issues he encounters, adding humor through the incongruous nature of his observations.

• Relief Theory Interpretation: Literary critics can employ relief theory to analyze how humor serves as a release of tension or a coping mechanism within a narrative. This approach involves identifying instances where humor provides relief from intense or serious themes.

Example: Joseph Heller’s “Catch-22” uses humor to provide relief from the harsh realities of war. The absurdity of the catch itself serves as a coping mechanism, allowing readers to navigate the grimness of the wartime setting.

• Superiority Dynamics: Evaluating how superiority dynamics contribute to humor involves examining instances of satire, mockery, or characters’ missteps. Literary critics can assess how the audience’s sense of superiority over characters influences the comedic elements.

Example: Jane Austen’s “Emma” features a protagonist whose misguided matchmaking attempts lead to humorous situations. Literary critics can explore how readers’ sense of superiority contributes to the novel’s comedic appeal.

• Bisociation Examination: Analyzing bisociation in literary works involves identifying unexpected connections or juxtapositions that elicit laughter. Literary critics can explore how authors creatively combine disparate elements for comedic effect.

Example: Douglas Adams’ “The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy” employs bisociation by blending science fiction with absurdity, creating unexpected connections that contribute to the novel’s humor.

• Cultural and Social Context Consideration: Literary critics must consider cultural and social contexts when assessing humor. Examining how cultural references, norms, or societal critiques contribute to the comedic elements provides a more comprehensive understanding.

Example: In Zadie Smith’s “White Teeth,” the humor is intricately linked to multiculturalism and the complexities of identity in post-colonial Britain. Critics can explore how cultural context enhances the novel’s humor and social commentary.

By applying humor theory to literary critiques, analysts can unveil the intricate mechanisms of comedic elements within literary works, offering readers a deeper appreciation of the role humor plays in storytelling.

Humor Theory: Terms

Term	Definition
Incongruity	Unexpected or absurd elements deviating from norms.
Relief Theory	Humor as a release of tension or coping mechanism.
Superiority Dynamics	Audience’s sense of superiority over characters.
Bisociation	Juxtaposing unrelated elements for comedic effect.
Cultural Context	Influence of cultural norms on humor interpretation.
Satire	Use of humor, irony, or ridicule for social critique.
Wit	Clever and humorous expression, often verbal.
Parody	Imitation with exaggeration for comedic effect.
Hyperbole	Deliberate exaggeration for humorous emphasis.
Irony	Expression of meaning contrary to the literal sense.

Humor Theory: Suggested Readings

1. Bergson, Henri. Laughter: An Essay on the Meaning of the Comic. 1900. Dover Publications, 2005.
2. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of Criticism: Four Essays. Princeton University Press, 1957.
3. Freud, Sigmund. Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious. 1905. W. W. Norton & Company, 1990.
4. Koestler, Arthur. The Act of Creation. Macmillan, 1964.
5. Morreall, John. Taking Laughter Seriously. SUNY Press, 1983.
6. Raskin, Victor. Semantic Mechanisms of Humor. Springer, 1985.
7. Wilde, Oscar. The Critic as Artist. 1891. Penguin Classics, 2009.

Equivalence Theory in Translation: Term, Definition, and Concept

Definition:

Equivalence theory in translation refers to the approach that emphasizes the need to convey the meaning and intent of the source text accurately in the target language. Proposed by linguist and translation theorist Eugene Nida, this theory suggests that successful translation involves not only linguistic equivalence but also the transfer of the cultural and contextual meaning. The goal is to ensure that the translated text is equivalent in terms of both form and function, allowing the target audience to understand and interpret the content in a manner similar to the source audience.

Concept:

• Linguistic Equivalence: The theory recognizes the importance of maintaining similar linguistic structures and expressions between the source and target languages, ensuring clarity and precision in communication.
• Functional Equivalence: Beyond linguistic aspects, functional equivalence involves conveying the same communicative function and impact in the target language, considering cultural nuances and context.
• Dynamic Equivalence: Coined by Nida, dynamic equivalence involves the translator’s attempt to reproduce the impact of the source text in a way that resonates with the target audience, even if it means deviating from the literal wording.
• Cultural Considerations: Equivalence theory acknowledges that successful translation requires a deep understanding of cultural differences, requiring the translator to navigate linguistic and cultural gaps to maintain the intended meaning.
• Relevance to Audience: The theory emphasizes the adaptation of the translated text to suit the linguistic and cultural expectations of the target audience, ensuring that the message is conveyed effectively and appropriately.

Equivalence theory serves as a foundational concept in translation studies, guiding translators in their efforts to bridge linguistic and cultural gaps while preserving the essence and impact of the original text.

Equivalence Theory in Translation: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Theorist	Notable Works	Key Arguments
Eugene Nida	Toward a Science of Translating (1964)	– Advocated for dynamic equivalence, emphasizing the importance of conveying the impact and function of the source text rather than a word-for-word translation.
Peter Newmark	A Textbook of Translation (1988)	– Introduced the concepts of semantic and communicative translation, emphasizing the need to convey the intended meaning and purpose rather than focusing solely on linguistic equivalence.
Katharina Reiss	Type, Kind, and Individuality of Text: Decision Making in Translation (1971)	– Developed the concept of “text types” and argued that different types of texts require different translation strategies based on their communicative function.
Christiane Nord	Text Analysis in Translation: Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis (1997)	– Introduced the concept of “function plus loyalty,” emphasizing the importance of balancing the function of the source text with loyalty to the cultural and linguistic norms of the target audience.
Mona Baker	In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation (1992)	– Explored the concept of “equivalence in difference,” acknowledging that exact equivalence may not always be achievable, especially in cases of cultural and linguistic divergence.

These theorists have significantly contributed to the development and understanding of equivalence theory in translation, each offering unique perspectives and methodologies for achieving successful translations.

Equivalence Theory in Translation: Key Principles

• Linguistic Equivalence: The principle of linguistic equivalence emphasizes maintaining similar linguistic structures and expressions between the source and target languages. It ensures clarity and precision in communication by preserving the grammatical and syntactical features of the original text.
• Functional Equivalence: Beyond linguistic aspects, functional equivalence involves conveying the same communicative function and impact in the target language. It requires the translator to consider cultural nuances and context, ensuring that the translated text serves the same purpose as the source text.
• Dynamic Equivalence: Coined by Eugene Nida, dynamic equivalence involves the translator’s attempt to reproduce the impact of the source text in a way that resonates with the target audience. This may involve rephrasing or rewording to capture the essence and intent of the original, even if it means deviating from the literal wording.
• Cultural Considerations: Equivalence theory acknowledges that successful translation requires a deep understanding of cultural differences. Translators must navigate linguistic and cultural gaps to maintain the intended meaning, ensuring that the translated text is culturally appropriate and resonant with the target audience.
• Relevance to Audience: The theory emphasizes the adaptation of the translated text to suit the linguistic and cultural expectations of the target audience. It recognizes that the success of a translation is not solely determined by linguistic accuracy but also by how well the message is conveyed and received by the intended audience.

These key principles guide translators in their efforts to bridge linguistic and cultural gaps, ensuring that the translated text is not only faithful to the original but also effectively communicates the intended meaning and impact in the target language and culture.

Equivalence Theory in Translation: Application in Criticism

1. One Hundred Years of Solitude by Gabriel García Márquez:
   • Equivalence Focus: Capturing the magical realism and cultural richness.
   • Critique: Evaluate how well the translator maintains the balance between preserving the unique narrative style and ensuring that the cultural elements are conveyed accurately to the target audience.
2. Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky:
   • Equivalence Focus: Preserving the psychological depth and existential themes.
   • Critique: Examine how the translator handles the complex psychological aspects of the characters and conveys the philosophical underpinnings of the novel, ensuring that the target audience grasps the intended impact.
3. One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights):
   • Equivalence Focus: Maintaining the cultural and linguistic diversity.
   • Critique: Assess how the translation handles the diverse range of stories, characters, and cultural references. Consider whether the translator successfully conveys the richness of the original work without losing its cultural context.
4. The Master and Margarita by Mikhail Bulgakov:
   • Equivalence Focus: Preserving the satirical and allegorical elements.
   • Critique: Analyze how the translator handles the satirical elements, cultural references, and the intricate interplay between reality and fantasy. Evaluate if the translation captures the intended humor and social commentary.

In each case, critics applying equivalence theory would assess the translation based on how well it maintains the integrity of the source text while making necessary adjustments for linguistic and cultural differences. It involves evaluating whether the translator successfully communicates the intended meaning, style, and impact of the original work to the target audience. This approach helps ensure that the translated literary works remain faithful to the essence of the originals while being accessible and meaningful to a different cultural and linguistic context.

Equivalence Theory in Translation: Terms Used in It

1. Source Text (ST): The original text to be translated.
2. Target Text (TT): The translated text in the target language.
3. Equivalence: A balance sought between fidelity to the source text and readability in the target language.
4. Dynamic Equivalence: Emphasizes conveying the meaning and effect rather than literal translation.
5. Cultural Equivalence: Preserving cultural nuances and context in translation.
6. Functional Equivalence: Focuses on achieving the same communicative function as the source text.
7. Shifts: Changes made in translation to maintain equivalence across languages.
8. Untranslatability: Instances where a direct equivalent in the target language is challenging or impossible.
9. Idiomatic Expression: Phrases specific to a language that may require creative adaptation in translation.
10. Pragmatic Equivalence: Considers the social context and appropriateness of the translation for the target audience.

Equivalence Theory in Translation: Suggested Readings

1. Nida, Eugene, and Charles R. Taber. The Theory and Practice of Translation. Brill, 1969.
2. Newmark, Peter. A Textbook of Translation. Prentice Hall, 1988.
3. Venuti, Lawrence. The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation. Routledge, 1995.
4. Baker, Mona. In Other Words: A Coursebook on Translation. Routledge, 1992.