Day: July 9, 2024

Introduction: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

“Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery, first published in 1974 in the Poetry magazine, is a complex and evocative poem that delves into themes of art, perception, and the nature of self. Inspired by the 16th-century painting of the same name by Parmigianino, Ashbery’s poem weaves together ekphrastic descriptions of the artwork with philosophical musings on time, memory, and the limitations of representation. The poem’s fragmented structure, shifting perspectives, and elusive language create a sense of ambiguity and open-endedness, inviting readers to engage in their own interpretations of the artwork and the poem’s broader implications.

Text: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

As Parmigianino did it, the right hand
Bigger than the head, thrust at the viewer
And swerving easily away, as though to protect
What it advertises. A few leaded panes, old beams,
Fur, pleated muslin, a coral ring run together
In a movement supporting the face, which swims
Toward and away like the hand
Except that it is in repose. It is what is
Sequestered. Vasari says, “Francesco one day set himself
To take his own portrait, looking at himself from that purpose
In a convex mirror, such as is used by barbers . . .
He accordingly caused a ball of wood to be made
By a turner, and having divided it in half and
Brought it to the size of the mirror, he set himself
With great art to copy all that he saw in the glass,”
Chiefly his reflection, of which the portrait
Is the reflection, of which the portrait
Is the reflection once removed.
The glass chose to reflect only what he saw
Which was enough for his purpose: his image
Glazed, embalmed, projected at a 180-degree angle.
The time of day or the density of the light
Adhering to the face keeps it
Lively and intact in a recurring wave
Of arrival. The soul establishes itself.
But how far can it swim out through the eyes
And still return safely to its nest? The surface
Of the mirror being convex, the distance increases
Significantly; that is, enough to make the point
That the soul is a captive, treated humanely, kept
In suspension, unable to advance much farther
Than your look as it intercepts the picture.
Pope Clement and his court were “stupefied”
By it, according to Vasari, and promised a commission
That never materialized. The soul has to stay where it is,
Even though restless, hearing raindrops at the pane,
The sighing of autumn leaves thrashed by the wind,
Longing to be free, outside, but it must stay
Posing in this place. It must move
As little as possible. This is what the portrait says.
But there is in that gaze a combination
Of tenderness, amusement and regret, so powerful
In its restraint that one cannot look for long.
The secret is too plain. The pity of it smarts,
Makes hot tears spurt: that the soul is not a soul,
Has no secret, is small, and it fits
Its hollow perfectly: its room, our moment of attention.
That is the tune but there are no words.
The words are only speculation
(From the Latin speculum, mirror):
They seek and cannot find the meaning of the music.
We see only postures of the dream,
Riders of the motion that swings the face
Into view under evening skies, with no
False disarray as proof of authenticity.
But it is life englobed.
One would like to stick one’s hand
Out of the globe, but its dimension,
What carries it, will not allow it.
No doubt it is this, not the reflex
To hide something, which makes the hand loom large
As it retreats slightly. There is no way
To build it flat like a section of wall:
It must join the segment of a circle,
Roving back to the body of which it seems
So unlikely a part, to fence in and shore up the face
On which the effort of this condition reads
Like a pinpoint of a smile, a spark
Or star one is not sure of having seen
As darkness resumes. A perverse light whose
Imperative of subtlety dooms in advance its
Conceit to light up: unimportant but meant.
Francesco, your hand is big enough
To wreck the sphere, and too big,
One would think, to weave delicate meshes
That only argue its further detention.
(Big, but not coarse, merely on another scale,
Like a dozing whale on the sea bottom
In relation to the tiny, self-important ship
On the surface.) But your eyes proclaim
That everything is surface. The surface is what’s there
And nothing can exist except what’s there.
There are no recesses in the room, only alcoves,
And the window doesn’t matter much, or that
Sliver of window or mirror on the right, even
As a gauge of the weather, which in French is
Le temps, the word for time, and which
Follows a course wherein changes are merely
Features of the whole. The whole is stable within
Instability, a globe like ours, resting
On a pedestal of vacuum, a ping-pong ball
Secure on its jet of water.
And just as there are no words for the surface, that is,
No words to say what it really is, that it is not
Superficial but a visible core, then there is
No way out of the problem of pathos vs. experience.
You will stay on, restive, serene in
Your gesture which is neither embrace nor warning
But which holds something of both in pure
Affirmation that doesn’t affirm anything.

The balloon pops, the attention
Turns dully away. Clouds
In the puddle stir up into sawtoothed fragments.
I think of the friends
Who came to see me, of what yesterday
Was like. A peculiar slant
Of memory that intrudes on the dreaming model
In the silence of the studio as he considers
Lifting the pencil to the self-portrait.
How many people came and stayed a certain time,
Uttered light or dark speech that became part of you
Like light behind windblown fog and sand,
Filtered and influenced by it, until no part
Remains that is surely you. Those voices in the dusk
Have told you all and still the tale goes on
In the form of memories deposited in irregular
Clumps of crystals. Whose curved hand controls,
Francesco, the turning seasons and the thoughts
That peel off and fly away at breathless speeds
Like the last stubborn leaves ripped
From wet branches? I see in this only the chaos
Of your round mirror which organizes everything
Around the polestar of your eyes which are empty,
Know nothing, dream but reveal nothing.
I feel the carousel starting slowly
And going faster and faster: desk, papers, books,
Photographs of friends, the window and the trees
Merging in one neutral band that surrounds
Me on all sides, everywhere I look.
And I cannot explain the action of leveling,
Why it should all boil down to one
Uniform substance, a magma of interiors.
My guide in these matters is your self,
Firm, oblique, accepting everything with the same
Wraith of a smile, and as time speeds up so that it is soon
Much later, I can know only the straight way out,
The distance between us. Long ago
The strewn evidence meant something,
The small accidents and pleasures
Of the day as it moved gracelessly on,
A housewife doing chores. Impossible now
To restore those properties in the silver blur that is
The record of what you accomplished by sitting down
“With great art to copy all that you saw in the glass”
So as to perfect and rule out the extraneous
Forever. In the circle of your intentions certain spars
Remain that perpetuate the enchantment of self with self:
Eyebeams, muslin, coral. It doesn’t matter
Because these are things as they are today
Before one’s shadow ever grew
Out of the field into thoughts of tomorrow.

Tomorrow is easy, but today is uncharted,
Desolate, reluctant as any landscape
To yield what are laws of perspective
After all only to the painter’s deep
Mistrust, a weak instrument though
Necessary. Of course some things
Are possible, it knows, but it doesn’t know
Which ones. Some day we will try
To do as many things as are possible
And perhaps we shall succeed at a handful
Of them, but this will not have anything
To do with what is promised today, our
Landscape sweeping out from us to disappear
On the horizon. Today enough of a cover burnishes
To keep the supposition of promises together
In one piece of surface, letting one ramble
Back home from them so that these
Even stronger possibilities can remain
Whole without being tested. Actually
The skin of the bubble-chamber’s as tough as
Reptile eggs; everything gets “programmed” there
In due course: more keeps getting included
Without adding to the sum, and just as one
Gets accustomed to a noise that
Kept one awake but now no longer does,
So the room contains this flow like an hourglass
Without varying in climate or quality
(Except perhaps to brighten bleakly and almost
Invisibly, in a focus sharpening toward death–more
Of this later). What should be the vacuum of a dream
Becomes continually replete as the source of dreams
Is being tapped so that this one dream
May wax, flourish like a cabbage rose,
Defying sumptuary laws, leaving us
To awake and try to begin living in what
Has now become a slum. Sydney Freedberg in his
Parmigianino says of it: “Realism in this portrait
No longer produces and objective truth, but a bizarria . . . .
However its distortion does not create
A feeling of disharmony . . . . The forms retain
A strong measure of ideal beauty,” because
Fed by our dreams, so inconsequential until one day
We notice the hole they left. Now their importance
If not their meaning is plain. They were to nourish
A dream which includes them all, as they are
Finally reversed in the accumulating mirror.
They seemed strange because we couldn’t actually see them.
And we realize this only at a point where they lapse
Like a wave breaking on a rock, giving up
Its shape in a gesture which expresses that shape.
The forms retain a strong measure of ideal beauty
As they forage in secret on our idea of distortion.
Why be unhappy with this arrangement, since
Dreams prolong us as they are absorbed?
Something like living occurs, a movement
Out of the dream into its codification.

As I start to forget it
It presents its stereotype again
But it is an unfamiliar stereotype, the face
Riding at anchor, issued from hazards, soon
To accost others, “rather angel than man” (Vasari).
Perhaps an angel looks like everything
We have forgotten, I mean forgotten
Things that don’t seem familiar when
We meet them again, lost beyond telling,
Which were ours once. This would be the point
Of invading the privacy of this man who
“Dabbled in alchemy, but whose wish
Here was not to examine the subtleties of art
In a detached, scientific spirit: he wished through them
To impart the sense of novelty and amazement to the spectator”
(Freedberg). Later portraits such as the Uffizi
“Gentleman,” the Borghese “Young Prelate” and
The Naples “Antea” issue from Mannerist
Tensions, but here, as Freedberg points out,
The surprise, the tension are in the concept
Rather than its realization.
The consonance of the High Renaissance
Is present, though distorted by the mirror.
What is novel is the extreme care in rendering
The velleities of the rounded reflecting surface
(It is the first mirror portrait),
So that you could be fooled for a moment
Before you realize the reflection
Isn’t yours. You feel then like one of those
Hoffmann characters who have been deprived
Of a reflection, except that the whole of me
Is seen to be supplanted by the strict
Otherness of the painter in his
Other room. We have surprised him
At work, but no, he has surprised us
As he works. The picture is almost finished,
The surprise almost over, as when one looks out,
Startled by a snowfall which even now is
Ending in specks and sparkles of snow.
It happened while you were inside, asleep,
And there is no reason why you should have
Been awake for it, except that the day
Is ending and it will be hard for you
To get to sleep tonight, at least until late.

The shadow of the city injects its own
Urgency: Rome where Francesco
Was at work during the Sack: his inventions
Amazed the soldiers who burst in on him;
They decided to spare his life, but he left soon after;
Vienna where the painting is today, where
I saw it with Pierre in the summer of 1959; New York
Where I am now, which is a logarithm
Of other cities. Our landscape
Is alive with filiations, shuttlings;
Business is carried on by look, gesture,
Hearsay. It is another life to the city,
The backing of the looking glass of the
Unidentified but precisely sketched studio. It wants
To siphon off the life of the studio, deflate
Its mapped space to enactments, island it.
That operation has been temporarily stalled
But something new is on the way, a new preciosity
In the wind. Can you stand it,
Francesco? Are you strong enough for it?
This wind brings what it knows not, is
Self–propelled, blind, has no notion
Of itself. It is inertia that once
Acknowledged saps all activity, secret or public:
Whispers of the word that can’t be understood
But can be felt, a chill, a blight
Moving outward along the capes and peninsulas
Of your nervures and so to the archipelagoes
And to the bathed, aired secrecy of the open sea.
This is its negative side. Its positive side is
Making you notice life and the stresses
That only seemed to go away, but now,
As this new mode questions, are seen to be
Hastening out of style. If they are to become classics
They must decide which side they are on.
Their reticence has undermined
The urban scenery, made its ambiguities
Look willful and tired, the games of an old man.
What we need now is this unlikely
Challenger pounding on the gates of an amazed
Castle. Your argument, Francesco,
Had begun to grow stale as no answer
Or answers were forthcoming. If it dissolves now
Into dust, that only means its time had come
Some time ago, but look now, and listen:
It may be that another life is stocked there
In recesses no one knew of; that it,
Not we, are the change; that we are in fact it
If we could get back to it, relive some of the way
It looked, turn our faces to the globe as it sets
And still be coming out all right:
Nerves normal, breath normal. Since it is a metaphor
Made to include us, we are a part of it and
Can live in it as in fact we have done,
Only leaving our minds bare for questioning
We now see will not take place at random
But in an orderly way that means to menace
Nobody–the normal way things are done,
Like the concentric growing up of days
Around a life: correctly, if you think about it.

A breeze like the turning of a page
Brings back your face: the moment
Takes such a big bite out of the haze
Of pleasant intuition it comes after.
The locking into place is “death itself,”
As Berg said of a phrase in Mahler’s Ninth;
Or, to quote Imogen in Cymbeline, “There cannot
Be a pinch in death more sharp than this,” for,
Though only exercise or tactic, it carries
The momentum of a conviction that had been building.
Mere forgetfulness cannot remove it
Nor wishing bring it back, as long as it remains
The white precipitate of its dream
In the climate of sighs flung across our world,
A cloth over a birdcage. But it is certain that
What is beautiful seems so only in relation to a specific
Life, experienced or not, channeled into some form
Steeped in the nostalgia of a collective past.
The light sinks today with an enthusiasm
I have known elsewhere, and known why
It seemed meaningful, that others felt this way
Years ago. I go on consulting
This mirror that is no longer mine
For as much brisk vacancy as is to be
My portion this time. And the vase is always full
Because there is only just so much room
And it accommodates everything. The sample
One sees is not to be taken as
Merely that, but as everything as it
May be imagined outside time–not as a gesture
But as all, in the refined, assimilable state.
But what is this universe the porch of
As it veers in and out, back and forth,
Refusing to surround us and still the only
Thing we can see? Love once
Tipped the scales but now is shadowed, invisible,
Though mysteriously present, around somewhere.
But we know it cannot be sandwiched
Between two adjacent moments, that its windings
Lead nowhere except to further tributaries
And that these empty themselves into a vague
Sense of something that can never be known
Even though it seems likely that each of us
Knows what it is and is capable of
Communicating it to the other. But the look
Some wear as a sign makes one want to
Push forward ignoring the apparent
NaÏveté of the attempt, not caring
That no one is listening, since the light
Has been lit once and for all in their eyes
And is present, unimpaired, a permanent anomaly,
Awake and silent. On the surface of it
There seems no special reason why that light
Should be focused by love, or why
The city falling with its beautiful suburbs
Into space always less clear, less defined,
Should read as the support of its progress,
The easel upon which the drama unfolded
To its own satisfaction and to the end
Of our dreaming, as we had never imagined
It would end, in worn daylight with the painted
Promise showing through as a gage, a bond.
This nondescript, never-to-be defined daytime is
The secret of where it takes place
And we can no longer return to the various
Conflicting statements gathered, lapses of memory
Of the principal witnesses. All we know
Is that we are a little early, that
Today has that special, lapidary
Todayness that the sunlight reproduces
Faithfully in casting twig-shadows on blithe
Sidewalks. No previous day would have been like this.
I used to think they were all alike,
That the present always looked the same to everybody
But this confusion drains away as one
Is always cresting into one’s present.
Yet the “poetic,” straw-colored space
Of the long corridor that leads back to the painting,
Its darkening opposite–is this
Some figment of “art,” not to be imagined
As real, let alone special? Hasn’t it too its lair
In the present we are always escaping from
And falling back into, as the waterwheel of days
Pursues its uneventful, even serene course?
I think it is trying to say it is today
And we must get out of it even as the public
Is pushing through the museum now so as to
Be out by closing time. You can’t live there.
The gray glaze of the past attacks all know-how:
Secrets of wash and finish that took a lifetime
To learn and are reduced to the status of
Black-and-white illustrations in a book where colorplates
Are rare. That is, all time
Reduces to no special time. No one
Alludes to the change; to do so might
Involve calling attention to oneself
Which would augment the dread of not getting out
Before having seen the whole collection
(Except for the sculptures in the basement:
They are where they belong).
Our time gets to be veiled, compromised
By the portrait’s will to endure. It hints at
Our own, which we were hoping to keep hidden.
We don’t need paintings or
Doggerel written by mature poets when
The explosion is so precise, so fine.
Is there any point even in acknowledging
The existence of all that? Does it
Exist? Certainly the leisure to
Indulge stately pastimes doesn’t,
Any more. Today has no margins, the event arrives
Flush with its edges, is of the same substance,
Indistinguishable. “Play” is something else;
It exists, in a society specifically
Organized as a demonstration of itself.
There is no other way, and those assholes
Who would confuse everything with their mirror games
Which seem to multiply stakes and possibilities, or
At least confuse issues by means of an investing
Aura that would corrode the architecture
Of the whole in a haze of suppressed mockery,
Are beside the point. They are out of the game,
Which doesn’t exist until they are out of it.
It seems like a very hostile universe
But as the principle of each individual thing is
Hostile to, exists at the expense of all the others
As philosophers have often pointed out, at least
This thing, the mute, undivided present,
Has the justification of logic, which
In this instance isn’t a bad thing
Or wouldn’t be, if the way of telling
Didn’t somehow intrude, twisting the end result
Into a caricature of itself. This always
Happens, as in the game where
A whispered phrase passed around the room
Ends up as something completely different.
It is the principle that makes works of art so unlike
What the artist intended. Often he finds
He has omitted the thing he started out to say
In the first place. Seduced by flowers,
Explicit pleasures, he blames himself (though
Secretly satisfied with the result), imagining
He had a say in the matter and exercised
An option of which he was hardly conscious,
Unaware that necessity circumvents such resolutions.
So as to create something new
For itself, that there is no other way,
That the history of creation proceeds according to
Stringent laws, and that things
Do get done in this way, but never the things
We set out to accomplish and wanted so desperately
To see come into being. Parmigianino
Must have realized this as he worked at his
Life-obstructing task. One is forced to read
The perfectly plausible accomplishment of a purpose
Into the smooth, perhaps even bland (but so
Enigmatic) finish. Is there anything
To be serious about beyond this otherness
That gets included in the most ordinary
Forms of daily activity, changing everything
Slightly and profoundly, and tearing the matter
Of creation, any creation, not just artistic creation
Out of our hands, to install it on some monstrous, near
Peak, too close to ignore, too far
For one to intervene? This otherness, this
“Not-being-us” is all there is to look at
In the mirror, though no one can say
How it came to be this way. A ship
Flying unknown colors has entered the harbor.
You are allowing extraneous matters
To break up your day, cloud the focus
Of the crystal ball. Its scene drifts away
Like vapor scattered on the wind. The fertile
Thought-associations that until now came
So easily, appear no more, or rarely. Their
Colorings are less intense, washed out
By autumn rains and winds, spoiled, muddied,
Given back to you because they are worthless.
Yet we are such creatures of habit that their
Implications are still around en permanence, confusing
Issues. To be serious only about sex
Is perhaps one way, but the sands are hissing
As they approach the beginning of the big slide
Into what happened. This past
Is now here: the painter’s
Reflected face, in which we linger, receiving
Dreams and inspirations on an unassigned
Frequency, but the hues have turned metallic,
The curves and edges are not so rich. Each person
Has one big theory to explain the universe
But it doesn’t tell the whole story
And in the end it is what is outside him
That matters, to him and especially to us
Who have been given no help whatever
In decoding our own man-size quotient and must rely
On second-hand knowledge. Yet I know
That no one else’s taste is going to be
Any help, and might as well be ignored.
Once it seemed so perfect–gloss on the fine
Freckled skin, lips moistened as though about to part
Releasing speech, and the familiar look
Of clothes and furniture that one forgets.
This could have been our paradise: exotic
Refuge within an exhausted world, but that wasn’t
In the cards, because it couldn’t have been
The point. Aping naturalness may be the first step
Toward achieving an inner calm
But it is the first step only, and often
Remains a frozen gesture of welcome etched
On the air materializing behind it,
A convention. And we have really
No time for these, except to use them
For kindling. The sooner they are burnt up
The better for the roles we have to play.
Therefore I beseech you, withdraw that hand,
Offer it no longer as shield or greeting,
The shield of a greeting, Francesco:
There is room for one bullet in the chamber:
Our looking through the wrong end
Of the telescope as you fall back at a speed
Faster than that of light to flatten ultimately
Among the features of the room, an invitation
Never mailed, the “it was all a dream”
Syndrome, though the “all” tells tersely
Enough how it wasn’t. Its existence
Was real, though troubled, and the ache
Of this waking dream can never drown out
The diagram still sketched on the wind,
Chosen, meant for me and materialized
In the disguising radiance of my room.
We have seen the city; it is the gibbous
Mirrored eye of an insect. All things happen
On its balcony and are resumed within,
But the action is the cold, syrupy flow
Of a pageant. One feels too confined,
Sifting the April sunlight for clues,
In the mere stillness of the ease of its
Parameter. The hand holds no chalk
And each part of the whole falls off
And cannot know it knew, except
Here and there, in cold pockets
Of remembrance, whispers out of time.

Annotations: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

Line/Section	Annotation
“As Parmigianino did it, the right hand / Bigger than the head, thrust at the viewer”	Reference to Parmigianino’s famous self-portrait painted in a convex mirror, which distorts proportions.
“A few leaded panes, old beams, / Fur, pleated muslin, a coral ring run together”	Description of elements in the portrait, blending Renaissance and Baroque aesthetics.
“Vasari says, ‘Francesco one day set himself / To take his own portrait, looking at himself from that purpose / In a convex mirror, such as is used by barbers . . .'”	Quoting Giorgio Vasari’s “Lives of the Artists” to provide historical context.
“The glass chose to reflect only what he saw / Which was enough for his purpose: his image”	Exploration of the relationship between the artist’s perception and reality.
“The soul establishes itself. / But how far can it swim out through the eyes / And still return safely to its nest?”	Philosophical musing on the nature of the soul and self-perception.
“Pope Clement and his court were ‘stupefied’ / By it, according to Vasari”	Historical reference to the reception of Parmigianino’s work by Pope Clement VII.
“The surface / Of the mirror being convex, the distance increases / Significantly;”	Analysis of the effect of the convex mirror on perception and representation.
“Francesco, your hand is big enough / To wreck the sphere, and too big, / One would think, to weave delicate meshes”	Commentary on the tension between the physical and the delicate nature of artistic creation.
“But your eyes proclaim / That everything is surface. The surface is what’s there / And nothing can exist except what’s there.”	Reflection on the philosophical idea that surface reality is all that exists.
“Our landscape / Is alive with filiations, shuttlings; / Business is carried on by look, gesture,”	Imagery depicting the vibrant, interconnected nature of contemporary life.
“A breeze like the turning of a page / Brings back your face: the moment / Takes such a big bite out of the haze / Of pleasant intuition it comes after.”	Metaphor comparing a breeze to the turning of a page, symbolizing sudden clarity or realization.
“The gray glaze of the past attacks all know-how: / Secrets of wash and finish that took a lifetime / To learn”	Lamenting the loss of traditional artistic skills and techniques over time.
“Today has no margins, the event arrives / Flush with its edges, is of the same substance, / Indistinguishable.”	Comment on the modern experience of time and events as seamless and indistinct.
“Often he finds / He has omitted the thing he started out to say / In the first place.”	Reflection on the artistic process and how it often diverges from initial intentions.
“Parmigianino / Must have realized this as he worked at his / Life-obstructing task.”	Concluding thought on Parmigianino’s awareness of the inherent challenges in his artistic endeavor.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

Device	Example	Explanation	Function
Alliteration	“Bigger than the head”	Repetition of the initial consonant sound ‘b’	Creates a rhythmic effect and emphasizes the size disparity
Allusion	“As Parmigianino did it”	Reference to the artist Parmigianino	Connects the poem to historical art, enriching its context
Anaphora	“Of which the portrait / Is the reflection, of which the portrait”	Repetition of a phrase at the beginning of successive clauses	Emphasizes the reflective nature of the portrait and the poem
Assonance	“Glazed, embalmed, projected”	Repetition of vowel sounds ‘a’	Creates a musical quality and links the words together
Caesura	“One would like to stick one’s hand / Out of the globe, but its dimension,”	A natural pause in the middle of a line	Adds emphasis and reflects the contemplative tone of the poem
Consonance	“But your eyes proclaim”	Repetition of consonant sounds ‘r’ and ‘m’	Enhances the auditory appeal and emphasizes the proclamation
Enjambment	“But how far can it swim out through the eyes / And still return safely to its nest?”	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line	Creates a sense of movement and urgency
Epizeuxis	“Pope Clement and his court were ‘stupefied’ / By it”	Repetition of a word with no other words in between	Intensifies the reaction of Pope Clement and his court
Hyperbole	“Francesco, your hand is big enough / To wreck the sphere”	Exaggeration for effect	Emphasizes the surreal quality of the portrait
Imagery	“The sighing of autumn leaves thrashed by the wind”	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses	Creates a vivid picture of the scene and evokes emotion
Irony	“The soul is not a soul”	The opposite of what is expected	Highlights the paradoxical nature of existence
Metaphor	“A dozing whale on the sea bottom”	Direct comparison without using ‘like’ or ‘as’	Conveys the enormity and sluggishness of the hand
Metonymy	“The glass chose to reflect only what he saw”	A thing or concept is referred to by the name of something closely associated with that thing or concept	Attributes human-like decision-making to the glass, enhancing its significance in the poem
Oxymoron	“Perverse light”	A combination of contradictory terms	Highlights the paradox and complexity of perception
Paradox	“That the soul is not a soul”	A statement that contradicts itself	Explores the complexity and contradiction inherent in self-perception
Personification	“The soul establishes itself”	Giving human qualities to non-human entities	Attributes autonomy and consciousness to the soul
Simile	“The face, which swims / Toward and away like the hand”	Comparison using ‘like’ or ‘as’	Illustrates the fluidity and movement in the portrait
Symbolism	“A peculiar slant / Of memory”	Use of a concrete object to represent an abstract idea	Symbolizes the subjective and elusive nature of memory
Synecdoche	“Riders of the motion that swings the face”	A part is made to represent the whole	The ‘face’ represents the entire self-portrait and identity
Tone	“The pity of it smarts, / Makes hot tears spurt”	The general character or attitude of a place, piece of writing, situation, etc.	Reflects the melancholy and contemplative mood of the poem

Themes: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

• Art and Perception: The poem extensively explores the nature of art and how it shapes and distorts perception. Ashbery uses Parmigianino’s self-portrait as a metaphor for the ways art manipulates reality, emphasizing the distorted proportions caused by the convex mirror. This distortion is highlighted in lines such as, “As Parmigianino did it, the right hand / Bigger than the head, thrust at the viewer,” which showcases the deliberate alteration of physical dimensions to create a specific artistic effect.
• Parmigianino’s self-portrait as a symbol
• Distortion of reality through art
• Visual manipulation and perception
• Philosophical Musings on Self and Soul: Ashbery delves into philosophical reflections on the nature of the self and the soul, questioning how far the soul can extend beyond the physical body. This theme is poignantly expressed in lines like, “The soul establishes itself. / But how far can it swim out through the eyes / And still return safely to its nest?” Here, Ashbery contemplates the limits of self-perception and the essence of identity beyond the physical form.
• Contemplation of the soul’s reach
• Identity beyond physical appearance
• Limits of self-perception
• Temporal Displacement and Historical Context: The poem juxtaposes different time periods, reflecting on the loss of traditional artistic skills and the seamless nature of contemporary experiences. Ashbery laments, “The gray glaze of the past attacks all know-how: / Secrets of wash and finish that took a lifetime / To learn,” indicating a disconnection from the meticulous craftsmanship of the past. This theme underscores the impact of time on art and perception.
• Juxtaposition of past and present
• Loss of traditional skills
• Impact of time on art and experience
• Modernity and Fragmented Reality: Ashbery captures the fragmented and interconnected nature of modern life, where events blend seamlessly without distinct boundaries. He remarks, “Today has no margins, the event arrives / Flush with its edges, is of the same substance, / Indistinguishable.” This observation highlights the blurred lines in contemporary experiences and the challenge of finding distinct meaning in a constantly shifting reality.
• Fragmentation of modern life
• Blurred boundaries of events
• Search for meaning in contemporary experiences

Critical Questions about “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

• How does Ashbery’s poem challenge the traditional concept of the self-portrait through its engagement with Parmigianino’s painting?
• Ashbery’s poem doesn’t merely describe the painting; it interrogates the very act of self-representation. While Parmigianino’s convex mirror distorts the physical image, Ashbery suggests that the distortion lies deeper, in the gap between the self as subject and the self as object of representation. Lines like “The soul is a captive, treated humanely, kept in suspension” and “The soul is not a soul, / Has no secret, is small” question the ability of any portrait, be it painted or poetic, to capture the essence of a person. This challenges the notion that a self-portrait can offer a definitive or authentic representation of the self.
• How does Ashbery explore the relationship between art, perception, and reality in “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror”?
• The poem delves into the complexities of how art mediates our perception of reality, particularly self-perception. The convex mirror acts as a symbol of both distortion and revelation, showing us a version of ourselves that is both familiar and unfamiliar. The lines “everything is surface” and “there are no recesses in the room, only alcoves” suggest that the visible world is all we have access to, yet it is also constantly shifting and elusive. Through the poem’s engagement with Parmigianino’s painting, Ashbery questions whether art can ever fully capture the truth of reality, or if it inevitably distorts and reshapes our understanding of the world.
• How does the poem’s structure and style contribute to its overall meaning and effect?
• Ashbery’s poem is characterized by its fragmented structure, shifting perspectives, and digressive nature. The poem weaves together ekphrastic descriptions of the painting with personal reflections, philosophical musings, and historical allusions. This fragmented form mirrors the fragmented nature of the self, the difficulty of capturing it in a unified representation. The poem’s shifting perspectives, sometimes adopting the voice of the poet, sometimes that of Parmigianino, or even the painting itself, create a sense of ambiguity and open-endedness, inviting readers to actively participate in the creation of meaning.
• What is the role of time and memory in Ashbery’s exploration of the self in “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror”?
• The poem grapples with the elusive nature of time and memory, suggesting that our understanding of the self is constantly shaped and reshaped by the passage of time and the accumulation of memories. The lines “A peculiar slant of memory that intrudes on the dreaming model” and “Whose curved hand controls, Francesco, the turning seasons and the thoughts that peel off and fly away…” highlight the role of memory in both distorting and preserving our sense of self. Time is portrayed as both a destructive and creative force, eroding the past while simultaneously giving rise to new possibilities for self-understanding. The poem suggests that our relationship to time and memory is a central aspect of our identity, shaping who we are and how we see ourselves.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
Art and Perception	How does Ashbery use Parmigianino’s self-portrait to explore the relationship between art and reality?	Ashbery uses the distortion in Parmigianino’s self-portrait to highlight the manipulative nature of art in shaping and altering our perception of reality.
Philosophical Musings on Self and Soul	What does the poem suggest about the nature of the self and the soul?	“Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” suggests that the soul’s essence transcends physical form, raising questions about the boundaries of self-perception and identity.
Temporal Displacement and Historical Context	How does Ashbery address the impact of time on artistic skills and perception?	Ashbery contrasts the meticulous craftsmanship of the past with the seamless, fragmented nature of contemporary experiences, highlighting the temporal displacement in art and perception.
Modernity and Fragmented Reality	In what ways does the poem reflect the fragmented and interconnected nature of modern life?	The poem portrays modern life as a series of seamless, indistinguishable events, emphasizing the difficulty in finding distinct meaning in a fragmented, interconnected reality.

Literary Works Similar to “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

1. “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot: Like Ashbery, Eliot’s poem explores fragmented perceptions and the complexities of modern existence.
2. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: This poem delves into the introspective and fragmented nature of self-perception, similar to Ashbery’s work.
3. “The Idea of Order at Key West” by Wallace Stevens: Stevens’ poem examines the relationship between reality and artistic creation, akin to Ashbery’s themes.
4. “The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens: Stevens’ exploration of art and reality mirrors Ashbery’s reflections on perception and representation.
5. “Directive” by Robert Frost: Frost’s poem navigates the blurred lines between past and present, echoing Ashbery’s temporal displacement themes.

Suggested Readings: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

Books:

• Ashbery, John. Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror. Penguin Books, 1975.
• Lehman, David. The Last Avant-Garde: The Making of the New York School of Poets. Doubleday, 1998.
• Shapiro, David. John Ashbery: An Introduction to the Poetry. Columbia University Press, 1979.

Web Links:

• Poetry Foundation: John Ashbery: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/john-ashbery
• Academy of American Poets: John Ashbery: https://poets.org/poet/john-ashbery

Representative Quotations of “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“As Parmigianino did it, the right hand / Bigger than the head, thrust at the viewer / And swerving easily away”	Describes the painting technique used by Parmigianino, focusing on the distortion created by the convex mirror.	Ekphrasis and the relationship between visual and literary arts
“The glass chose to reflect only what he saw”	Highlights the subjective nature of perception and reflection.	Subjectivity and phenomenology
“Your eyes proclaim / That everything is surface”	Suggests the superficial nature of appearances and the depth beneath them.	Postmodernism and surface/depth dichotomy
“But your eyes proclaim / That everything is surface. The surface is what’s there / And nothing can exist except what’s there”	Reinforces the idea that only the visible surface is acknowledged, denying deeper meanings.	Postmodern skepticism of depth and meaning
“The soul establishes itself. / But how far can it swim out through the eyes / And still return safely to its nest?”	Questions the limits of the soul’s expression through physical form and perception.	Metaphysics and the limits of self-representation
“It is as though my life will never get better than / This, never reach this stage of being lived / And presented, which is the happiness / Of the artist looking at the finished work”	Reflects on the fleeting nature of perfection and artistic achievement.	Aesthetic theory and the temporality of art
“We have seen the city; it is the gibbous / Mirrored eye of an insect.”	Uses a surreal image to convey the distorted and fragmented perception of reality.	Surrealism and fragmented perception

Introduction: “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson

“Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson first appeared in 1897 in the collection The Children of the Night. The poem, one of Robinson’s most famous, is noted for its stark simplicity of language and form, which effectively underscores the tragic irony of the narrative. It tells the story of a wealthy, admired man who seemingly has everything, yet takes his own life, challenging readers’ assumptions about happiness and success. The poem’s enduring appeal lies in its exploration of the hidden depths of human despair, the deceptive nature of appearances, and the universal longing for connection and understanding.

Text: “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson

Annotations: “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson

Stanza	Annotation
1	Introduces Richard Cory, a wealthy and refined gentleman who commands attention and admiration from the public.
2	Describes Cory’s elegant appearance and demeanor, describing him as “quietly arrayed” and “human” in conversation, but also captivating and impressive.
3	Emphasizes Cory’s wealth and refinement, suggesting that he has everything anyone could want, leading the public to envy his position.
4	Contrasts the public’s struggles and hardships with Cory’s apparent perfection, leading to a shocking revelation that Cory has committed suicide, suggesting that appearances can be deceiving.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson

Device	Example and Explanation	Function
Allusion	“Richer than a king” refers to Cory’s wealth.	Highlights Cory’s extreme wealth and status.
Anaphora	“And he was always…”	Emphasizes the consistency of Cory’s demeanor.
Assonance	“He was a gentleman from sole to crown.”	Creates a smooth and melodious flow in describing Cory.
Consonance	“Good-morning,” “glittered”	Enhances the musical quality of the poem.
Enjambment	“And he was rich—yes, richer than a king—” / “And admirably schooled in every grace:”	Carries the meaning over from one line to the next.
Hyperbole	“Richer than a king”	Emphasizes Cory’s immense wealth.
Irony	Cory, seemingly perfect and enviable, takes his own life.	Contrasts appearance with reality for dramatic effect.
Metaphor	“Clean favored, and imperially slim.”	Describes Cory’s appearance with royalty.
Onomatopoeia	“Glittered”	Implies a sparkling or shining sound as Cory walks.
Oxymoron	“Imperially slim”	Combines contradictory terms for emphasis.
Paradox	“And went without the meat, and cursed the bread;”	Contradicts the initial admiration for Cory’s life.
Personification	“And he was always human when he talked;”	Attributes human qualities to Cory’s speech.
Repetition	“And he was always…”	Emphasizes Cory’s consistent demeanor.
Rhyme	“Slim” and “him”	Creates a pattern and enhances the poem’s musicality.
Simile	“Richer than a king”	Compares Cory’s wealth directly to that of a king.
Symbolism	“Good-morning,” “glittered”	Represents Cory’s polite greeting and shining presence.
Synecdoche	“From sole to crown”	Refers to Cory’s entire person by mentioning parts.
Tone	The poem’s tone shifts from admiration to shock and irony.	Sets the emotional atmosphere of the poem.
Understatement	“Went home and put a bullet through his head.”	Minimizes the impact of Cory’s tragic action.

Themes: “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson

1. The Illusion of Happiness: The poem primarily focuses on the deceptive nature of appearances. Richard Cory is presented as the embodiment of success, with the townspeople viewing him as the epitome of happiness due to his wealth, charm, and social standing. The lines “clean favored, and imperially slim” and “glittered when he walked” create an image of perfection and allure. However, the shocking ending, “Went home and put a bullet through his head,” shatters this illusion, highlighting that material wealth and external appearances do not guarantee happiness.
2. Social Disparity and Envy: The poem also explores the theme of social inequality. The “people on the pavement” represent the working class, who admire and envy Cory’s seemingly perfect life. The lines “we thought that he was everything/ To make us wish that we were in his place” underscore this yearning for a better life. Yet, the poem suggests that envy and comparison can be misleading, as Cory’s internal struggles remain hidden from the outside world.
3. Isolation and Loneliness: Despite his outward charm and social interactions, Richard Cory’s suicide suggests a profound sense of isolation. The poem does not delve into his inner thoughts, but his actions imply a deep-seated loneliness and despair. The phrase “always quietly arrayed” may hint at a reserved nature that prevented him from forming genuine connections, ultimately leading to his tragic end.
4. The Futility of Materialism: The poem critiques the pursuit of material wealth as the sole source of happiness. Richard Cory’s riches and possessions ultimately fail to fulfill him, leading to his demise. The lines “So on we worked, and waited for the light,/ And went without the meat, and cursed the bread” depict the townspeople’s struggle for basic necessities, contrasting sharply with Cory’s abundance. The poem implies that true happiness lies beyond material possessions, in genuine connections and inner peace.

Literary Theories and “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson

1. Marxist Theory: A Marxist reading of “Richard Cory” would focus on the socioeconomic disparities between Richard Cory and the townspeople. Cory is presented as a symbol of the capitalist elite, “richer than a king,” while the townspeople are the exploited working class, “went without the meat, and cursed the bread.” The poem highlights the stark contrast between their lives, suggesting that Cory’s wealth is built upon their labor. However, the Marxist critique oversimplifies the poem’s message. Cory’s suicide complicates the narrative, suggesting that wealth doesn’t necessarily lead to happiness or fulfillment, challenging the idea that economic status is the sole determinant of well-being.
2. Psychoanalytic Theory: A psychoanalytic approach might interpret Richard Cory’s suicide as a manifestation of repressed psychological trauma or a deep-seated existential crisis. The poem doesn’t explicitly reveal Cory’s inner life, but his outward perfection could be a mask concealing inner turmoil. The phrase “always quietly arrayed” may suggest a guarded personality, hinting at the suppression of emotions that ultimately lead to his tragic end. However, this interpretation relies on speculation about Cory’s psychology, as the poem offers no concrete evidence of his internal struggles.
3. New Criticism/Formalism: A formalist reading would analyze the poem’s structure, language, and literary devices to derive meaning. The poem’s consistent ABAB rhyme scheme and iambic pentameter create a sense of order and predictability, mirroring the townspeople’s perception of Cory’s life. The sudden shift in the final stanza, with Cory’s suicide, disrupts this order, highlighting the unexpected nature of his actions. However, this approach might overlook the poem’s social commentary and the broader implications of Cory’s tragedy. It focuses solely on the text itself, neglecting the historical and cultural context that informs the poem’s meaning.

Critical Questions about “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson

• What is the significance of Richard Cory’s portrayal as a character?
• Edwin Arlington Robinson’s portrayal of Richard Cory as a seemingly perfect and enviable figure serves as a critique of societal perceptions of wealth and success. Cory is depicted as wealthy, cultured, and admired by those around him, yet his tragic end reveals the stark contrast between outward appearances and internal reality. This portrayal underscores Robinson’s commentary on the dangers of placing too much value on external markers of success without considering the complexities of a person’s inner life. By juxtaposing Cory’s admired status with his ultimate despair, Robinson prompts readers to reflect on the limitations of material wealth and the often-hidden burdens carried by individuals deemed successful in society.
• How does the use of irony contribute to the poem’s message?
• Irony plays a pivotal role in “Richard Cory,” fundamentally shaping the poem’s message about the disconnect between appearance and reality. Cory is initially presented as a flawless and admired figure, admired by all who encounter him. However, the poem’s concluding lines reveal the shocking truth of Cory’s suicide, turning the initial admiration into a profound irony. This irony highlights the superficiality of societal judgments based solely on external appearances and wealth. Robinson employs irony not merely for dramatic effect but to provoke deeper contemplation on the complexities of human existence and the limitations of outward success as a measure of happiness.
• What thematic contrasts are explored in the poem?
• “Richard Cory” explores several thematic contrasts that enrich its narrative depth. The most striking is the contrast between appearance and reality. Cory is depicted as the embodiment of success, wealth, and social admiration, yet his tragic end reveals the unseen struggles and emotional turmoil beneath his composed exterior. Another thematic contrast is between social classes and perceptions of happiness. While the townspeople envy Cory’s life and status, his ultimate act challenges the assumption that material wealth equates to fulfillment. Additionally, the poem contrasts the public persona of Cory with his private suffering, underscoring the disparity between outward appearances and inner reality.
• How does the poem’s structure enhance its thematic exploration?
• Robinson’s choice of a traditional quatrain form with an ABAB rhyme scheme and consistent meter contributes to the poem’s thematic exploration in several ways. The structured form initially mirrors the orderly and seemingly perfect life of Richard Cory himself. However, the rigid structure also serves as a stark contrast to the underlying tension and eventual disruption revealed in the poem’s conclusion. The regularity of the form underscores the facade of perfection maintained by Cory, while the abruptness of his tragic end disrupts the poem’s rhythmic flow, mirroring the disruption of societal norms and expectations. Thus, the poem’s structure not only enhances the narrative’s impact but also reinforces its thematic exploration of appearances versus realities and the fragility of human contentment.

Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
Social Commentary on Wealth	How does Robinson critique societal attitudes towards wealth and success in “Richard Cory”?	In “Richard Cory,” Robinson critiques societal perceptions of wealth by juxtaposing Richard Cory’s admired exterior with his tragic reality, revealing the superficiality of social judgments based on material success.
Irony and Its Role	What role does irony play in shaping the message of “Richard Cory”?	Irony in “Richard Cory” underscores the disparity between appearances and realities, challenging the assumption that outward success equates to happiness and prompting a deeper reflection on the complexities of human emotions.
Characterization of Richard Cory	How does Robinson characterize Richard Cory in the poem?	Robinson portrays Richard Cory as a figure of admiration and envy among the townspeople, emphasizing his outward perfection while subtly hinting at the inner turmoil hidden beneath his facade.
Theme of Alienation and Isolation	How does “Richard Cory” explore the theme of alienation and isolation?	“Richard Cory” explores themes of alienation and isolation through Cory’s tragic fate, revealing the loneliness and disconnect that can exist even in the midst of outward success, thereby challenging conventional notions of happiness and fulfillment.

Literary Works Similar to “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson

1. “We Wear the Mask” by Paul Laurence Dunbar: This poem, like “Richard Cory,” explores the theme of hidden suffering behind a facade of normalcy, as individuals wear masks to conceal their pain from society.
2. “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost: Although more focused on individual choices, this poem shares the thematic concern of the unseen aspects of life, as the speaker contemplates the paths not taken and the unknown possibilities they represent.
3. “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley: Both poems reflect on the fleeting nature of power and glory, with Ozymandias’ crumbled statue serving as a stark reminder of the impermanence of human achievements.
4. “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe: While darker in tone, this poem shares the element of a sudden and tragic end, as the raven’s presence symbolizes the speaker’s descent into despair and grief.
5. “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” by Dylan Thomas: Both poems grapple with the theme of mortality, as the speakers urge defiance against death and a celebration of life, even in the face of darkness.

Suggested Readings: “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson

1. Donaldson, Scott. Edwin Arlington Robinson: A Poet’s Life. Columbia University Press, 2007.
2. Robinson, Edwin Arlington. The Children of the Night. Richard G. Badger & Company, 1897.
3. Poetry Foundation. “Edwin Arlington Robinson.” Accessed 2 June 2023. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/edwin-arlington-robinson
4. Gradesaver. “Richard Cory Study Guide.” Accessed 2 June 2023.

Representative Quotations of “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Whenever Richard Cory went down town, / We people on the pavement looked at him:”	Introduces Cory as an object of admiration and envy for the working-class townspeople.	Marxist: Emphasizes the class divide between Cory and the “people on the pavement.”
“He was a gentleman from sole to crown, / Clean favored, and imperially slim.”	Describes Cory’s physical appearance, emphasizing his elegance and refinement.	New Criticism/Formalism: The language creates a vivid image of Cory’s seemingly perfect exterior.
“And he was rich—yes, richer than a king— / And admirably schooled in every grace:”	Highlights Cory’s wealth and social status, reinforcing his position as an idealized figure.	Sociological: Explores the social dynamics of envy and admiration for those with higher status.
“So on we worked, and waited for the light, / And went without the meat, and cursed the bread;”	Contrasts the townspeople’s daily struggles with Cory’s privileged life, emphasizing their hardship and discontent.	Marxist: Underscores the exploitation of the working class and their yearning for a better life.
“And Richard Cory, one calm summer night, / Went home and put a bullet through his head.”	The shocking conclusion reveals the hidden despair beneath Cory’s facade, challenging the assumption that wealth equates to happiness.	Psychoanalytic: Suggests the possibility of repressed trauma or a deep existential crisis lurking beneath Cory’s seemingly perfect life.

Introduction: “Remember” by Christina Rossetti

“Remember” by Christina Rossetti was first published in 1862 in her collection Goblin Market and Other Poems. The poem is a Petrarchan sonnet, known for its emotional depth and evocative language. It explores themes of love, loss, and remembrance, with a focus on the speaker’s plea to be remembered after death. The poem’s enduring appeal lies in its universal themes, poignant imagery, and the musicality of its rhyme and meter.

Text: “Remember” by Christina Rossetti

Annotations: “Remember” by Christina Rossetti

Text	Annotation
Remember me when I am gone away,	The speaker asks to be remembered after their departure.
Gone far away into the silent land;	They emphasize their departure to a place of silence or death.
When you can no more hold me by the hand,	Reflects on physical absence and the inability to be held or touched.
Nor I half turn to go yet turning stay.	Despite leaving, there’s a lingering connection or hesitation.
Remember me when no more day by day	Requests to be remembered when daily interactions cease.
You tell me of our future that you plann’d:	Refers to shared plans and discussions about the future.
Only remember me; you understand	Simplifies the request to remember, assuming understanding.
It will be late to counsel then or pray.	Suggests that after departure, advice or prayers won’t be effective.
Yet if you should forget me for a while	Acknowledges the possibility of being forgotten temporarily.
And afterwards remember, do not grieve:	If remembered later, advises against sorrow.
For if the darkness and corruption leave	Implies that even after death, traces of the speaker’s thoughts may remain.
A vestige of the thoughts that once I had,	A trace or remnants of their past thoughts and emotions.
Better by far you should forget and smile	Recommends forgetting with happiness rather than remembering with sadness.
Than that you should remember and be sad.	Emphasizes the preference for the listener’s happiness over sadness in remembering.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Remember” by Christina Rossetti

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from the Poem	Explanation	Function within the Line/Poem
Anaphora	“Remember me”	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or lines.	Emphasizes the speaker’s central plea, creates a sense of urgency and emotional intensity.
Assonance	“Gone away”	Repetition of vowel sounds within words.	Creates a sense of musicality and internal rhyme, adds to the poem’s melancholic tone.
Caesura	“Gone far away into the silent land; // When you can no more hold me by the hand”	A pause or break within a line of poetry, often marked by punctuation.	Creates a sense of hesitation or interruption, emphasizes the separation between life and death.
Consonance	“land” and “hand”	Repetition of consonant sounds within or at the end of words.	Creates a subtle sense of rhyme and connection between words, emphasizes the physicality of the relationship.
Diction	“silent land,” “darkness and corruption”	Choice of words and phrases.	Creates a somber and melancholic tone, reflects the themes of death and decay.
Enjambment	“Nor I half turn to go yet turning stay. / Remember me when no more day by day”	Continuation of a sentence or phrase across multiple lines.	Creates a sense of fluidity and movement, emphasizes the speaker’s lingering presence in the listener’s memory.
Hyperbaton	“Better by far you should forget and smile”	Inversion of the usual word order.	Creates a sense of emphasis and drama, highlights the speaker’s selfless wish for the listener’s happiness.
Imagery	“darkness and corruption,” “vestige of the thoughts”	Use of vivid and descriptive language to create mental images.	Appeals to the senses, evokes emotions and creates a sense of atmosphere.
Irony	“Better by far you should forget and smile / Than that you should remember and be sad”	Expression of one’s meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite.	Creates a sense of poignancy and paradox, emphasizes the complexity of the speaker’s emotions.
Metaphor	“silent land”	Comparison of two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	Represents death as a distant and unknown place, adds to the poem’s sense of mystery and finality.
Meter	Iambic pentameter (five pairs of unstressed and stressed syllables per line)	Creates a regular rhythm and pattern, adds to the poem’s musicality and emotional impact.
Oxymoron	“half turn to go yet turning stay”	Combination of contradictory terms.	Creates a sense of tension and ambiguity, reflects the speaker’s conflicted feelings about leaving.
Personification	“darkness and corruption leave”	Attribution of human characteristics to inanimate objects or abstract concepts.	Creates a sense of agency and power, adds to the poem’s emotional intensity.
Repetition	“Remember me”	Repeated use of sounds, words, or ideas for effect and emphasis.	Emphasizes the speaker’s central plea, creates a sense of urgency and emotional intensity.
Rhyme	“away,” “stay,” “day,” “pray” (ABBA)	Repetition of sounds at the ends of words.	Creates a sense of musicality and structure, adds to the poem’s emotional impact.
Symbolism	“darkness and corruption,” “vestige of the thoughts”	Use of objects, people, or places to represent abstract ideas or qualities.	Adds depth and layers of meaning to the poem, invites interpretation and reflection.
Volta	“Yet if you should forget me for a while”	Turning point in a sonnet, often marked by a shift in tone or argument.	Introduces a new perspective or idea, creates a sense of surprise or contrast.
Paradox	“Better by far you should forget and smile / Than that you should remember and be sad”	A statement that appears to contradict itself but may nonetheless be true.	Creates a sense of poignancy and complexity, emphasizes the speaker’s selfless wish for the listener’s happiness.

Themes: “Remember” by Christina Rossetti

1. Mortality and the Inevitability of Death: The poem grapples with the inevitability of death, depicted as a journey to a “silent land” where the speaker will be “gone away.” The speaker’s awareness of mortality prompts a heartfelt plea to be remembered, underscoring the human desire to leave a lasting impact even after physical existence ceases. The phrase “When you can no more hold me by the hand” poignantly captures the finality of death and the separation it brings.
2. The Power and Importance of Memory: Memory emerges as a central theme, with the speaker repeatedly urging the addressee to “remember me.” Memory serves as a bridge between the living and the departed, allowing the speaker’s essence to persist in the thoughts and emotions of the bereaved. The lines “Only remember me; you understand / It will be late to counsel then or pray” highlight the urgency of remembrance, as it becomes the sole connection after death.
3. The Ambiguity of Grief and Remembrance: While remembrance is cherished, the poem also acknowledges the potential pain it can inflict. The speaker paradoxically wishes for the addressee to forget if remembering brings sorrow, expressing a selfless desire for their happiness. The lines “Better by far you should forget and smile / Than that you should remember and be sad” reveal a conflict between the longing for remembrance and the recognition that forgetting might be a kinder option.
4. Love and Loss: The poem is permeated with the underlying theme of love and the profound loss that accompanies death. The speaker’s plea to be remembered is rooted in a deep emotional connection with the addressee, evident in the intimate references to shared plans and conversations. The poem’s emotional resonance stems from the universal experience of love, loss, and the enduring power of memory to preserve the bonds that transcend physical separation.

Literary Theories and “Remember” by Christina Rossetti

• Reader-Response Theory: This theory suggests that meaning in literature is created through the interaction between the text and the reader. In “Remember,” “Remember me when no more day by day” invites the reader to imagine the scenario of gradual absence and fading memory, prompting them to reflect on personal experiences of loss and remembrance. The poem’s power lies in how readers emotionally engage with its themes of separation and memory, influencing their interpretation based on their own memories and emotional responses. This theory underscores the poem’s effectiveness in evoking varied reader responses, ranging from nostalgia to contemplation of mortality, as each reader brings unique experiences to their interpretation.
• Feminist Theory: Viewing the poem through a feminist lens, one can explore how Rossetti challenges traditional gender roles and constructs. “Nor I half turn to go yet turning stay” suggests a nuanced approach to departure, where the speaker exhibits agency in their farewell. The poem subverts expectations by prioritizing the speaker’s desire to be remembered on their terms, rather than conforming to societal expectations of female passivity. By asserting her agency in requesting remembrance despite absence, Rossetti’s speaker asserts a feminist perspective on memory and autonomy, challenging conventional notions of feminine vulnerability.
• • Psychoanalytic Theory (Freudian): This theory explores the poem’s themes through the lens of unconscious desires and fears. “Better by far you should forget and smile / Than that you should remember and be sad” reflects a psychological defense mechanism against the pain of loss. The speaker’s advice can be seen as a manifestation of unconscious guilt or fear of burdening the loved one with sadness after death. Freudian theory illuminates the complex emotions underlying the speaker’s plea, suggesting a subconscious struggle between the desire for remembrance and the fear of causing emotional distress, highlighting deeper psychological dimensions within the poem.

Critical Questions about “Remember” by Christina Rossetti

• How does the poem explore the tension between memory and emotional detachment?
• The line “Yet if you should forget me for a while / And afterwards remember, do not grieve” highlights this tension. It prompts reflection on whether forgetting is a form of emotional self-preservation or a betrayal of memory. The speaker’s plea suggests a nuanced approach to remembrance, advocating for a balance between honoring the past and embracing the present. This question invites readers to consider the complexities of memory—whether forgetting serves as a coping mechanism against grief or as a means to preserve emotional well-being.
• In what ways does the poem challenge traditional notions of mourning and loss?
• The lines “Better by far you should forget and smile / Than that you should remember and be sad” challenge conventional mourning practices. They suggest an unconventional approach where forgetting is seen as preferable to remembering with sorrow. This challenges the expectation that remembrance must always be accompanied by grief, proposing instead a path to emotional healing through selective memory. This question encourages exploration of how Rossetti redefines the relationship between memory and mourning, proposing a perspective that prioritizes emotional well-being over traditional expressions of grief.
• How does the speaker negotiate agency and vulnerability in the act of remembrance?
• The line “Only remember me; you understand” underscores the speaker’s agency in dictating the terms of remembrance. It raises questions about whether the speaker’s request for remembrance signifies vulnerability or empowerment. This negotiation of agency complicates traditional gender roles and societal expectations, suggesting that remembrance can be an act of strength and self-affirmation. By interrogating the dynamics of agency and vulnerability within remembrance, this question prompts a deeper examination of power dynamics and autonomy in the speaker’s plea.
• What role does temporality play in shaping the poem’s thematic concerns?
• • The line “It will be late to counsel then or pray” highlights the poem’s preoccupation with the passage of time. It invites consideration of how temporality influences the speaker’s perspective on memory and separation. The poem’s temporal dimension underscores the urgency of remembrance and the inevitability of change, prompting readers to reflect on the fleeting nature of human connection and the lasting impact of memory. By examining how temporality shapes the poem’s thematic concerns, this question invites exploration of how time influences the speaker’s emotional landscape and the reader’s interpretation of loss and remembrance.

Literary Works Similar to Poem

Suggested Readings: “Remember” by Christina Rossetti

1. Adams, Melissa. “Angels and Demons: Christina Rossetti’s Goblin Market as a Social Critique of the Victorian Ideal of the “Angel in the House” and the Pre-Raphaelites’ Response to that Ideal.” (2008).
2. Leighton, Angela. Victorian Women Poets: Writing Against the Heart. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992. Print.
3. Marsh, Jan. Christina Rossetti: A Literary Biography. London: Pimlico, 1995. Print.Rosenblum, Dolores. Christina Rossetti: The Poetry of Endurance. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1986. Print.
4. The Poetry Foundation. “Remember.” 2023, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45000/remember-56d224509b7ae.

Representative Quotations of “Remember” by Christina Rossetti

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Remember me when I am gone away, / Gone far away into the silent land;”	Opening lines, sets the tone of longing and impending separation.	Psychoanalytic: Reflects the speaker’s fear of being forgotten and the unconscious desire for immortality through memory.
“When you can no more hold me by the hand, / Nor I half turn to go yet turning stay.”	Expresses the physical separation of death and the lingering emotional connection.	Feminist: Highlights the traditional female role of emotional support and the pain of losing that connection.
“Only remember me; you understand / It will be late to counsel then or pray.”	Emphasizes the importance of remembrance over religious rituals in preserving the speaker’s memory.	New Criticism: Focuses on the poem’s internal structure and the tension between remembrance and forgetting.
“Yet if you should forget me for a while / And afterwards remember, do not grieve:”	Acknowledges the pain of grief but encourages the listener to find peace in remembering the positive aspects of the speaker’s life.	Humanistic: Celebrates the human capacity for love and resilience in the face of loss.
“Better by far you should forget and smile / Than that you should remember and be sad.”	Concludes with a paradoxical statement, prioritizing the listener’s happiness over the speaker’s desire to be remembered.	Post-Structuralist: Challenges the notion of a fixed meaning, suggesting that the poem’s interpretation is open to multiple readings.

Introduction: “Remains” by Simon Armitage

“Remains” by Simon Armitage, first published in 2008 in his acclaimed collection The Not Dead, possesses several notable qualities that contribute to its enduring impact. The poem is characterized by its raw and unflinching portrayal of trauma, utilizing vivid imagery and visceral language to convey the psychological turmoil experienced by the soldier narrator. Armitage employs a conversational tone and direct language, enhancing the poem’s accessibility and emotional resonance. The structure of the poem, with its irregular stanzas and enjambment, mirrors the fragmented nature of memory and the narrator’s struggle to process his experiences. Additionally, the poem’s exploration of guilt, remorse, and the lingering effects of violence serves as a powerful commentary on the psychological toll of war.

Text: “Remains” by Simon Armitage

On another occasion, we get sent out 
to tackle looters raiding a bank. 
And one of them legs it up the road, 
probably armed, possibly not. 

Well myself and somebody else and somebody else 
are all of the same mind, 
so all three of us open fire. 
Three of a kind all letting fly, and I swear 

I see every round as it rips through his life – 
I see broad daylight on the other side. 
So we’ve hit this looter a dozen times 
and he’s there on the ground, sort of inside out, 

pain itself, the image of agony. 
One of my mates goes by 
and tosses his guts back into his body. 
Then he’s carted off in the back of a lorry. 

End of story, except not really. 
His blood-shadow stays on the street, and out on patrol 
I walk right over it week after week.
Then I’m home on leave. But I blink 

and he bursts again through the doors of the bank. 
Sleep, and he’s probably armed, possibly not. 
Dream, and he’s torn apart by a dozen rounds. 
And the drink and the drugs won’t flush him out – 

he’s here in my head when I close my eyes, 
dug in behind enemy lines, 
not left for dead in some distant, sun-stunned, sand-smothered land 
or six-feet-under in desert sand,

 but near to the knuckle, here and now, 
his bloody life in my bloody hands.

Annotations of “Remains” by Simon Armitage

Stanza	Annotation
Stanza 1	The speaker describes being sent to confront looters at a bank. One of the looters runs away, and the speaker and two others open fire, possibly killing him.
Stanza 2	The speaker vividly recalls the moment of shooting, seeing each bullet hit the looter and the impact it has on his body.
Stanza 3	The looter is severely wounded (“inside out”) and in immense pain. One of the speaker’s comrades attempts to help by putting his intestines back into his body. The wounded man is then taken away in a truck.
Stanza 4	Despite the incident, the memory of the looter and the events haunt the speaker even after returning home (“on leave”). The memory replays in the speaker’s mind, disrupting his sleep and dreams.
Stanza 5	The speaker struggles with the traumatic memories, unable to escape them even with alcohol and drugs. The looter’s presence persists in the speaker’s thoughts, feeling like he is still fighting a battle.
Stanza 6	The poem ends with the speaker reflecting on the ongoing impact of the incident. The looter’s life and death weigh heavily on the speaker’s conscience, feeling responsible for his fate.

Literary and Poetic Devices in “Remains” by Simon Armitage

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from the Poem	Explanation	Function
1. Anaphora	“probably armed, possibly not” (repeated)	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.	Emphasizes the uncertainty and moral ambiguity surrounding the shooting, intensifying the speaker’s guilt and confusion.
2. Colloquial Language	“legs it,” “letting fly,” “guts,” “mates”	Use of informal, everyday language.	Creates a conversational tone, making the poem feel like a personal confession, increasing its emotional impact.
3. Enjambment	“I swear // I see every round as it rips through his life”	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line, couplet, or stanza.	Builds tension and momentum, mirroring the speaker’s fragmented memory and the chaotic nature of the event.
4. Imagery	“broad daylight on the other side,” “sort of inside out”	Vivid descriptive language that appeals to the senses (sight, sound, smell, touch, taste).	Creates a visceral and graphic portrayal of the shooting, intensifying the emotional impact and the reader’s sense of the soldier’s trauma.
5. Irony	“End of story, except not really”	A statement or situation where the meaning is contradicted by the appearance or presentation of the idea.	Underscores the lasting psychological impact of the event, highlighting the irony of the phrase “end of story.”
6. Juxtaposition	“sun-stunned” and “sand-smothered”	Placement of two things closely together to emphasize comparisons or contrasts.	Contrasts the beauty of the landscape with the horrific violence that occurred there.
7. Metaphor	“blood-shadow”	A figure of speech in which a word or phrase is applied to an object or action to which itis not literally applicable.	Represents the lingering psychological trauma of the event, haunting the speaker like a shadow.
8. Onomatopoeia	“rips”	A word that imitates the natural sounds of a thing.	Conveys the violence and brutality of the shooting.
9. Parallelism	“Sleep, and he’s probably armed, possibly not. // Dream, and he’s torn apart by a dozen rounds.”	Use of similar grammatical constructions to express ideas that are related or equal in importance.	Reinforces the recurring nature of the soldier’s trauma, emphasizing how it invades his sleep and dreams.
10. Personification	“pain itself, the image of agony”	The attribution of a personal nature or human characteristics to something nonhuman.	Emphasizes the sheer physical and emotional suffering of the victim.
11. Polysyndeton	“myself and somebody else and somebody else”	The use of several conjunctions in close succession, especially where some might be omitted.	Emphasizes the collective responsibility and the speaker’s attempt to distance himself from the act.
12. Repetition	“bloody” (repeated)	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis.	Intensifies the violence and the speaker’s guilt and remorse.
13. Rhetorical Question	Implied question: “Was he armed?”	A question asked merely for effect with no answer expected.	Highlights the uncertainty and moral ambiguity of the situation.
14. Simile	“like a ghost”	A figure of speech involving the comparison of one thing with another thing of a different kind, used to make a description more emphatic or vivid.	Conveys the haunting nature of the memory.
15. Symbolism	“blood,” “shadow,” “desert sand”	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	Blood symbolizes guilt and violence; shadow represents trauma and memory; desert sand suggests the foreign and hostile environment.
16. Tone	Confessional, guilt-ridden, haunted	The general character or attitude of a place, piece of writing, situation, etc.	Conveys the speaker’s psychological turmoil and moral struggle.
17. Understatement	“sort of inside out,” “tosses his guts back into his body”	The presentation of something as being smaller, worse, or less important than it actually is.	Heightens the horror of the scene through ironic detachment.
18. Verb Choice	“legs it,” “rips,” “bursts,” “flush,” “dug in”	Strong, active verbs.	Creates a sense of movement, violence, and psychological turmoil.
19. Volta	“End of story, except not really”	A turn or shift in a poem.	Marks the transition from the physical event to the psychological aftermath.
20. Caesura	“So we’ve hit this looter a dozen times // and he’s there on the ground,”	A break or pause in the middle of a line of verse.	Creates a pause for reflection and emphasis on the brutal reality of the situation.

Themes in “Remains” by Simon Armitage

1. Trauma and Memory: The poem delves into the enduring psychological trauma of war and the power of memory to haunt and torment. The speaker’s relentless flashbacks (“But I blink / and he bursts again through the doors of the bank”) and nightmares (“Dream, and he’s torn apart by a dozen rounds”) highlight the intrusive nature of traumatic memories, refusing to be buried in the past. The vivid imagery of the victim’s body (“sort of inside out, pain itself, the image of agony”) further reinforces the trauma’s lasting impact, revealing how it continues to replay in the speaker’s mind.
2. Moral Responsibility and Guilt: “Remains” grapples with the moral complexities of killing and the burden of guilt. The repeated phrase “probably armed, possibly not” underscores the uncertainty surrounding the looter’s threat, casting doubt on the necessity of the lethal force used. The speaker’s act of tossing the victim’s “guts back into his body” could be interpreted as a futile attempt to undo the violence, while the lines “his bloody life in my bloody hands” highlight the indelible stain of guilt that the speaker carries.
3. The Psychological Cost of War: The poem explores the profound and lasting psychological damage inflicted on soldiers. The speaker’s reliance on “drink and drugs” to “flush him out” underscores the desperate measures taken to cope with the trauma. The recurring image of the “blood-shadow” serves as a metaphor for the invisible wounds of war, haunting the speaker and disrupting his attempts to return to normalcy.
4. Dehumanization and Objectification: The poem subtly addresses the dehumanization inherent in war. The looter is reduced to a target, referred to impersonally as “one of them” and “this looter.” The graphic description of his injuries and the casual way his body is treated (“carted off in the back of a lorry”) further illustrate the loss of individual identity and the objectification of the victim in the context of conflict.

Literary Theories and “Remains” by Simon Armitage

Literary Theory	Application to “Remains”	References and Commentary
1. Trauma Theory	Examines how the poem portrays the psychological impact of violence and war trauma on the speaker.	The poem vividly describes the traumatic experience of shooting a looter and the haunting memories that follow, impacting the speaker’s mental state (“his bloody life in my bloody hands”). The repetition of the looter’s presence in dreams and memories underscores the ongoing trauma experienced by the speaker.
2. Postcolonial Theory	Analyzes the power dynamics and moral implications of the encounter between the soldiers and the looters, possibly in a colonial context.	The poem can be read as a critique of military intervention and its consequences, reflecting on the blurred lines between right and wrong in conflicts (“probably armed, possibly not”). The aftermath of the shooting raises questions about justice and accountability in such situations.
3. Reader-Response Theory	Focuses on how readers interpret and emotionally engage with the text, particularly regarding themes of guilt and responsibility.	Readers may empathize with the speaker’s internal struggle and moral dilemma, contemplating the ethical implications of violence in war. The poem’s emotive language and vivid imagery invite readers to reflect on the human cost of conflict and the lasting impact on individuals involved.

Critical Questions about “Remains” by Simon Armitage

• How does the poem’s use of language and imagery contribute to its exploration of trauma?
• The visceral language and graphic imagery in “Remains,” such as “sort of inside out,” “pain itself,” and “rips through his life,” evoke a sense of horror and revulsion, mirroring the speaker’s traumatic experience. The repetition of “bloody” intensifies the violence and the lingering guilt, while the colloquial language (“legs it,” “guts”) creates a sense of immediacy and authenticity, drawing the reader into the soldier’s disturbed psyche. This raw and unfiltered language reflects the fragmented nature of memory and the difficulty of processing trauma.
• To what extent is the poem a condemnation of war or a reflection on the psychological impact of conflict on soldiers?
• While the poem doesn’t explicitly condemn war, it powerfully portrays the psychological toll exacted on those who participate in it. The speaker’s PTSD, his inability to escape the recurring memory of the shooting, and his attempts to self-medicate with “drink and drugs” underscore the devastating consequences of violence. However, the poem avoids didacticism, focusing instead on the individual soldier’s experience, leaving the reader to draw their own conclusions about the broader implications of war.
• What is the significance of the “blood-shadow” motif in the poem?
• The “blood-shadow” serves as a potent symbol of the enduring psychological trauma that haunts the speaker. It represents the guilt, remorse, and the indelible mark left by the act of killing. The shadow, which cannot be erased or escaped, reflects the inescapable nature of the soldier’s memories and the persistent presence of the victim in his mind. This motif also serves as a visual reminder of the moral complexity of the situation, as the speaker is forced to confront the consequences of his actions every time he encounters the shadow.
• How does the poem’s structure and form contribute to its overall meaning?
• The poem’s irregular stanzas and enjambment create a sense of fragmentation and disorientation, mirroring the speaker’s fractured psychological state. The volta, marked by the phrase “End of story, except not really,” signals a shift from the physical event to its enduring psychological aftermath. The final two lines, standing alone as a couplet, emphasize the speaker’s isolation and the inescapable nature of his guilt. This structure reflects the speaker’s struggle to make sense of his experience and the cyclical nature of trauma, highlighting the poem’s exploration of memory, guilt, and the psychological cost of war.

Thesis StatementTopics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “Remains” by Simon Armitage

Topic	Question	Thesis Statement
1. Psychological Impact of Violence	How does the poem depict the psychological trauma experienced by soldiers involved in violent conflict?	In “Remains,” Simon Armitage vividly portrays the psychological toll of war on soldiers through the speaker’s haunting memories and guilt, revealing the lasting effects of violence on the human psyche.
2. Moral Ambiguity and Responsibility	What ethical questions does the poem raise about the use of force in conflict situations?	The poem “Remains” by Simon Armitage explores the moral ambiguity of violence in war, challenging readers to consider the consequences of military actions and the complex ethical dilemmas faced by soldiers in combat.
3. Memory and Trauma	How does the speaker’s memory of the shooting and its aftermath shape the poem’s narrative?	Through vivid imagery and introspective narration, “Remains” by Simon Armitage examines how traumatic memories persist and affect the speaker’s sense of identity, illustrating the enduring impact of violence on individual lives.
4. Critique of Military Intervention	To what extent does the poem critique the justification and consequences of military intervention?	Simon Armitage’s “Remains” critiques the justification and human cost of military intervention, highlighting the dehumanizing effects of violence and the ethical complexities involved in armed conflict.

Suggested Readings: “Remains” by Simon Armitage

1. Armitage, Simon. Interview with The Guardian. “Simon Armitage: ‘Poetry is a muscle that needs to be exercised.'” The Guardian, 31 Oct. 2008, https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/apr/08/simon-armitage-poet-laureate-radical-roots-rock-star-dreams
2. Armitage, Simon. The Not Dead. Faber & Faber, 2008.
3. Pinnington, David. Duffy and Armitage: Carol Ann Duffy and Simon Armitage and Pre-1914 Poetry. British Council Library, 2024, https://library.britishcouncil.lk/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=136682.
4. Poetry Foundation. “Remains.” Poetry Foundation, www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/52189/remains-56d224604761f

Representative Quotations from about “Remains” by Simon Armitage

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
1. “I see every round as it rips through his life – / I see broad daylight on the other side.”	This quotation describes the vivid imagery of the speaker witnessing the impact of bullets on the looter, highlighting the immediacy and brutality of violence.	Trauma Theory: Analyzes how the poem portrays the psychological impact of witnessing and participating in violent acts, emphasizing the traumatic experience of the speaker.
2. “His blood-shadow stays on the street, and out on patrol / I walk right over it week after week.”	The speaker reflects on the persistent presence of the looter’s blood-shadow on the street, symbolizing the lasting imprint of violence on memory and conscience.	Memory Studies: Explores how memories of traumatic events, such as the shooting, continue to affect the speaker, shaping his perception of the world and his sense of self.
3. “Then I’m home on leave. But I blink / and he bursts again through the doors of the bank.”	The speaker experiences intrusive memories and flashbacks of the shooting even when away from the battlefield, illustrating the inescapable nature of trauma.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Examines the subconscious processes and defense mechanisms at play in the speaker’s attempts to cope with traumatic memories, such as repression and recurrence in dreams.
4. “Dream, and he’s torn apart by a dozen rounds. / And the drink and the drugs won’t flush him out – / he’s here in my head when I close my eyes,”	The speaker struggles with the inability to escape the memory of the looter, despite using alcohol and drugs as coping mechanisms.	Cultural Studies: Analyzes how the poem critiques societal attitudes towards trauma and mental health, highlighting the inadequacy of conventional coping mechanisms in dealing with war-related trauma.
5. “His bloody life in my bloody hands.”	This line encapsulates the speaker’s sense of guilt and responsibility for taking the life of the looter, grappling with the moral consequences of his actions.	Ethical Criticism: Explores the ethical dilemmas faced by soldiers in combat situations, questioning the justification and accountability for violence in war.