Day: July 19, 2024

Harlem Renaissance: Term and Concept

The term “Harlem Renaissance” emerged in the mid-20th century to encapsulate the flourishing of African American arts, literature, and culture centered in Harlem, New York City, during the 1920s and 1930s. While the neighborhood had long been a hub for Black residents, this period saw an unprecedented explosion of creativity and intellectual discourse. The term itself is thought to have been popularized by John Hope Franklin, a prominent historian, in his 1947 book “From Slavery to Freedom.” Franklin’s work highlighted the significance of this cultural movement in shaping African American identity and contributing to broader American society.

Etymology

• Harlem: Refers to the neighborhood in northern Manhattan that served as the epicenter of this cultural movement.
• Renaissance: Derived from the French word “renaissance” meaning “rebirth.” It signifies the revitalization and flourishing of artistic and intellectual endeavors.

Key Concepts of the Harlem Renaissance

Concept	Description
The New Negro Movement	A term often used interchangeably with the Harlem Renaissance, emphasizing the rejection of outdated stereotypes and the assertion of a new, proud, and sophisticated Black identity.
Cultural Expression	Encompassed a wide range of artistic forms, including literature (poetry, novels, essays), music (jazz, blues), visual arts (painting, sculpture), and performing arts (theater, dance).
Social Commentary	Many works of the Harlem Renaissance addressed issues of racial inequality, social justice, and the experiences of Black Americans in a segregated society.
Intellectualism	The movement fostered intellectual discourse and debate, with figures like Alain Locke and W.E.B. Du Bois leading discussions on race, identity, and the future of Black America.
Pan-Africanism	Some artists and intellectuals of the Harlem Renaissance embraced Pan-Africanist ideals, emphasizing the connections between Black people across the African diaspora and advocating for unity and liberation.
Legacy	The Harlem Renaissance laid the groundwork for the Civil Rights Movement and continues to inspire artists, writers, and activists today. Its impact on American culture is immeasurable, challenging stereotypes, amplifying Black voices, and enriching the nation’s artistic landscape.

Harlem Renaissance: Theorists, Works and Arguments

Alain Locke

• Work: “The New Negro” (1925) – An anthology of essays, poems, and fiction by various authors.
• Argument: Locke advocated for a “New Negro” identity characterized by self-confidence, cultural pride, and intellectualism. He argued that African Americans should embrace their unique heritage while contributing to American society.

W.E.B. Du Bois

• Work: “The Souls of Black Folk” (1903) and “The Crisis” magazine (editor)
• Argument: Du Bois emphasized the “double consciousness” of African Americans, who were forced to see themselves through the eyes of a racist society. He also advocated for political and social equality through education and activism.

Langston Hughes

• Works: “The Weary Blues” (1926) – Poetry collection; “Not Without Laughter” (1930) – Novel
• Argument: Hughes celebrated the everyday experiences and language of ordinary Black people. He explored themes of racial identity, social injustice, and the resilience of the human spirit.

Zora Neale Hurston

• Works: “Their Eyes Were Watching God” (1937) – Novel; “Mules and Men” (1935) – Folklore collection
• Argument: Hurston celebrated the richness of African American folklore and vernacular language. She challenged stereotypes of Black women and explored themes of love, independence, and cultural identity.

Claude McKay

• Works: “Home to Harlem” (1928) – Novel; “If We Must Die” (1919) – Poem
• Argument: McKay’s work often explored the darker aspects of the Black experience, including poverty, violence, and discrimination. He also expressed a sense of defiance and resistance against oppression.

Other Notable Figures:

• James Weldon Johnson: Poet, novelist, and civil rights activist.
• Nella Larsen: Novelist known for her exploration of racial identity and social class.
• Countee Cullen: Poet who often used traditional poetic forms to explore Black themes.
• Jessie Fauset: Novelist and editor who promoted the work of other Harlem Renaissance writers.

Key Arguments of the Harlem Renaissance:

• Cultural Identity: Celebrating African American heritage, language, and artistic traditions.
• Social Justice: Advocating for racial equality and challenging discriminatory practices.
• Self-Expression: Using art and literature as tools for personal and collective empowerment.
• The “New Negro”: Redefining Black identity in terms of pride, dignity, and intellectualism.

Harlem Renaissance: Major Voices in Poetry and Fiction

Author	Work	Year Published	Genre	Brief Description
James Weldon Johnson	“The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man”	1912	Novel	Explores racial identity and passing in early 20th-century America.
Claude McKay	“Harlem Shadows”	1922	Poetry	Collection exploring themes of alienation, social injustice, and Black pride.
Jean Toomer	“Cane”	1923	Hybrid	Experimental mix of poetry, prose, and drama exploring Black life in the rural South and urban North.
Langston Hughes	“The Weary Blues”	1926	Poetry	Collection celebrating Black culture and music, including jazz and blues influences.
Nella Larsen	“Quicksand”	1928	Novel	Explores themes of racial identity, belonging, and the search for meaning in a woman’s life.
Nella Larsen	“Passing”	1929	Novel	Explores themes of racial identity, passing, and the complexities of social class in the Black community.
Claude McKay	“Home to Harlem”	1928	Novel	Story of a Black soldier returning from World War I and seeking belonging in Harlem’s vibrant nightlife.
Langston Hughes	“Not Without Laughter”	1930	Novel	Coming-of-age story exploring themes of family, racism, and resilience in a small Kansas town.
Zora Neale Hurston	“Jonah’s Gourd Vine”	1934	Novel	Explores themes of love, marriage, and infidelity in rural Black communities.
Zora Neale Hurston	“Mules and Men”	1935	Folklore	Collection of African American folklore, songs, and stories from the South.
Zora Neale Hurston	“Their Eyes Were Watching God”	1937	Novel	Celebrates Black vernacular language and explores themes of love, independence, and self-discovery in a woman’s life.

Harlem Renaissance: Principles

Principle	Description
Racial Pride and Identity	Celebration of African American heritage, culture, and history. Rejection of stereotypes and assertion of a positive Black identity.
Artistic Expression	Flourishing of literature, music (especially jazz and blues), visual arts, and performing arts as vehicles for self-expression and cultural exploration.
Social Commentary	Use of art to address issues of racism, discrimination, and social injustice faced by African Americans.
The “New Negro”	Embracing a new, self-assured, and sophisticated Black identity, rejecting the outdated stereotypes of the past.
Intellectualism	Emphasis on education, critical thinking, and intellectual debate as tools for social and political advancement.
Community and Collaboration	Fostering a sense of community and collective identity among African American artists, writers, and intellectuals. Collaboration and mutual support in creative endeavors.
Pan-Africanism	Recognition of the shared experiences and struggles of Black people across the African diaspora.
Universal Themes	Exploration of universal human experiences like love, loss, joy, and pain, while also addressing the unique challenges faced by African Americans.
Legacy and Impact	The Harlem Renaissance laid the groundwork for the Civil Rights Movement and continues to inspire artists, activists, and cultural movements today. Its legacy is one of empowerment, creativity, and social consciousness.

Harlem Renaissance: Relevance to Literary Theories

1. New Criticism: While this theory focuses on close reading and textual analysis, the Harlem Renaissance texts provide rich material for exploring themes, symbolism, and language use. The works often employ complex metaphors and allusions to African American culture and history, offering ample opportunity for in-depth textual analysis.
2. Postcolonial Criticism: This theory examines the power dynamics between colonizer and colonized. Harlem Renaissance works often explore the impact of colonialism and slavery on African American identity and culture, making them relevant to postcolonial critiques of power, representation, and resistance.
3. Feminist Criticism: This theory focuses on gender roles, representation, and the female experience. Harlem Renaissance writers like Zora Neale Hurston and Nella Larsen challenged traditional gender roles and explored the complexities of Black womanhood, making their works significant to feminist analysis.
4. Marxist Criticism: This theory examines the role of class and economic systems in shaping literature and society. Harlem Renaissance works often depict the struggles of working-class African Americans and critique the economic inequalities that perpetuate racial discrimination, making them relevant to Marxist analysis.
5. Critical Race Theory: This theory examines the intersections of race, law, and power. Harlem Renaissance literature offers valuable insights into the lived experiences of racism and discrimination, contributing to the ongoing discussions within critical race theory.
6. Cultural Studies: This interdisciplinary field examines the production and consumption of culture. The Harlem Renaissance, as a cultural movement, is a prime subject for cultural studies analysis, exploring the social, political, and economic forces that shaped its emergence and its lasting impact.
7. Reader-Response Criticism: This theory emphasizes the reader’s role in interpreting and creating meaning from a text. Harlem Renaissance literature, with its rich cultural references and diverse perspectives, can elicit varied responses from readers, making it a valuable subject for reader-response analysis.

Additional Considerations:

• The “New Negro” Concept: This concept, central to the Harlem Renaissance, challenges traditional literary representations of Black characters and offers a new lens through which to analyze Black identity and agency in literature.
• The Harlem Renaissance and Modernism: The movement’s engagement with modernist techniques and themes provides a unique perspective on the relationship between modernism and African American literary traditions.
• The Harlem Renaissance and the Canon: The inclusion of Harlem Renaissance works in the literary canon has sparked debates about representation, diversity, and the power dynamics within literary institutions.

Harlem Renaissance: Major Works in Fiction and Poetry

Title	Author	Year	Genre	Key Features
The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man	James Weldon Johnson	1912	Novel	Explores racial identity, passing, and the complexities of African American life in the early 20th century.
Cane	Jean Toomer	1923	Hybrid	Experimental mix of poetry, prose, and drama; explores themes of alienation, cultural identity, and the Black experience in the rural South and urban North.
Harlem Shadows	Claude McKay	1922	Poetry	Collection of poems addressing themes of social injustice, racial pride, and the challenges faced by Black people in America.
The Weary Blues	Langston Hughes	1926	Poetry	Celebrates African American culture, music (jazz and blues), and everyday life; uses vernacular language and rhythms.
Quicksand	Nella Larsen	1928	Novel	Explores themes of racial identity, belonging, and the search for meaning in a woman’s life.
Passing	Nella Larsen	1929	Novel	Examines themes of racial identity, passing, and the complexities of social class within the Black community.
Home to Harlem	Claude McKay	1928	Novel	Depicts the vibrant nightlife and cultural scene of Harlem in the 1920s; explores themes of alienation, identity, and belonging.
Not Without Laughter	Langston Hughes	1930	Novel	Coming-of-age story set in a small Kansas town; explores themes of family, racism, resilience, and the Black experience in early 20th-century America.
Jonah’s Gourd Vine	Zora Neale Hurston	1934	Novel	Explores themes of love, marriage, infidelity, and spirituality in rural Black communities; rich in folklore and vernacular language.
Mules and Men	Zora Neale Hurston	1935	Folklore	Collection of African American folklore, songs, and stories from the American South, showcasing the richness of oral tradition.
Their Eyes Were Watching God	Zora Neale Hurston	1937	Novel	Celebrates Black vernacular language and explores themes of love, independence, self-discovery, and the role of women in the Black community.

Harlem Renaissance: Criticism Against it

Harlem Renaissance: Key Terms

Term	Definition
The New Negro	A concept emphasizing a new, self-assured, and sophisticated Black identity, rejecting outdated stereotypes.
Double Consciousness	The internal conflict experienced by African Americans, who must see themselves through the lens of both their own culture and the dominant white society.
The Talented Tenth	A concept by W.E.B. Du Bois advocating for the education and leadership of the top 10% of African Americans to uplift the entire community.
Jazz	A musical genre originating in African American communities, characterized by improvisation, syncopation, and a blending of European and African traditions.
Blues	A musical form expressing the struggles and emotions of African Americans, often characterized by melancholy lyrics and a distinctive chord progression.
The Great Migration	The mass movement of African Americans from the rural South to Northern cities, including Harlem, in search of economic opportunities and social freedoms.
Renaissance Woman	A term often applied to Zora Neale Hurston, reflecting her multifaceted talents as a novelist, folklorist, anthropologist, and cultural figure.
Negro Spirituals	Religious songs originating among enslaved African Americans, expressing their faith, sorrows, and hopes for freedom.
Cotton Club	A famous Harlem nightclub known for its jazz music and Black entertainers, but often criticized for its discriminatory practices towards patrons.
Black Arts Movement	A cultural movement in the 1960s and 1970s that drew inspiration from the Harlem Renaissance, advocating for Black pride, self-determination, and political activism.

Harlem Renaissance: Suggested Readings

Dadaist Poetry: Term and Concept

Etymology of “Dada”

Dadaist poetry is made of term “Dada” emerged in the early 20th century, amidst the social and political upheaval of World War I. Its precise origin remains shrouded in playful ambiguity, with various accounts suggesting it was chosen at random from a dictionary or derived from the French word “dada,” meaning “hobbyhorse.” Regardless of its exact etymology, “Dada” embodies the movement’s rejection of traditional artistic values and rationalism, embracing absurdity, spontaneity, and the nonsensical. This deliberate lack of definitive meaning highlights Dadaism’s anti-establishment stance, challenging conventional interpretations and provoking viewers and readers to question the very foundations of art and society.

Concepts of Dadaist Poetry in English Poetry

Concept	Description
Sound Poetry	Emphasizes the sonic qualities of language over semantic meaning, often incorporating nonsensical sounds and rhythms.
Chance Operations	Employs random or arbitrary methods, such as cutting up words and rearranging them, to create poems.
Nonsense Verse	Features absurd, illogical, or nonsensical language and imagery.
Collage and Montage	Combines disparate fragments of text or images to create new and unexpected juxtapositions.
Anti-War and Anti-Art	Rejects traditional artistic conventions and expresses opposition to war and social injustice.
Spontaneity and Play	Celebrates improvisation, spontaneity, and playful experimentation with language and form.
Dadaist Manifesto	A statement of Dadaist principles, often written in a provocative and nonsensical style.

Major Principles of Dadaist Poetry

Principle	Description	Example
Sound Poetry	Emphasizes the sonic qualities of language over semantic meaning, often incorporating nonsensical sounds and rhythms.	“Karawane” by Hugo Ball
Chance Operations	Employs random or arbitrary methods, such as cutting up words and rearranging them, to create poems.	“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot (partially influenced by Dadaism)
Nonsense Verse	Features absurd, illogical, or nonsensical language and imagery.	“Jabberwocky” by Lewis Carroll (though predating Dadaism, embodies its spirit)
Collage and Montage	Combines disparate fragments of text or images to create new and unexpected juxtapositions.	“The Bride Stripped Bare by Her Bachelors, Even” by Marcel Duchamp (a visual poem)
Anti-War and Anti-Art	Rejects traditional artistic conventions and expresses opposition to war and social injustice.	“Readymade” sculptures by Marcel Duchamp (e.g., “Fountain”)
Spontaneity and Play	Celebrates improvisation, spontaneity, and playful experimentation with language and form.	Cabaret Voltaire performances (improvised sound poetry, dance, and visual art)
Dadaist Manifesto	A statement of Dadaist principles, often written in a provocative and nonsensical style.	“Dada Manifesto” by Tristan Tzara

Dadaist Poetry: Major Examples

• “Karawane” by Hugo Ball (1916): This sound poem, performed in a nonsensical language of Ball’s invention, exemplifies Dada’s rejection of traditional meaning and its embrace of pure sonic expression. The poem’s rhythmic chanting and nonsensical syllables create a disorienting and evocative experience for the listener.
• “The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot (1922): While not strictly a Dadaist poem, Eliot’s masterpiece incorporates Dadaist techniques such as fragmentation, collage, and juxtaposition to create a fragmented and disillusioned portrait of post-war society. The poem’s disjointed structure and abrupt shifts in perspective mirror the chaos and confusion of the modern world.
• “Gadji beri bimba” by Hugo Ball (1916): This sound poem, like “Karawane,” abandons traditional syntax and meaning in favor of pure phonetic experimentation. The poem’s seemingly random arrangement of syllables and sounds creates a playful and provocative effect, challenging the listener’s expectations and inviting them to engage with language on a purely sensory level.
• “Anne Bloom” by Tristan Tzara (1916): This poem exemplifies Dada’s use of chance operations, with Tzara reportedly creating the poem by pulling words randomly from a hat. The resulting text is a nonsensical and often humorous collection of images and phrases that defy logical interpretation.
• “L’amiral cherche une maison à louer” by Tristan Tzara (1916): This poem, written in a mix of French and invented words, is a playful and absurdist exploration of language. Tzara’s use of nonsensical phrases and unexpected juxtapositions creates a disorienting and humorous effect, challenging the reader’s assumptions about meaning and communication.
• “The Great American Novel” by William Carlos Williams (1923): Though not a Dadaist himself, Williams experimented with Dadaist techniques in this work, incorporating found objects, newspaper clippings, and other fragments into the text. This collage-like approach reflects Dada’s interest in disrupting traditional narrative structures and challenging conventional notions of authorship and originality.

Dadaist Poetry: Critiquing It

Theoretical Perspective	Critique
Formalism	Dadaist poetry lacks traditional structure, coherence, and meaning, making it difficult to analyze or appreciate.
Historicism	Dadaist poetry is a product of its specific historical context (World War I) and loses its relevance outside of it.
Psychoanalysis	Dadaist poetry reflects the irrational and unconscious impulses of the mind, lacking in conscious control or purpose.
Marxism	Dadaist poetry is a bourgeois reaction to the social and political upheaval of the time, lacking in revolutionary potential.
Feminism	Dadaist poetry is predominantly male-dominated and reinforces patriarchal power structures through its absurdity.
Postcolonialism	Dadaist poetry is a product of Western cultural hegemony, neglecting the voices and experiences of marginalized groups.
Ecocriticism	Dadaist poetry is anthropocentric and disregards the natural world, reflecting a destructive attitude towards nature.

Dadaist Poetry: Criticism

• Nihilistic and Destructive: Dadaism’s rejection of traditional artistic values and its embrace of chaos and absurdity can be seen as nihilistic and destructive, lacking in constructive or positive contributions to society.
• Inaccessible and Elitist: Dadaist poetry, with its emphasis on nonsense and irrationality, can be difficult to understand and appreciate for those unfamiliar with its underlying principles and intentions. This can make it seem exclusive and elitist, catering to a small group of intellectuals and avant-garde artists.
• Politically Ineffective: Despite its anti-war and anti-establishment stance, Dadaism’s rejection of traditional political discourse and its embrace of absurdity can be seen as politically ineffective, failing to offer concrete solutions or alternatives to the problems it critiques.
• Lack of Technical Skill: Some critics argue that Dadaist poetry lacks technical skill and craftsmanship, relying too heavily on chance operations and spontaneity rather than honed poetic techniques. This can make it seem amateurish and lacking in artistic merit.
• Ephemeral and Transient: Dadaist performances and events were often spontaneous and ephemeral, leaving behind little lasting impact or influence. This can make it difficult to assess the movement’s overall significance and contribution to literary and artistic history.

Dadaist Poetry: Terms Used in It

Term	Definition
Sound Poetry	Poetry that emphasizes the sonic qualities of language over semantic meaning.
Bruitism	Use of noise and dissonance in art, music, and poetry.
Chance Operations	The use of random or arbitrary methods to create art or literature.
Simultaneism	The simultaneous performance of multiple poems, texts, or actions in a single work.
Collage	The artistic technique of assembling disparate elements to create a new whole.
Readymade	An ordinary object elevated to the status of art by the mere choice of an artist.
Anti-Art	A rejection of traditional notions of beauty and skill in art.
Cabaret Voltaire	A Zurich nightclub that served as a central meeting place for Dada artists and writers.
Merz	A term coined by Kurt Schwitters to describe his artistic practice, encompassing collage, assemblage, and found objects.
Photomontage	The technique of combining multiple photographs to create a new image.

Dadaist Poetry: Suggesting Readings

1. Ball, Hugo. Flight Out of Time: A Dada Diary. Edited by John Elderfield. Translated by Ann Raimes. Viking Press, 1974.
2. Huelsenbeck, Richard. Memoirs of a Dada Drummer. Edited by Hans J. Kleinschmidt. Translated by Joachim Neugroschel. University of California Press, 1991.
3. Motherwell, Robert, editor. The Dada Painters and Poets: An Anthology. Wittenborn, Schultz, 1951.
4. Richter, Hans. Dada: Art and Anti-Art. Thames & Hudson, 1997.
5. Tzara, Tristan. Seven Dada Manifestos and Lampisteries. Translated by Barbara Wright. Calder Publications, 1992.

Performance Theory: Term and Concept

Performance Theory

Performance theory is an interdisciplinary field that examines the ways in which actions, behaviors, and events can be understood as performances. It draws from theater studies, anthropology, linguistics, and cultural studies to analyze a wide range of phenomena, including rituals, social interactions, political protests, and artistic expressions. Performance theory challenges traditional distinctions between art and life, highlighting the performative aspects of everyday existence and the ways in which identities are constructed and negotiated through actions.

Performance Theory (Concept in English Literature/Literary Studies)

• Text as Performance: Performance theory encourages the analysis of literary texts not merely as static objects but as scripts for potential or imagined performances. It examines how characters, narrators, and even authors themselves engage in performative acts within the text.
• Reader as Performer: Performance theory highlights the active role of the reader in bringing a text to life through interpretation and engagement. Reading becomes a performative act, as the reader embodies the text’s meanings and participates in its unfolding.
• Performance and Identity: Performance theory explores how literary characters perform and negotiate their identities through language, actions, and interactions with others. It also examines how authors use performative strategies to construct their own authorial personas.
• Performance and Power: Performance theory analyzes the ways in which literary texts can be used to challenge or reinforce existing power structures. It examines how performances within a text can be subversive, transgressive, or affirming of dominant ideologies.
• Performance and Gender: Performance theory has been particularly influential in feminist literary studies, where it has been used to analyze the ways in which gender is performed and constructed through language and behavior. It has also been used to examine the performative aspects of sexuality and queer identities in literature.

Performance Theory: Theorists, Works and Arguments

• 1959: Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life
  • Argument: Goffman introduced the concept of dramaturgy, arguing that social life is a series of performances where individuals adopt roles and manage impressions to conform to societal expectations. He explored the frontstage and backstage aspects of social interactions, emphasizing the importance of setting, appearance, and manner in constructing a desired self-presentation.
• 1973: Victor Turner, Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors
  • Argument: Turner examined the performative aspects of rituals and social dramas, highlighting their role in resolving conflicts, facilitating social change, and reinforcing communal bonds. He explored the concept of liminality, a transitional state where social norms are temporarily suspended, allowing for creative and transformative experiences.
• 1977: Richard Schechner, Essays on Performance Theory
  • Argument: Schechner broadened the definition of performance beyond traditional theater, encompassing a wide range of cultural practices, including rituals, everyday behaviors, sports, and political demonstrations. He emphasized the restored behavior aspect of performance, highlighting the repetition, rehearsal, and adaptation involved in these activities.
• 1988: Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity
  • Argument: Butler challenged the notion of gender as a fixed biological category, arguing that it is a performative act that is continuously constructed and reiterated through social norms and behaviors. She explored the subversive potential of gender performativity, suggesting that it can be used to challenge and disrupt traditional gender roles.
• 1990: Peggy Phelan, Unmarked: The Politics of Performance
  • Argument: Phelan examined the unique qualities of performance art, emphasizing its ephemeral and embodied nature. She argued that performance resists documentation and commodification, challenging traditional notions of representation and authorship.
• 1999: Diana Taylor, The Archive and the Repertoire
  • Argument: Taylor contrasted the archive, which preserves written documents and material artifacts, with the repertoire, which encompasses embodied practices, oral traditions, and performative knowledge. She argued that the repertoire is a crucial aspect of cultural memory and identity, often overlooked in traditional historical narratives.
• 2003: José Esteban Muñoz, Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics
  • Argument: Muñoz explored the ways in which marginalized groups, particularly queers of color, use performance to challenge dominant cultural narratives and create alternative spaces for self-expression and political resistance. He emphasized the importance of disidentification, a strategy of simultaneously identifying with and critiquing dominant cultural forms.

Performance Theory: Key Principals

Key Principles of Performance Theory	Literary Example	Description
Performativity	Shakespeare’s Hamlet	The play-within-a-play, “The Mousetrap,” is a calculated performance designed to expose Claudius’s guilt, demonstrating the power of actions and language to shape reality.
Embodiment	Toni Morrison’s Beloved	Sethe’s scarred back serves as a physical manifestation of the trauma of slavery, emphasizing the body’s role in carrying and communicating experiences.
Repetition and Rehearsal	Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot	The repetitive actions and dialogues of Vladimir and Estragon highlight the cyclical nature of their existence and the importance of rehearsal in shaping performance.
Spectatorship and Participation	Luigi Pirandello’s Six Characters in Search of an Author	The characters’ direct interaction with the audience blurs the lines between fiction and reality, emphasizing the audience’s active role in co-creating the performance’s meaning.
Transformation	Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House	Nora’s decision to leave her family is a transformative act that challenges societal norms and demonstrates the potential of performance to catalyze personal and social change.
Theatricality	Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest	The characters’ witty dialogues and elaborate deceptions highlight the performative nature of social interactions and the construction of identity through language and behavior.

Performance Theory: How to Use in Literary Critiques

How to Use Performance Theory in Literary Critiques	Description
Analyze the text as a script for performance.	Consider how the text might be performed on stage or in other contexts. Examine the characters’ actions, dialogues, and stage directions as instructions for performance. Explore how different interpretations of these instructions might lead to different performances and meanings.
Examine the performative aspects of language.	Analyze how characters use language to construct and negotiate their identities, relationships, and social positions. Consider how language can be used to perform various acts, such as persuasion, deception, or self-expression.
Investigate the role of the reader as a performer.	Consider how the reader actively participates in the creation of meaning through their interpretation and engagement with the text. Analyze how different readers might “perform” the text differently based on their own experiences and perspectives.
Explore the power dynamics at play within the text.	Examine how characters use performance to assert or resist power. Consider how the text itself might challenge or reinforce dominant ideologies through its representation of performance.
Analyze the construction and performance of gender and other identities.	Investigate how characters perform and negotiate their gender, race, class, sexuality, and other identities through language, behavior, and interactions with others. Consider how the text might challenge or reinforce stereotypes and norms related to identity.
Consider the historical and cultural context of the text’s performance.	Analyze how the text might have been performed or received in different historical and cultural contexts. Consider how the text’s meaning might change depending on the specific context of its performance.

Performance Theory: Criticism Against It

• Overemphasis on performativity: Some critics argue that performance theory overemphasizes the constructed nature of identity and social reality, neglecting the role of biological, psychological, and material factors.
• Relativism and lack of grounding: Performance theory’s focus on the fluidity and contextuality of meaning can lead to a relativism that undermines the possibility of objective truth or universal values.
• Neglect of materiality: Some critics argue that performance theory focuses too heavily on the symbolic and discursive aspects of performance, neglecting the material conditions and consequences of performative acts.
• Elitism and inaccessibility: Performance theory’s complex jargon and theoretical frameworks can make it inaccessible to a wider audience, limiting its impact and relevance beyond academic circles.
• Limited applicability: Some critics question the applicability of performance theory to all forms of cultural expression and social phenomena, arguing that it is better suited to analyzing theatrical and performative arts.
• Lack of empirical evidence: Performance theory often relies on textual analysis and interpretive approaches, with limited empirical evidence to support its claims and generalizations.
• Oversimplification of power dynamics: Some critics argue that performance theory’s focus on the subversive potential of performativity can oversimplify complex power dynamics and overlook the ways in which performance can be used to reinforce dominant ideologies.

Performance Theory: Key Terms

Key Term	Definition
Performativity	The concept that language and actions do not merely describe reality, but actively create and shape it.
Embodiment	The idea that knowledge and meaning are not solely cognitive, but are also experienced and expressed through the body.
Restored Behavior	The repetition and rehearsal of actions, gestures, or words that give them meaning and significance.
Dramaturgy	The theory that social life is like a theater, with individuals performing roles and managing impressions to achieve desired outcomes.
Liminality	A transitional state or space where social norms are temporarily suspended, allowing for creative and transformative experiences.
The Archive and the Repertoire	The distinction between written records (archive) and embodied practices and oral traditions (repertoire) as sources of cultural memory and knowledge.
Disidentification	A strategy used by marginalized groups to simultaneously identify with and critique dominant cultural forms, often through parody or satire.

Performance Theory: Suggested Readings

1. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. Routledge, 1990.
2. Goffman, Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Anchor Books, 1959.
3. Muñoz, José Esteban. Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics. University of Minnesota Press, 1999. https://www.upress.umn.edu/book-division/books/disidentifications
4. Phelan, Peggy. Unmarked: The Politics of Performance. Routledge, 1993.
5. Schechner, Richard. Performance Theory. Routledge, 2003.
6. Taylor, Diana. The Archive and the Repertoire: Performing Cultural Memory in the Americas. Duke University Press, 2003. https://www.dukeupress.edu/the-archive-and-the-repertoire
7. Turner, Victor. Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society. Cornell University Press, 1974.

1.  
2.  
3.  
4.  
5.  
6.  
7.  
8.  
9.  
10.  
11.  
12.  
13.  
14.  
15.  
16.  

Bottom of Form