Day: January 7, 2024

Neoclassicism: Etymology/Term, Definition and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “Neoclassicism” originates from the combination of “neo,” meaning new or revived, and “classicism,” referring to the principles and aesthetics of ancient Greek and Roman art. Emerging in the 18th century as a reaction against the exuberance of the Baroque style, Neoclassicism sought a return to the classical ideals of order, simplicity, and rationality in various artistic forms, including literature, visual arts, and architecture.

Definition:

Neoclassicism is an artistic and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 17th century and reached its peak in the 18th century. It is characterized by a revival of classical forms and ideals, drawing inspiration from ancient Greek and Roman art, literature, and philosophy. Neoclassical works often exhibit a commitment to clarity, simplicity, and rationality, rejecting the ornate and emotional excesses of preceding styles such as Baroque. This movement had a profound influence on literature, architecture, and the visual arts, shaping the cultural landscape of the Enlightenment period.

Concept:

• Classical Influences: Neoclassicism emphasizes a return to the classical ideals of ancient Greece and Rome, drawing inspiration from their art, literature, and philosophy.
• Order and Symmetry: Neoclassical works prioritize order, balance, and symmetry, reflecting a belief in rationality and the pursuit of clarity in artistic expression.
• Intellectualism and Reason: The movement is characterized by a focus on intellect and reason, seeking to communicate ideas clearly and logically in contrast to the emotionalism of previous styles.
• Rejection of Baroque Exuberance: Neoclassicism rejects the ornate and emotionally charged characteristics of the Baroque period, favoring simplicity and restraint.
• Moral and Didactic Intent: Neoclassical works often have a moral or didactic purpose, using classical themes to convey virtues, ethical lessons, and a sense of civic responsibility.

Neoclassicism, as a cultural and artistic movement, played a significant role in shaping the aesthetic values of the Enlightenment era and provided a foundation for subsequent artistic developments.

Neoclassicism: Theorists, Works, and Argument

Neoclassicism	Theorists	Works	Arguments
Classical Influences	Johann Joachim Winckelmann	History of Ancient Art – Emphasizes the beauty of classical art and its influence on contemporary aesthetics.	Winckelmann argued for the moral and aesthetic superiority of classical art, advocating for its emulation in the present.
Order and Symmetry	Jacques-Louis David	Oath of the Horatii – Illustrates neoclassical principles through balanced composition.	David advocated for clarity, order, and visual harmony, considering these elements essential for conveying moral and political ideals.
Intellectualism and Reason	Alexander Pope	Essay on Criticism – Advocates for reason and intellect in literary criticism.	Pope argued for clear and rational criticism, rejecting excessive emotion and favoring a reasoned approach to literary evaluation.
Rejection of Baroque Exuberance	Jean-Baptiste Greuze	The Village Bride – Depicts scenes of everyday life with simplicity and restraint.	Greuze rejected the elaborate and emotional excesses of the Baroque, favoring a more restrained and morally instructive approach.
Moral and Didactic Intent	Voltaire	Candide – A satirical novella critiquing societal conventions and advocating reason.	Voltaire used satire to critique societal flaws, promoting reason, tolerance, and a more enlightened worldview.

In the table, the theorists, their notable works, and key arguments are presented, all in alignment with the principles of Neoclassicism. The book titles are formatted in bold and italics without the use of quotes.

Neoclassicism: Major Principles with Examples from Literature

1. Order and Balance:
   • Neoclassical literature often adhered to a strict structure and form, emphasizing clarity and symmetry.
   • Example: Alexander Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock” maintains a balanced and ordered structure, with a heroic couplet form, addressing trivial matters with a mock-epic tone.
2. Rationalism and Reason:
   • Neoclassical writers valued reason and intellect over emotion and intuition.
   • Example: Voltaire’s satirical novella “Candide” employs reason to criticize various societal and philosophical ideologies, promoting a skeptical and rational outlook.
3. Imitation of Classical Models:
   • Neoclassical writers often imitated classical literary forms and themes, drawing inspiration from ancient Greek and Roman works.
   • Example: Jean Racine’s tragedy “Phèdre” is modeled after classical Greek tragedies, exploring themes of fate, passion, and moral dilemmas.
4. Moral Purpose and Didacticism:
   • Neoclassical literature often had a moral purpose, intending to instruct and educate the reader.
   • Example: Samuel Johnson’s “Rasselas” is a philosophical novel that explores the search for happiness, offering moral lessons and reflections on human nature.
5. Satire and Social Criticism:
   • Satire was a common literary device used by Neoclassical writers to criticize and mock societal flaws and follies.
   • Example: Jonathan Swift’s “Gulliver’s Travels” satirizes human nature, politics, and society through the allegorical adventures of Lemuel Gulliver.
6. Idealization of Nature:
   • Neoclassical literature often idealized nature as a harmonious and orderly force.
   • Example: The pastoral poetry of Alexander Pope, such as “The Pastorals,” idealizes the countryside and rural life as a retreat from the corruption of urban society.
7. Clarity of Expression:
   • Neoclassical writers aimed for clarity, precision, and simplicity in their language and expression.
   • Example: John Dryden’s “An Essay of Dramatic Poesy” exemplifies clear and concise prose, discussing the principles of drama in a straightforward manner.

These principles were central to Neoclassical literature, and they influenced various forms of artistic expression during the 18th century. Neoclassicism was a reaction against the ornate and emotive styles of the preceding periods, emphasizing reason, order, and a return to classical ideals.

Neoclassicism: Examples of Critiques

Literary Work	Critiques
Alexander Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock”	1. Some critics argue that Pope’s satirical approach may come across as elitist, as he humorously addresses trivial matters among the aristocracy. 2. The mock-epic style may be seen as a departure from the classical epic tradition, despite its adherence to classical forms.
Voltaire’s “Candide”	1. Some critics view the work as overly pessimistic and lacking in depth due to its satirical and parodic nature. 2. The characterizations are often considered one-dimensional, serving more as vehicles for philosophical ideas than as fully developed individuals.
Jean Racine’s “Phèdre”	1. Some critics argue that Racine’s adherence to classical forms may limit the emotional depth and complexity of characters. 2. The strict adherence to the classical unities may be seen as a constraint on creativity and innovation.
Jonathan Swift’s “Gulliver’s Travels”	1. Some critics contend that the satirical elements are sometimes harsh and may border on misanthropy. 2. Swift’s pessimistic view of humanity may be considered overly cynical, diminishing the potential for a more nuanced exploration of human nature.

Neoclassicism: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Mimesis	Imitation or representation of reality, often referencing classical models.
Decorum	Adherence to social and literary propriety, ensuring that characters and actions are appropriate for their context.
Poetic Justice	The concept that virtue is rewarded and vice is punished in literary works.
Allusion	Brief and indirect references to literature, history, or mythology for added depth and meaning.
Didactic Literature	Works intended to instruct or morally enlighten the reader.
Hubris	Excessive pride or arrogance, often leading to a character’s downfall.
Unity of Time, Place, and Action	The adherence to limitations on time, setting, and plot in dramatic works, as advocated by Aristotle.
Satire	Humorous or critical commentary on society, politics, or individuals, often using irony and exaggeration.
Enlightenment	The intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, and individual rights, influencing Neoclassical thought.
Heroic Couplet	A pair of rhyming iambic pentameter lines, frequently used in Neoclassical poetry for its formal structure.

Neoclassicism: Suggested Readings

1. Dryden, John. All for Love; or, The World Well Lost. Oxford University Press, 2008.
2. Johnson, Samuel. The Lives of the English Poets. Edited by Roger Lonsdale, Oxford University Press, 2006.
3. Pope, Alexander. The Dunciad. Edited by Valerie Rumbold, Penguin Classics, 2006.
4. Racine, Jean. Phèdre. Translated by Ted Hughes, Faber & Faber, 2001.
5. Swift, Jonathan. Gulliver’s Travels. Edited by Robert DeMaria Jr., Norton, 2012.
6. Voltaire. Candide. Translated by Burton Raffel, Yale University Press, 2005.
7. Wimsatt, William K., and Cleanth Brooks. Literary Criticism: A Short History. Knopf, 1957.

Naturalism: Etymology/Term, Definition, and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “naturalism” traces its roots to the Latin word “natura,” meaning nature. Emerging in the 19th century, particularly in the realm of literature and philosophy, naturalism sought to explore and depict the human experience through a lens that emphasized the influence of external forces and environmental determinism on individuals.

Definition:

Naturalism is a philosophical and artistic movement that posits a deterministic view of human existence, emphasizing the impact of biology, environment, and heredity on individuals. It rejects supernatural explanations and underscores the idea that human behavior is governed by natural laws. In literature, naturalistic works often delve into the darker aspects of life, portraying characters as products of their circumstances and subject to the inexorable forces of nature.

Concept:

• Determinism: Naturalism emphasizes the deterministic nature of human actions, asserting that individuals are shaped and constrained by external factors beyond their control.
• Environmental Influence: The movement highlights the significance of the environment in shaping character and behavior, emphasizing the impact of surroundings on human development.
• Scientific Method: Naturalism often aligns itself with a scientific approach, seeking to understand human behavior through observation, analysis, and the application of natural laws.
• Pessimistic Outlook: Naturalistic works often adopt a pessimistic tone, portraying a world where individuals are at the mercy of their environment and biological predispositions, leading to a bleak view of human existence.
• Objective Realism: Naturalism strives for objective realism in its portrayal of life, aiming to present an unvarnished and unromanticized view of the human condition, devoid of idealism or moralizing tendencies.

Naturalism: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

• Émile Zola: A prominent French novelist and theorist, Zola played a pivotal role in shaping naturalism. His work, “Les Rougon-Macquart,” is a series of novels that exemplifies naturalistic principles.
• Henrik Ibsen: The Norwegian playwright, known for works like “Ghosts” and “A Doll’s House,” incorporated naturalistic elements, challenging societal norms and exploring the consequences of heredity and environment.
• Stephen Crane: An American author, Crane’s “Maggie: A Girl of the Streets” and “The Red Badge of Courage” are considered early examples of naturalistic literature, exploring the impact of environment on characters.

Works:

• “Germinal” by Émile Zola: Zola’s novel “Germinal” vividly portrays the harsh lives of coal miners in France, emphasizing the brutal conditions and the determinism of social class.
• “The Call of the Wild” by Jack London: London’s novel follows the journey of a domesticated dog returning to a wild state, embodying naturalistic themes of survival and the primal instincts within individuals.
• “Sister Carrie” by Theodore Dreiser: Dreiser’s novel explores the life of a young woman in Chicago, illustrating how societal forces and economic pressures shape her choices and destiny.

Arguments:

• Determinism and Environmental Influence: Naturalism argues that individuals are products of their environment and are subject to deterministic forces, shaping their actions and destinies.
• Scientific Observation: Naturalistic works often incorporate a scientific approach to human behavior, employing detailed observation and analysis to depict characters and situations realistically.
• Pessimism and Social Critique: Naturalistic literature often presents a pessimistic view of human existence, critiquing social structures and highlighting the oppressive influence of external factors on individuals.
• Rejection of Idealism: Naturalism rejects idealized portrayals of characters and situations, opting for a more objective and unvarnished representation of the complexities of life.
• Focus on Social Issues: Many naturalistic works address social issues such as poverty, class disparity, and the harsh realities of industrialization, reflecting a concern for the societal context in which characters exist.

Naturalism: Key Principals

Key Principles of Naturalism	Literary Examples
Determinism	Germinal by Émile Zola – Characters’ destinies shaped by inescapable social and economic forces.
Environmental Influence	The Call of the Wild by Jack London – The protagonist’s transformation influenced by the harsh wilderness environment.
Scientific Observation	Sister Carrie by Theodore Dreiser – Meticulous portrayal of characters and their actions through a scientific lens.
Pessimism and Social Critique	Maggie: A Girl of the Streets by Stephen Crane – A pessimistic portrayal of urban poverty and societal oppression.
Rejection of Idealism	An American Tragedy by Theodore Dreiser – Characters face real consequences, rejecting idealized outcomes.
Focus on Social Issues	The Jungle by Upton Sinclair – Addresses societal issues such as labor exploitation and unsanitary working conditions.

Naturalism: How to Critique a Literary Work

1. Examine Deterministic Elements:
   • Identify how the characters’ lives are shaped by external forces, such as societal expectations, economic conditions, or biological factors.
   • Assess whether the characters’ actions and outcomes align with the naturalistic principle of determinism.

Example: In Émile Zola’s “Germinal,” the protagonist, Étienne Lantier, is inevitably drawn into the harsh world of coal mining, and his fate is determined by the socio-economic conditions of the mining community.

2. Evaluate Environmental Influence:
   • Analyze how the environment depicted in the work affects the characters’ behavior, decisions, and overall development.
   • Consider whether the setting plays a significant role in shaping the narrative and the characters’ responses to their surroundings.

Example: Jack London’s “The Call of the Wild” showcases how the hostile wilderness profoundly influences Buck, the domesticated dog, as he adapts to the challenges of the natural environment.

3. Assess Scientific Observation:
   • Look for instances where the author employs a scientific and objective approach to portray characters and events.
   • Evaluate whether the narrative is grounded in realistic observations, avoiding idealized or romanticized depictions.

Example: Theodore Dreiser’s “Sister Carrie” meticulously observes the protagonist’s journey through the urban landscape, employing a detailed and impartial lens to present a realistic depiction of the character’s life choices.

4. Consider Pessimistic Elements and Social Critique:
   • Examine the overall tone of the work and whether it reflects a pessimistic outlook on life.
   • Evaluate how the narrative critiques societal structures and highlights the struggles and hardships faced by the characters.

Example: Stephen Crane’s “Maggie: A Girl of the Streets” offers a bleak portrayal of urban poverty, emphasizing the oppressive social conditions and the tragic fate of the protagonist.

5. Analyze Rejection of Idealism:
   • Determine whether the work rejects idealized portrayals of characters and situations, opting for a more realistic and unvarnished representation of life.
   • Look for instances where characters face genuine consequences rather than conforming to idealized resolutions.

Example: In Theodore Dreiser’s “An American Tragedy,” the protagonist’s actions lead to real and tragic consequences, challenging the notion of idealized outcomes.

6. Explore Focus on Social Issues:
   • Investigate how the work addresses and critiques broader social issues such as class disparities, industrialization, or societal norms.
   • Assess whether the narrative contributes to a deeper understanding of the social context in which the characters exist.

Example: Upton Sinclair’s “The Jungle” explores the harsh realities of labor exploitation and unsanitary working conditions in the meatpacking industry, serving as a powerful commentary on societal issues.

By employing these criteria, a naturalistic critique provides a nuanced analysis of how the literary work aligns with the principles of naturalism, offering insights into the deterministic, observational, and socio-critical aspects of the narrative.

Naturalism: Similar Terms

Naturalism	Similar Terms
Determinism	Inevitability of outcomes based on forces beyond individual control.
Social Realism	Depiction of societal issues and realities in a straightforward manner.
Scientific Realism	Application of scientific principles to literary portrayal.
Environmental Determinism	Emphasis on the impact of surroundings on human behavior.
Social Darwinism	Application of Darwinian principles to societal structures and evolution.
Mimetic Realism	Imitation of real-life situations and characters in literature.
Objectivism	Presentation of events and characters without subjective bias.
Positivism	Reliance on observable and verifiable phenomena in literature.
Sociological Fiction	Exploration of social structures and their impact on individuals.
Fatalism	Belief in the inevitability of predetermined outcomes in life.

Naturalism: Suggested Readings

1. Crane, Stephen. Maggie: A Girl of the Streets. Dover Publications, 2009.
2. Dreiser, Theodore. An American Tragedy. Vintage, 2010.
3. London, Jack. The Call of the Wild. Dover Publications, 1990.
4. Sinclair, Upton. The Jungle. Dover Publications, 2001.
5. Zola, Émile. Germinal. Oxford University Press, 2008.

Cultural Studies: Etymology and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “Cultural Studies” originated in the mid-20th century and gained prominence during the 1960s and 1970s. Emerging primarily from British academia, it was initially used to describe an interdisciplinary field that sought to analyze, critique, and understand various aspects of culture, including popular culture, media, language, and everyday life. Rooted in a desire to break down traditional academic boundaries and incorporate perspectives from diverse disciplines, Cultural Studies aimed to explore how power, ideology, and societal structures shape and are shaped by cultural practices.

Concept:

• Interdisciplinarity: Cultural Studies is characterized by its interdisciplinary approach, drawing insights from sociology, anthropology, literature, media studies, and other fields to analyze cultural phenomena.
• Power Dynamics: The field emphasizes the examination of power relations within cultural practices, investigating how they reinforce or challenge existing societal structures.
• Popular Culture Analysis: Cultural Studies places a significant focus on the study of popular culture, recognizing it as a site where societal norms, values, and ideologies are reflected and contested.
• Identity Formation: Examining how cultural practices contribute to the construction of individual and collective identities is a central concern, with attention to issues of race, gender, class, and more.
• Critical Theory Influence: Cultural Studies is influenced by critical theory, incorporating perspectives that question established norms and challenge dominant ideologies in various cultural contexts.

Cultural Studies: Definition of Term

Cultural Studies is a multidisciplinary field of academic inquiry that analyzes the production, distribution, and reception of cultural artifacts and practices. It examines how power dynamics, social structures, and identity formation intersect within cultural contexts. The field employs diverse methodologies, drawing from sociology, anthropology, media studies, and literature, to critically explore the complexities of contemporary culture.

Cultural Studies: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorist	Key Works	Main Arguments
Stuart Hall	Encoding and Decoding in the Television Discourse, The Cultural Studies Reader	Pioneered reception theory, emphasizing how media messages are encoded and decoded by audiences; argued for the importance of decoding practices in shaping cultural meanings.
Raymond Williams	Culture and Society, Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society	Introduced the concept of “cultural materialism,” exploring the relationships between culture, society, and power structures; emphasized the role of everyday language in shaping cultural understanding.
Michel Foucault	Discipline and Punish, The Archaeology of Knowledge	Explored the dynamics of power and knowledge in society; argued that power is dispersed throughout social structures and embedded in discourse, influencing cultural practices.
Judith Butler	Gender Trouble, Bodies That Matter	Developed the concept of performativity, challenging traditional views of gender identity; argued that gender is a socially constructed performance rather than an inherent trait.
Homi K. Bhabha	The Location of Culture	Introduced the idea of “hybridity” and the “third space” in cultural identity; argued for understanding cultural identities as fluid and constantly negotiated within diverse social contexts.
bell hooks	Ain’t I a Woman, Black Looks: Race and Representation	Examined the intersections of race, gender, and class in cultural production; argued for the importance of intersectionality in understanding and addressing social issues.

Cultural Studies: Major Characteristics

• Interdisciplinarity:
  • Example: In “The Taming of the Shrew” by William Shakespeare, interdisciplinary themes of gender, power dynamics, and societal expectations are explored through both comedic and critical lenses.
• Cultural Materialism:
  • Example: In George Orwell’s “1984,” cultural materialism is evident in the scrutiny of language, reflecting how power structures manipulate and control society through the manipulation of words and concepts.
• Reception Theory:
  • Example: J.K. Rowling’s “Harry Potter” series engages with reception theory as readers interpret the narrative, characters, and moral dilemmas, contributing to a diverse range of interpretations.
• Performativity:
  • Example: In Virginia Woolf’s “Orlando,” the concept of performativity is explored as the protagonist undergoes a gender transformation, emphasizing the performative nature of identity.
• Hybridity:
  • In a similar vein, Tsitsi Dangarembga’s “Nervous Conditions” for African literature or Yan Ge’s “The Chili Bean Paste Clan” for Chinese literature exemplifies hybridity, fusing magical realism with historical elements to illuminate the diverse cultural tapestry of their respective regions.
• Intersectionality:
  • Example: In Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie’s “Americanah,” intersectionality is central as the protagonist navigates issues of race, gender, and immigration in both Nigerian and American contexts.

These literary examples illustrate how the major characteristics of Cultural Studies manifest in diverse ways within the realm of literature, showcasing the field’s broad applicability and relevance.

Cultural Studies: Application in Critiques

1. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald:
   • Cultural Materialism: A Cultural Studies critique of “The Great Gatsby” would delve into the societal values of the Roaring Twenties, exploring how materialism and the pursuit of the American Dream shape the characters’ identities and relationships.
2. Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe:
   • Postcolonial Analysis: Applying Cultural Studies to “Things Fall Apart” would involve examining the novel’s portrayal of the clash between Igbo traditions and colonial influences, highlighting the cultural disruptions and power dynamics at play.
3. The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood:
   • Feminist and Reception Theory: A Cultural Studies critique of “The Handmaid’s Tale” would explore the novel’s feminist themes, analyzing how readers’ interpretations contribute to the ongoing dialogue about gender roles, power structures, and dystopian societies.
4. The Joy Luck Club by Amy Tan:
   • Intersectionality: Cultural Studies could be applied to “The Joy Luck Club” by scrutinizing the intersectionality of cultural identities within the Chinese-American immigrant experience, emphasizing how factors like gender, generation, and ethnicity shape the characters’ lives.

In each case, a Cultural Studies critique would go beyond traditional literary analysis, focusing on the broader cultural contexts and societal influences present in the works. It would explore how these texts reflect, challenge, or contribute to cultural norms, power structures, and identity dynamics, showcasing the versatility of Cultural Studies in literary criticism.

Cultural Studies: Relevant Terms

Term	Brief Definition
Hegemony	Dominance or control exerted by one group over others, shaping cultural norms and values.
Orientalism	Western representations of the East, often portraying it as exotic or inferior, influencing cultural perceptions.
Subaltern	Marginalized groups or individuals lacking political power, often analyzed in postcolonial critiques.
Cultural Hegemony	The dominance of a particular culture’s beliefs and values, influencing societal norms and practices.
Cultural Appropriation	Adoption of elements from a marginalized culture by a dominant culture, often raising questions of power and authenticity.
Discourse Analysis	Examination of language use to understand power structures and social constructions in cultural communication.
Othering	The process of depicting individuals or groups as fundamentally different, reinforcing stereotypes and power imbalances.
Spectacle	The presentation of events or images in media that shape cultural perceptions and influence societal attitudes.
Cultural Capital	Accumulated cultural knowledge and experiences that can provide social advantages or disadvantages.
Globalization	The interconnectedness and interdependence of cultures on a global scale, impacting cultural exchange and identity.

Cultural Studies: Suggested Readings

1. Hall, Stuart. The Cultural Studies Reader. Edited by Simon During, Routledge, 2007.
2. hooks, bell. Black Looks: Race and Representation. South End Press, 1992.
3. Said, Edward W. Orientalism. Vintage Books, 1979.
4. Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. Routledge, 1994.
5. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
6. Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Vintage Books, 1995.
7. Williams, Raymond. Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. Oxford University Press, 1983.
8. Anzaldúa, Gloria. Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza. Aunt Lute Books, 1987.
9. Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Grove Press, 1963.
10. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. A Critique of Postcolonial Reason: Toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Harvard University Press, 1999.
11. Baudrillard, Jean. Simulacra and Simulation. University of Michigan Press, 1994.
12. Du Bois, W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folk. Dover Publications, 1994.