Synaesthesia as a Literary Device

Synesthesia, as a literary device, denotes the deliberate intermingling of sensory perceptions to evoke a multi-layered understanding of a subject.

Synaesthesia as a Literary Device
Synaesthesia: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings
Etymology of Synaesthesia

Synaesthesia, a term derived from the Greek words “syn” meaning “together” and “aisthesis” meaning “sensation,” refers to the phenomenon where stimulation of one sensory or cognitive pathway leads to involuntary experiences in another. The word was first introduced in the early 19th century by German physician Georg Sachs, who used it to describe the intertwining of sensory experiences. Historically, synaesthesia has been a subject of fascination within the realms of psychology and neurology, capturing the interest of scholars and artists alike. Its etymological roots underscore the intrinsic connectivity and interplay between different sensory modalities, reflecting the complex and often mysterious nature of human perception.

Literal and Conceptual Meanings of Synaesthesia
AspectLiteral MeaningConceptual Meaning
Greek Roots“syn” (together) + “aisthesis” (sensation)The term suggests a unification or merging of senses, implying that distinct sensory experiences can be perceived as interconnected.
Early DefinitionsCoined by Georg Sachs to describe the fusion of different sensory experiencesHistorically perceived as an unusual or rare sensory condition where one sense involuntarily triggers another.
Modern UnderstandingSynaesthesia involves literal cross-activation between different sensory pathways in the brainViewed as a cognitive phenomenon where certain individuals experience consistent and reproducible sensory overlaps (e.g., seeing colors when hearing sounds).
Scientific InterpretationA neurological condition where sensory stimuli lead to automatic, involuntary sensory perceptionsConceptually, it illustrates the brain’s ability to create multi-sensory associations, offering insights into neural connectivity and perceptual processes.
Cultural and Artistic ViewsSeen as an unusual sensory gift that enhances creative expression and artistic experiencesConceptually, synaesthesia enriches artistic and literary expressions by providing unique perceptual experiences that transcend normal sensory boundaries.
Synaesthesia: Definition as a Literary Device

Synesthesia, as a literary device, denotes the deliberate intermingling of sensory perceptions to evoke a multi-layered understanding of a subject. It transcends conventional sensory boundaries, forging an intensified emotional connection and deeper engagement with the text. Through this technique, authors amplify the vividness of their imagery, enhance thematic resonance, and leave a lasting impact on the reader.

Synaesthesia: Types and Examples
Type of SynesthesiaExplanationExamples
Grapheme-color synesthesiaLetters or numbers are perceived as inherently colored.Seeing the letter “A” as red or the number “5” as green.
ChromesthesiaSounds trigger the perception of colors.Seeing flashes of color when listening to music or hearing a specific word.
Auditory-tactile synesthesiaSounds induce tactile sensations.Feeling a tingling sensation on the skin when hearing a particular sound or musical note.
Lexical-gustatory synesthesiaWords or sounds evoke taste sensations.The word “table” might taste like metal, or the sound of a car horn might taste like lemon.
Ordinal linguistic personificationOrdered sequences, like numbers, days of the week, or months of the year, are associated with personalities or genders.Monday might be perceived as a grumpy old man, or the number “7” might be seen as a shy girl.
Number form synesthesiaNumerical sequences are perceived as having specific spatial arrangements.The number line might be perceived as a spiral, or the numbers 1-10 might be seen as a line of differently sized objects.
Spatial sequence synesthesiaUnits of time (days, weeks, months) are perceived in a spatial layout.Months of the year might be laid out in a circle, or days of the week might appear as a line.
Mirror-touch synesthesiaObserving someone being touched evokes a similar tactile sensation in the observer.Feeling a touch on your own arm when you see someone else’s arm being touched.
Auditory-olfactory synesthesiaSounds trigger the perception of smells.Hearing a certain musical note might evoke the smell of roses, or the sound of a car engine might smell like burning rubber.
MisophoniaCertain sounds trigger strong negative emotions, such as anger, disgust, or anxiety. (Although not strictly synesthesia, it involves atypical sound perception.)The sound of someone chewing loudly might cause intense irritation, or the sound of a pen clicking might evoke a feeling of rage.
Synaesthesia: Examples in Everyday Life
  1. The sound of a bell tastes like mint: This is auditory-gustatory synesthesia, where a sound evokes a taste sensation.
  2. Seeing the number 5 as green: This is grapheme-color synesthesia, where letters or numbers are associated with colors.
  3. Feeling a tingling sensation on your arm when hearing someone’s name: This is lexical-tactile synesthesia, where words evoke tactile sensations.
  4. Seeing colors when listening to music: This is chromesthesia, a common form where sounds trigger the perception of colors.
  5. Tasting shapes: This is a rare form where shapes are associated with tastes. For example, a triangle might taste sour.
  6. Smelling colors: This is another rare form where colors evoke smells. For example, yellow might smell like lemons.
  7. Feeling the texture of music: This is auditory-tactile synesthesia where music evokes tactile sensations like roughness or smoothness.
  8. Seeing time as a spatial layout: This is spatial sequence synesthesia, where time units like days or months are perceived in a spatial arrangement.
  9. Feeling pain when seeing someone else in pain: This is mirror-touch synesthesia, where observing someone experiencing touch evokes a similar sensation.
  10. Tasting words: This is lexical-gustatory synesthesia, where words evoke taste sensations. For example, the word “love” might taste like chocolate.
Synaesthesia in Literature: Examples
QuoteAuthorExplanationType of Synesthesia
“Back to the region where the sun is silent.”Dante AlighieriAuditory-visual; evokes desolation and despair through the contradictory image of a silent sun.Auditory-Visual
“Tasting of Flora and the country green…”John KeatsCombines taste with visual and auditory senses, creating a rich sensory experience.Gustatory-Visual-Auditory
“With blue, uncertain, stumbling buzz…”Emily DickinsonAuditory-visual; evokes the blurred, disorienting experience of approaching death.Auditory-Visual
“And the yellow smoke that rubs its muzzle…”T.S. EliotTactile-visual; personifies the smoke, giving it an animalistic quality.Tactile-Visual
“The lights grow brighter as the earth lurches…”F. Scott FitzgeraldVisual-kinesthetic; portrays the growing excitement and anticipation of the evening.Visual-Kinesthetic
“A clap of thunder… so loud I see it…”Markus ZusakAuditory-visual; conveys the overwhelming power and intensity of the thunder.Auditory-Visual
“The scent of the rose rang like a bell…”Oscar WildeOlfactory-auditory; creates a sensory symphony, enhancing the sensory experience of the rose’s fragrance.Olfactory-Auditory
“The bitter taste of that laughter…”Vladimir NabokovGustatory-emotional; expresses the unpleasantness and cruelty of the laughter.Gustatory-Emotional
“…and the words hung in the air like smoke…”Toni MorrisonVisual-auditory; creates a haunting image of the lingering impact of words.Visual-Auditory
“The silence was a heavy blanket…”Ray BradburyTactile-auditory; conveys the oppressive and suffocating nature of the silence.Tactile-Auditory
Synaesthesia in Literature: Shakespearean
QuotePlayExplanationType of Synesthesia
“How sweet the moonlight sleeps upon this bank!”The Merchant of VeniceVisual-tactile synesthesia. The visual image of moonlight is described as if it has a tactile quality, creating a sense of tranquility and peace.Visual-Tactile
“If music be the food of love, play on…”Twelfth NightAuditory-gustatory synesthesia. Music is described as if it can be tasted, suggesting that it nourishes the soul like food.Auditory-Gustatory
“The bright day is done, and we are for the dark.”Antony and CleopatraVisual-auditory synesthesia. The visual image of the day ending is connected to the auditory experience of entering darkness, creating a sense of finality and loss.Visual-Auditory
“Out, out, brief candle! Life’s but a walking shadow…”MacbethVisual-kinesthetic synesthesia. Life is compared to a walking shadow, blending the visual image of a shadow with the movement of walking, emphasizing life’s fleeting nature.Visual-Kinesthetic
“Give me excess of it, that, surfeiting, the appetite may sicken…”Twelfth NightGustatory-emotional synesthesia. The excess of love is described as something that can be tasted and can cause sickness, linking emotional and physical sensations.Gustatory-Emotional
Synaesthesia in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories
  • Formalism: Synesthesia enhances the aesthetic experience by creating novel and unexpected combinations of sensory imagery. The formalist approach focuses on how this technique contributes to the overall structure and artistry of the text.
    • Example: In Baudelaire’s “Correspondences,” the line “Perfumes, colors, and sounds respond to one another” emphasizes the intermingling of senses, highlighting the poem’s formal unity.
  • Reader-Response Criticism: Synesthesia invites readers to actively engage with the text by stimulating their own sensory imagination. Reader-response theory explores how individual readers interpret and create meaning from these synesthetic experiences.
    • Example: In Nabokov’s “Lolita,” the phrase “the tip of the tongue taking a trip of three steps down the palate” evokes unique taste sensations for each reader, enriching their personal interpretation of the text.
  • Cognitive Poetics: Synesthesia offers insights into the cognitive processes involved in language comprehension and the creation of meaning. This theory examines how synesthetic metaphors activate different areas of the brain, enhancing the reader’s understanding and emotional engagement.
    • Example: In Emily Dickinson’s poem “I heard a Fly buzz—when I died—,” the line “With Blue—uncertain stumbling Buzz—” creates a multi-sensory experience that activates both auditory and visual processing in the reader’s mind.
  • Psychological Criticism: Synesthesia can be interpreted as a reflection of the author’s unconscious desires or psychological state. This approach analyzes how the use of synesthetic imagery reveals the author’s inner conflicts or motivations.
    • Example: In Rimbaud’s poem “Vowels,” the association of colors with vowels may be seen as a manifestation of the poet’s personal experiences or emotions.
Synaesthesia in Literature: Relevant Terms
Literary DeviceDefinitionRelevance to Synesthesia
SynesthesiaA literary device where stimulation of one sense triggers an involuntary experience in another sense.The core device used to create synesthetic experiences in literature.
ImageryThe use of vivid and descriptive language to create mental images and evoke sensory experiences.Enhances the impact of synesthesia by creating rich and detailed sensory descriptions.
MetaphorA figure of speech that compares two seemingly unlike things by stating one thing is another.Can be used to express synesthetic experiences by equating one sensory perception with another (e.g., “The silence was a heavy blanket.”).
SimileA figure of speech that compares two things using “like” or “as.”A common way to express synesthetic experiences (e.g., “The music was as smooth as silk.”).
PersonificationAttributing human qualities to inanimate objects or abstract concepts.Can be used to personify sensory experiences, making them more vivid and relatable.
SymbolismThe use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.Can be employed to create symbolic connections between different senses (e.g., a color representing a sound).
AllusionA reference to a well-known person, place, event, literary work, or work of art.Can reference other works that use synesthesia, or use synesthetic language to evoke a particular atmosphere or mood.
MotifA recurring element (image, symbol, idea, or theme) that has symbolic significance in a literary work.Synesthetic imagery can be used as a recurring motif throughout a work to create a consistent sensory experience.
OxymoronA figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear in conjunction (e.g., “deafening silence”).Can be used to create unexpected and striking synesthetic combinations (e.g., “The bitter sweetness of her laughter”).
JuxtapositionThe placement of two contrasting elements side by side to highlight their differences.Can be used to juxtapose different sensory experiences, creating a dynamic and engaging effect.
Synaesthesia in Literature: Suggested Readings

Books:

Day, Sean. Synesthesia in Literature and Art: A Neuroaesthetic Perspective. Routledge, 2021.

Van Campen, Cretien. The Hidden Sense: Synesthesia in Art and Science. MIT Press, 2008.

Articles:

Cytowic, Richard E. “Synesthesia: A Union of the Senses.” Current Directions in Psychological Science, vol. 2, no. 3, 1993, pp. 101–105.

Maurer, Daphne, and Catherine J. Mondloch. “The World of the Synesthete.” Scientific American Mind, vol. 15, no. 4, 2005, pp. 50–57.

Sibilance as a Literary Device

Sibilance, as a literary device, denotes the deliberate repetition of sibilant sounds (such as /s/, /ʃ/, /z/, /ʒ/) within a phrase or sentence.

Sibilance as a Literary Device
Sibilance: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings

The term “sibilance” derives from the Latin word “sibilus,” meaning “hissing” or “whistling.” This etymological origin directly reflects the literal sound associated with sibilance: a repetition of ‘s’ or similar sounds, creating a whispering or hissing effect. This literal sound, however, carries conceptual meanings beyond mere auditory sensation. The whispering quality of sibilance can evoke a sense of secrecy or conspiracy, while the hissing can imply danger or malice. Alternatively, the soft and repetitive sounds can create a soothing or calming atmosphere, depending on the context.

Literal MeaningConceptual Meanings
Repetition of “s” or similar sounds creating a hissing or whispering effectSecrecy, conspiracy, danger, malice, soothing, calming
Sibilance: Definition as a Literary Device

Sibilance, as a literary device, denotes the deliberate repetition of sibilant sounds (such as /s/, /ʃ/, /z/, /ʒ/) within a phrase or sentence. This sonic technique serves to create aural texture and rhythmic patterns within a text, often evoking specific moods or emphasizing particular words or concepts. While primarily associated with poetry, sibilance can also be utilized in prose to heighten sensory details and enhance stylistic effects.

Sibilance: Types and Examples
Type of SibilanceExplanationExamples
Alliterative SibilanceRepetition of sibilant sounds at the beginning of words or stressed syllables in close proximity.“Sing a song of sixpence,” “Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers”
Internal SibilanceSibilant sounds occurring within words, not necessarily at the beginning.“The hissing snake slithered silently,” “The luscious cake was simply irresistible”
Assonant SibilanceRepetition of vowel sounds that create a sibilant effect, often in combination with ‘s’ or other sibilant consonants.“The sea ceaseth and sufficeth us,” “The breeze whispers secrets in the leaves”
Combined SibilanceA combination of alliterative and internal sibilance within a phrase or sentence.“The soft, sad music of the sea shells,” “The silken sails shimmered in the sunlight”

Note: Some linguists may include other soft sounds like ‘f’, ‘ch’, or ‘th’ as sibilant, but the above table focuses on the most common and recognizable forms of sibilance.

Sibilance: Examples in Everyday Life
ExampleExplanation
“She sells seashells by the seashore.”Repetition of the /s/ and /ʃ/ (sh) sounds create a strong sibilant effect.
“The snake slithered silently through the grass.”The /s/ sound is repeated multiple times, emphasizing the snake’s stealthy movement.
“The breeze whispered secrets through the leaves.”The /s/ and /z/ sounds mimic the soft, hushed tones of the breeze.
“The steam hissed as it escaped the kettle.”The /s/ sound replicates the sound of steam escaping.
“The zipper zipped smoothly up the jacket.”The /z/ sound emphasizes the action and sound of the zipper closing.
“The singer’s voice soared with a sweet, silvery tone.”The repeated /s/ sound creates a sense of musicality and adds to the imagery of a “silvery” voice.
“The soft, subtle scent of cinnamon filled the air.”The /s/ sound in “soft,” “subtle,” “scent,” and “cinnamon” adds to the sensory experience of the description.
“The slippery slope was treacherous to climb.”The /s/ sound in “slippery” and “slope” enhances the feeling of danger and instability.
“The sun set, casting long shadows across the sand.”The /s/ sound in “sun,” “set,” “shadows,” and “sand” creates a sense of peace and tranquility.
“The silence was broken only by the soft sizzle of the campfire.”The /s/ sound in “silence,” “soft,” and “sizzle” emphasizes the contrast between the quietness and the subtle sound of the fire.
Sibilance in Literature: Shakespearean Examples
ExamplePlayExplanation
“From forth the fatal loins of these two foes…”Romeo and Juliet (Prologue)The repeated /f/ and /s/ sounds emphasize the fated and tragic nature of the conflict between the two families.
“Double, double toil and trouble; Fire burn, and caldron bubble.”Macbeth (Act 4, Scene 1)The repeated /b/ sound combined with the /l/ in “bubble” creates a rhythmic, chant-like effect that reinforces the witches’ incantations.
“So foul and fair a day I have not seen.”Macbeth (Act 1, Scene 3)The /f/ sound in “foul,” “fair,” and “seen” contributes to the sense of paradox and ambiguity in Macbeth’s words.
“Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness…”Ode to AutumnThe /s/ sound in “season,” “mists,” and “fruitfulness” creates a soft, flowing rhythm that evokes the gentle beauty of autumn.
“With this regard their currents turn awry, And lose the name of action.”Hamlet (Act 3, Scene 1)The /s/ sound in “currents,” “turn,” and “lose” contributes to the sense of confusion and inaction that Hamlet is expressing.
Sibilance in Literature: Examples
PoemPoetExampleExplanation
The RavenEdgar Allan Poe“And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain…”Repetition of /s/ creates a hushed, melancholic tone, mimicking the sound of rustling curtains and whispering secrets.
Ode to a NightingaleJohn Keats“Thou wast not born for death, immortal Bird!”The sibilant /s/ and /th/ sounds contribute to the poem’s ethereal, otherworldly atmosphere.
The Love Song of J. Alfred PrufrockT.S. Eliot“The yellow fog that rubs its back upon the window-panes…”The /s/ sound in “fog,” “rubs,” and “window-panes” adds to the sense of unease and creeping desolation.
“The Second Coming”William Butler Yeats“Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold…”The /s/ and /th/ sounds create a sense of impending doom and chaos.
Stopping by Woods on a Snowy EveningRobert Frost“The only other sound’s the sweep / Of easy wind and downy flake.”The /s/ sound in “sound’s,” “sweep,” and “easy” creates a soft, tranquil atmosphere.
OzymandiasPercy Bysshe Shelley“Round the decay / Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare…”The /s/ sounds in “colossal,” “wreck,” and “boundless” emphasize the vastness and desolation of the scene.
The Rime of the Ancient MarinerSamuel Taylor Coleridge“The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew…”The /f/ and /w/ sounds create a sense of movement and energy as the ship sails through the water.
La Belle Dame sans MerciJohn Keats“And her eyes were wild…”The /w/ sound in “wild” adds to the sense of mystery and otherworldliness surrounding the woman.
“Kubla Khan”Samuel Taylor Coleridge“A sunny pleasure-dome with caves of ice!”The /s/ sound in “sunny” and “pleasure-dome” contrasts with the /k/ sound in “caves” and “ice,” creating a sense of wonder and contrast.
“To Autumn”John Keats“Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness…”The /s/ and /m/ sounds create a soft, gentle rhythm that reflects the tranquility of autumn.
Sibilance in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories

1. Formalism:

  • Focuses on the sound and structure of the language itself. Sibilance is seen as a device that enhances the musicality and aural texture of a text, creating a specific rhythm and sonic pattern.
    • Example 1: In Coleridge’s “Kubla Khan,” the sibilance in “Five miles meandering with a mazy motion” creates a sense of hypnotic movement.
    • Example 2: In Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 30,” the sibilance in “When to the sessions of sweet silent thought I summon up remembrance of things past” adds to the melancholic tone.

2. Structuralism:

  • Examines the underlying systems of language and how they create meaning. Sibilance can be seen as a recurring sound pattern that reinforces certain themes or motifs within a text.
    • Example 1: In Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven,” the repeated sibilance in “surcease of sorrow” and “nevermore” emphasizes the poem’s themes of loss and despair.
    • Example 2: In John Keats’s “Ode to a Nightingale,” the sibilance in “soft incense” and “sensual ear” contributes to the poem’s exploration of the senses.

3. Reader-Response Criticism:

  • Focuses on the individual reader’s interpretation and emotional response to a text. Sibilance can evoke different feelings in different readers, depending on their personal experiences and associations.
    • Example 1: The sibilance in the phrase “slithering snake” might create a sense of fear or disgust in one reader, while another might find it fascinating.
    • Example 2: The sibilance in “whispering wind” could evoke feelings of peace and tranquility in one reader, while another might feel a sense of unease or foreboding.

4. Psychoanalytic Criticism:

  • Explores the unconscious desires and anxieties of the author and characters. Sibilance can be seen as a manifestation of these hidden emotions, often linked to themes of sexuality or aggression.
    • Example 1: In Shakespeare’s “Hamlet,” the sibilance in Claudius’s lines, “O, my offence is rank, it smells to heaven,” might be interpreted as a subconscious expression of guilt and shame.
    • Example 2: In Sylvia Plath’s “Lady Lazarus,” the sibilance in “Herr God, Herr Lucifer / Beware / Beware” could be seen as a manifestation of the speaker’s rage and defiance.
Sibilance in Literature: Relevant Terms
TermDefinition
AlliterationThe repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words or syllables.
AssonanceThe repetition of vowel sounds in neighboring words or syllables.
ConsonanceThe repetition of consonant sounds in neighboring words or syllables, especially at the end of words.
EuphonyThe quality of being pleasing to the ear, especially through a harmonious combination of words.
OnomatopoeiaThe formation of a word from a sound associated with what is named (e.g., “cuckoo,” “sizzle”).
PhonemeThe smallest unit of sound that distinguishes one word from another in a language.
RhymeCorrespondence of sound between words or the endings of words, especially when these are used at the ends of lines of poetry.
RhythmA strong, regular, repeated pattern of movement or sound.
Sound SymbolismThe association of certain sounds with particular meanings or feelings (e.g., “sl-” often suggests something smooth or slippery).
Sibilance in Literature: Suggested Readings

Books:

Web Links:

Pararhyme as a Literary Device

Pararhyme, also known as half-rhyme or slant rhyme, is a poetic device characterized by the repetition of consonant sounds in the final stressed syllables of words, while the vowel sounds differ.

Pararhyme as a Literary Device
Pararhyme: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings
Pararhyme: Etymology

The term “pararhyme” derives from the Greek roots “para-” meaning “beside” or “alongside,” and “rhyme,” which refers to the correspondence of sound between words or the endings of lines of verse. Coined by the poet and literary critic Edmund Blunden in the early 20th century, pararhyme denotes a form of rhyme where consonants match while vowels differ, thereby creating an incomplete or imperfect rhyme scheme. This device is often employed in modernist and experimental poetry to evoke a sense of dissonance, ambiguity, or unease, contrasting with the more harmonious and predictable effects of traditional rhyme schemes.

Literal and Conceptual Meanings
Literal MeaningConceptual Meaning
Derived from Greek “para-” (beside) and “rhyme” (correspondence of sound)A poetic technique where consonants match but vowels differ
Coined by Edmund Blunden in the 20th centuryCreates a sense of tension, dissonance, or ambiguity in poetry
Involves partial or slant rhymingChallenges conventional expectations of rhyme
Used in modernist and experimental poetryReflects the complexities and uncertainties of modern life
Pararhyme: Definition as a Literary Device

Pararhyme, also known as half-rhyme or slant rhyme, is a poetic device characterized by the repetition of consonant sounds in the final stressed syllables of words, while the vowel sounds differ. This technique creates a subtle and unexpected sonic connection between words, often generating a sense of dissonance or tension. Employed by poets to evoke specific moods or reinforce thematic elements, pararhyme adds complexity and depth to the sonic landscape of a poem.

Pararhyme: Types and Examples
Type of PararhymeExplanationExamples
Consonance PararhymeWords share the same consonant sounds at the beginning and end, but have different vowel sounds.“flash/flesh,” “groaned/groined”
Assonance PararhymeWords share the same vowel sound in the stressed syllable, but different consonant sounds before and after the vowel.“time/mine,” “light/right”
Rich PararhymeWords share the same consonant sounds before and after the stressed vowel, but the vowel sounds are different. This is a stricter form of pararhyme.“hall/hell,” “trod/trade”
Reverse PararhymeThe order of consonant sounds is reversed in the two words.“lived/devil,” “stressed/desserts”
Pararhyme in Literature: Shakespearean Examples
Pararhyme ExamplePlayAnalysis
Love is not loveSonnet 116The repetition of “love” with different vowel sounds (“ʌv” and “uː”) creates a dissonance, highlighting the complexities and contradictions inherent in the concept of love.
And buds of majesty can never witherSonnet 55The pararhyme in “buds/majesty” (“ʌdz/ɪsti”) and “never/wither” (“ɛvə/ɪðə”) emphasizes the enduring power of art over time and decay, contrasting the transient nature of physical beauty with the immortality of verse.
From ancient grudge break to new mutinyRomeo and JulietThe pararhyme connects “grudge/break” (“ʌdʒ/eɪk”) and “new/mutiny” (“juː/iːni”), emphasizing the cyclical nature of violence and conflict, suggesting that old hatreds give rise to new rebellions.
For I have need of many orisonsHamletThe pararhyme between “need” (“iːd”) and “orisons” (prayers) (“ɒrɪsɒnz”) creates a sense of urgency and desperation in Hamlet’s plea for divine intervention, highlighting his spiritual turmoil.
If music be the food of love, play onTwelfth NightThe pararhyme connects “food” (“uːd”) and “love” (“ʌv”), suggesting a metaphorical relationship between sustenance and affection, implying that love, like food, nourishes the soul.
And smooth as monumental alabasterOthelloThe pararhyme in “smooth” (“uːð”) and “alabaster” (“æləbɑːstə”) creates a sense of cold beauty and artifice, foreshadowing Desdemona’s tragic fate, as her innocence and purity are ultimately shattered.
The cloudcapp’d towers, the gorgeous palacesThe TempestThe pararhyme emphasizes the impermanence and illusion of earthly power and grandeur, as the ephemeral nature of clouds is juxtaposed with the seemingly solid structures of human creation.
That death be not proud, though some have called theeHoly Sonnet 10The pararhyme between “proud” (“aʊd”) and “called” (“ɔːld”) creates a defiant tone, challenging the conventional fear of death by asserting that it is not as mighty as it seems.
Pararhyme in Literature: Examples
PoetPoemPararhyme Example(s)Explanation
Wilfred Owen“Strange Meeting”escaped/ scooped, groaned/ groinedThe consonant sounds are repeated (sc, gr) while the vowel sounds differ (eɪ/uː, əʊ/ɔɪ), creating a sense of dissonance and unease.
W.B. Yeats“The Second Coming”turning/ burning, widening/ gyreThe ‘n’ sound is consistent in each pair, but the vowels are different (ɜːr/ɜːr, aɪ/aɪə), enhancing the poem’s ominous tone.
T.S. Eliot“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”streets/ repeats, visions/ revisionsThe repetition of ‘ts’ and ‘ʒ’ sounds creates a sense of unease and repetition, while the differing vowel sounds (iː/iː, ɪ/ɪ) add to the poem’s fragmented feel.
Sylvia Plath“Daddy”Achoo/ do, wars/ yoursThe harsh ‘ch’ sound in ‘Achoo’ is echoed in ‘do,’ while the ‘w’ sound in ‘wars’ is mirrored in ‘yours,’ creating a sonic link between the words despite the different vowel sounds.
Dylan Thomas“Do not go gentle into that good night”night/ light, day/ theyThe repetition of the final consonant sounds (t, d) but with different vowel sounds (aɪ/aɪ, eɪ/eɪ) creates a sense of unity and contrast.
Seamus Heaney“Digging”spade/ blade, pen/ gunThe repeated ‘d’ and ‘n’ sounds connect the tools of the farmer and the poet, highlighting their shared heritage while the differing vowel sounds (eɪ/eɪ, ɛ/ʌ) distinguish their distinct purposes.
Emily Dickinson“Hope” is the thing with feathers”soul/ allAlthough the vowel sounds differ (oʊ/ɔː), the repeated ‘l’ sound creates a subtle connection, reinforcing the idea that hope resides within everyone.
Gerard Manley Hopkins“God’s Grandeur”shod/ rod, reck/ wreckedThe repeated ‘d’ sound in both pairs, despite the differing vowel sounds, emphasizes the power and might associated with God and nature.
Robert Frost“Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”queer/ nearThe repetition of the ‘r’ sound, despite the different vowel sounds (ɪə/ɪə), creates a subtle sense of unease and mystery.
E.E. Cummings“anyone lived in a pretty how town”women/ men, children/ seldenThe repeated ‘n’ sound connects these pairs, suggesting the universality of human experience, while the differing vowel sounds (ɪ/ɛ, ɪ/ə) emphasize the individuality of each person.
Pararhyme in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories
  1. Formalism/New Criticism: Pararhyme is a structural device that disrupts the expected pattern of full rhyme, creating a sense of tension and surprise. This dissonance can contribute to the overall thematic complexity of a poem, as seen in Wilfred Owen’s “Strange Meeting” where the pararhymes “groaned/groined” and “escaped/scooped” evoke the disharmony and trauma of war.
  2. Structuralism: Pararhyme can be seen as a linguistic pattern that subverts traditional notions of harmony and order. By highlighting the difference within similarity, it can reveal underlying oppositions or tensions within the text, as in T.S. Eliot’s “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,” where the pararhymes “streets/repeats” and “visions/revisions” reflect the fragmentation and disillusionment of modern life.
  3. Reader-Response Criticism: This theory emphasizes the emotional impact of pararhyme on the reader. The unexpected dissonance can create a feeling of unease or disquiet, amplifying the poem’s emotional register. For example, in Sylvia Plath’s “Daddy,” the pararhymes “Achoo/do” and “wars/yours” contribute to the poem’s raw and unsettling tone.
  4. Psychoanalytic Criticism: Pararhyme might be interpreted as a manifestation of repressed conflicts or anxieties within the text. The unresolved tension between similarity and difference can mirror psychological struggles, as seen in Dylan Thomas’s “Do not go gentle into that good night,” where the pararhymes “night/light” and “day/they” could be interpreted as representing the struggle between life and death.
  5. Marxist Criticism: Pararhyme may be analyzed as a reflection of social or ideological dissonance. The imperfect rhyme can mirror the inequalities and contradictions of the social order, as seen in Seamus Heaney’s “Digging,” where the pararhymes “spade/blade” and “pen/gun” connect the tools of different classes, highlighting the divide between manual labor and intellectual pursuits.
Pararhyme in Literature: Relevant Terms
TermDefinition
Pararhyme (Half-rhyme/Slant rhyme)Repetition of final consonant sounds but with different vowel sounds.
ConsonanceRepetition of consonant sounds within or at the end of words.
AssonanceRepetition of vowel sounds within words.
AlliterationRepetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words.
RhymeRepetition of sounds at the ends of words, usually the vowel sound and any following consonants.
Internal RhymeRhyme that occurs within a line of poetry rather than at the end.
Eye RhymeWords that appear to rhyme based on spelling but don’t actually rhyme when spoken.
DissonanceHarsh, inharmonious, or discordant sounds.
EuphonyPleasant, harmonious, or melodious sounds.
CacophonyA harsh, discordant mixture of sounds.

Pararhyme in Literature: Suggested Readings

Books:

Web Links:

Encomium as a Literary Device

Encomium, a rhetorical device with ancient origins, refers to a formal expression of praise, often employed in speeches or written works.

Encomium as a Literary Device
Encomium: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings
Encomium: Etymology

The term “encomium” originates from the Greek word “ἐγκώμιον” (enkṓmion), which means a speech or composition in praise of someone or something. The word itself is derived from “ἐν” (en), meaning “in,” and “κῶμος” (kōmos), meaning “banquet” or “revel.” In ancient Greece, encomiums were often delivered during festive banquets and public gatherings to extol the virtues and achievements of individuals. Over time, the concept of encomium evolved and found its place in various forms of literature and rhetoric, maintaining its core function as an expression of high praise and admiration. The transition from Greek to Latin retained the word’s essential meaning, and it eventually made its way into English usage during the Renaissance, where it has since been employed in both formal and literary contexts to denote a tribute or eulogy.

Literal and Conceptual Meanings
Literal MeaningConceptual Meaning
LiteralConceptual
Derived from Greek “ἐγκώμιον” (enkṓmion)A formal expression of praise
Composed of “ἐν” (en) meaning “in” and “κῶμος” (kōmos) meaning “banquet” or “revel”A rhetorical device used to celebrate and honor someone or something
Originally used in festive banquets and public gatherings in ancient GreeceAn elaborate and laudatory speech or piece of writing
Transitioned into Latin and English during the RenaissanceOften employed in academic, literary, and ceremonial contexts to highlight virtues and accomplishments
Encomium: Definition as a Literary Device

Encomium, a rhetorical device with ancient origins, refers to a formal expression of praise, often employed in speeches or written works. Characterized by lofty language and effusive admiration, encomium aims to celebrate and extol the virtues of a person, object, or event. Frequently used in epideictic oratory, encomium serves not only to honor its subject but also to reinforce shared values and ideals within a community.

Encomium: Examples in Everyday Life
Encomium ExampleExplanationReference
“Your dedication to this project is truly inspiring.”Praises someone’s work ethic and commitment.Workplace
“This meal is absolutely divine!”Extols the exceptional quality of a dish.Restaurant review
“You are the best teacher I’ve ever had.”Expresses admiration for a teacher’s abilities and impact.Student feedback
“This book is a masterpiece.”Praises a literary work for its exceptional artistry.Book review
“You are the most caring and supportive friend anyone could ask for.”Celebrates the qualities of a cherished friend.Personal conversation
“Your performance tonight was breathtaking.”Acknowledges an outstanding artistic or athletic performance.Concert or sports review
“This company is a leader in innovation and customer service.”Commends a company’s achievements and values.Business report
“This city is a gem, full of history and beauty.”Expresses admiration for a city’s unique qualities.Travel blog
“You are a true hero for your bravery and selflessness.”Recognizes someone’s exceptional courage and compassion.News article
“Your wedding was a magical and unforgettable celebration.”Celebrates a couple’s special day and the love they share.Wedding toast
Encomium in Literature: Shakespearean Examples

·  “Henry V”

  • Reference: Act 1, Scene 1
  • Example: The Archbishop of Canterbury praises King Henry V: “The courses of his youth promised it not. The breath no sooner left his father’s body but that his wildness, mortified in him, seemed to die too.”

·  “Othello”

  • Reference: Act 2, Scene 1
  • Example: Cassio praises Desdemona: “The divine Desdemona, […] Let it not gall your patience, good Iago, that I extend my manners. ‘Tis my breeding that gives me this bold show of courtesy.”

·  “Julius Caesar”

  • Reference: Act 3, Scene 2
  • Example: Antony’s speech praising Caesar: “He was my friend, faithful and just to me. But Brutus says he was ambitious, and Brutus is an honourable man.”

·  “Macbeth”

  • Reference: Act 1, Scene 2
  • Example: Duncan praises Macbeth: “O valiant cousin! Worthy gentleman!”

·  “Hamlet”

  • Reference: Act 1, Scene 2
  • Example: Claudius praises Laertes: “The head is not more native to the heart, the hand more instrumental to the mouth, than is the throne of Denmark to thy father.”

·  “Much Ado About Nothing”

  • Reference: Act 1, Scene 1
  • Example: Messenger praises Claudio: “He hath borne himself beyond the promise of his age, doing in the figure of a lamb the feats of a lion.”

·  “The Tempest”

  • Reference: Act 1, Scene 2
  • Example: Prospero praises Miranda: “O, a cherubim thou wast that did preserve me. Thou didst smile infused with a fortitude from heaven.”

·  “Antony and Cleopatra”

  • Reference: Act 5, Scene 1
  • Example: Cleopatra praises Antony: “His legs bestrid the ocean; his reared arm crested the world.”
Encomium in Literature: Examples
Encomium ExampleWorkExplanation
“O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done…”O Captain! My Captain!” by Walt WhitmanAn encomium for Abraham Lincoln, praising his leadership and mourning his death. The extended metaphor of a ship’s captain guiding his vessel through a storm highlights Lincoln’s role in leading the nation through the Civil War.
“Much have I travell’d in the realms of gold, And many goodly states and kingdoms seen…”“On First Looking into Chapman’s Homer” by John KeatsAn encomium for the beauty and power of poetry, specifically Homer’s epics as translated by George Chapman. The speaker compares reading Chapman’s translation to discovering a new world of wonder and excitement.
“She walks in beauty, like the night Of cloudless climes and starry skies…”She Walks in Beauty” by Lord ByronAn encomium for a woman’s beauty, comparing her to the serene and harmonious beauty of nature. The poem celebrates both her physical attractiveness and her inner grace.
“Of Man’s first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree…”Paradise Lost by John MiltonWhile the epic poem primarily focuses on the Fall of Man, it opens with an invocation to the Muse, a form of encomium praising divine inspiration and seeking guidance for the poet’s ambitious undertaking.
“Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? Thou art more lovely and more temperate…”Sonnet 18 by William ShakespeareA classic love poem that is an encomium to the beloved’s beauty and enduring qualities. The speaker compares the beloved to a summer’s day but ultimately finds them to be superior.
Encomium in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories
  1. Classical Rhetoric: Encomium is one of the three genres of rhetoric, aiming to praise or honor a person, place, or thing, emphasizing its virtues and achievements.
  2. Neoclassicism: Encomium is used to extol the virtues of a subject, often drawing on classical models and ideals, emphasizing reason, order, and balance.
  3. Romanticism: Encomium is employed to express intense emotions and personal feelings, often focusing on the beauty and wonder of nature, art, or the human experience.
  4. Postmodernism: Encomium is subverted or ironicized, challenging traditional notions of praise and honor, and often blurring the lines between sincerity and satire.
Encomium in Literature: Relevant Terms
TermDefinition
EulogyA speech or piece of writing that praises someone or something highly, typically at a funeral.
PanegyricA public speech or text in praise of someone or something.
TributeAn act, statement, or gift that is intended to show gratitude, respect, or admiration.
HymnA religious song or poem of praise to God or a deity.
HomageSpecial honor or respect shown publicly.
ApplauseApproval or praise expressed by clapping.
AcclamationLoud and enthusiastic approval or praise, typically given by a group.
CommendationFormal praise or approval.
OdeA lyric poem, typically addressed to a particular subject, often in a lofty or formal style.
LaudationPraise, commendation.
Encomium in Literature: Suggested Readings

Books:

Web Links:

  • “Encomium.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., https://www.britannica.com/art/encomium
  • “Epideictic Rhetoric.” Silva Rhetoricae, Brigham Young University, http://rhetoric.byu.edu/
  • “Praise and Blame.” The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, https://plato.stanford.edu/

Diacope as a Literary Device

Diacope, a rhetorical device rooted in repetition, involves the intentional repetition of a word or phrase after a brief interruption of intervening words.

Diacope as a Literary Device
Diacope: Etymology, Literal and Conceptual Meanings
Etymology of Diacope

The term “diacope” derives from the Greek word “diakopē,” which translates to “cutting in two” or “cleaving.” This etymological root emphasizes the notion of separation and repetition, inherent in the rhetorical figure’s structure. The word “diakopē” itself comes from “dia,” meaning “through” or “across,” and “kopē,” meaning “cut” or “strike.” Diacope, therefore, involves a phrase or word that is repeated with one or more intervening words, creating a deliberate break that serves to emphasize the repeated term or phrase. This repetition technique has been utilized across various literary traditions to create emphasis, rhythm, and emotional impact, reflecting its enduring significance in rhetorical and literary analysis.

Literal Meaning
  • Diacope literally means “cutting in two” or “cleaving,” derived from Greek.
  • It involves the repetition of a word or phrase with an intervening word or words.
Conceptual Meaning
  • Emphasis: Diacope is used to highlight a particular word or phrase, drawing the reader’s or listener’s attention to it.
  • Rhythm: The repetitive structure creates a rhythmic effect, enhancing the musicality of language.
  • Emotional Impact: The deliberate break and repetition can evoke strong emotional responses, adding depth to the expression.
  • Persuasion: In rhetoric, diacope can be a powerful persuasive tool, reinforcing key points or themes through repetition.
Diacope: Definition as a Literary Device

Diacope, a rhetorical device rooted in repetition, involves the intentional repetition of a word or phrase after a brief interruption of intervening words. This technique amplifies the significance of the repeated element, creating emphasis and generating a rhythmic cadence that enhances the overall impact of the text. Employed in both prose and poetry, diacope serves to heighten emotional resonance, underscore key themes, and leave a lasting impression on the audience.

Diacope: Examples in Everyday Life
Diacope ExampleExplanation
“No, no, no!”Expresses strong disagreement or refusal, emphasizing the negative response.
“All in all, it was a good day.”Summarizes a positive experience, emphasizing the overall assessment.
“Alone, alone, all all alone.”Conveys a feeling of profound isolation and loneliness, emphasizing the solitude.
“Never say never.”Indicates that possibilities should not be completely ruled out, emphasizing openness to change.
“Enough is enough!”Expresses frustration with a situation that has gone on too long, emphasizing the need for change.
“Busy, busy, busy!”Describes a hectic or overloaded schedule, emphasizing the lack of free time.
“Oh, the horror, the horror!”Expresses shock and disbelief at a horrific event, emphasizing the intensity of the reaction.
“The nerve, the absolute nerve!”Expresses indignation at someone’s audacity, emphasizing the boldness of their actions.
“Easy come, easy go.”Remarks on the transient nature of good fortune, emphasizing the impermanence of gains.
“Location, location, location!”Emphasizes the importance of location in real estate or business, highlighting its significance.
Diacope in Literature: Shakespearean Examples
Diacope ExamplePlayExplanation
“To be, or not to be”HamletThis iconic phrase repeats the infinitive “to be,” emphasizing the existential dilemma Hamlet faces.
“Put out the light, and then put out the light.”OthelloOthello repeats “put out the light,” referring to both extinguishing a candle and ending Desdemona’s life, intensifying the tragic significance.
“Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks! rage! blow!”King LearLear’s repetition of “blow” intensifies his despair and anger at the storm and his daughters’ betrayal.
“A horse! a horse! my kingdom for a horse!”Richard IIIRichard desperately repeats “a horse,” emphasizing his need for escape and the value he places on it in that moment.
“O Romeo, Romeo! wherefore art thou Romeo?”Romeo and JulietJuliet’s repetition of “Romeo” emphasizes her longing for him and her frustration with their families’ feud.
“Double, double toil and trouble; Fire burn and caldron bubble.”MacbethThe witches’ chant repeats “double” to emphasize the brewing chaos and the doubling of prophecies and deceit.
“All the world’s a stage, And all the men and women merely players.”As You Like ItJaques repeats “all” to emphasize the universality of his observation about life’s theatrical nature.
“Cry ‘Havoc!’ and let slip the dogs of war.”Julius CaesarAntony’s repetition of “Havoc” underscores the brutality he is about to unleash on Rome.
“Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow, Creeps in this petty pace from day to day.”MacbethMacbeth’s repetition of “tomorrow” emphasizes the futility and meaninglessness of time and life after his devastating losses.
“My words fly up, my thoughts remain below: Words without thoughts never to heaven go.”HamletClaudius repeats “words” and “thoughts” to highlight the discrepancy between his spoken prayers and his true intentions.
Diacope in Literature: Examples
  1. William Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”
    • Example: “To be, or not to be, that is the question.”
    • Explanation: In this famous soliloquy, Shakespeare uses diacope to emphasize Hamlet’s contemplation of existence and suicide. The repetition of “to be” with the intervening phrase “or not” and “that is the question” underscores the tension and uncertainty of life and death.
  2. Charles Dickens’ “A Tale of Two Cities”
    • Example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness…”
    • Explanation: Dickens employs diacope throughout the opening paragraph to juxtapose contrasting conditions, reflecting the paradoxical nature of the French Revolution era. The repetition of “it was the” with different intervening phrases highlights the simultaneous extremes of the period.
  3. Winston Churchill’s Speech
    • Example: “We shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender.”
    • Explanation: Churchill’s use of diacope in his speech during World War II serves to reinforce the relentless spirit and determination of the British people. The repeated phrase “we shall fight” with varying intervening phrases emphasizes the resolve and resilience in different contexts.
  4. Edgar Allan Poe’s “The Raven”
    • Example: “Quoth the Raven, ‘Nevermore.'”
    • Explanation: The repetition of the word ‘Nevermore’ throughout Poe’s poem creates a haunting and rhythmic effect. The word itself, with its negative connotation, reinforces the poem’s themes of loss and despair.
  5. T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land”
    • Example: “HURRY UP PLEASE ITS TIME”
    • Explanation: Eliot uses diacope in this fragmented phrase to create a sense of urgency and chaos, reflecting the modern world’s disjointedness and the poem’s themes of disillusionment and decay.
  6. Maya Angelou’s “Still I Rise”
    • Example: “I rise, I rise, I rise.”
    • Explanation: Angelou uses diacope to emphasize resilience and defiance in the face of oppression. The repetition of “I rise” with intervening lines creates a powerful affirmation of strength and empowerment.
  7. Robert Frost’s “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening”
    • Example: “And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep.”
    • Explanation: Frost’s repetition of “And miles to go before I sleep” creates a sense of weariness and the weight of responsibilities. The repetition emphasizes the speaker’s journey and the distance yet to be traveled.
Diacope in Literature: Relevance in Literary Theories
  1. Formalism/New Criticism: Formalists analyze diacope as a structural device that enhances the aesthetic unity and complexity of a text. They examine how the repetition of words or phrases contributes to the overall rhythm, tone, and thematic development of the work, independent of the author’s intention or historical context.
  2. Structuralism: Structuralists interpret diacope as a linguistic pattern that reveals underlying systems of meaning within the text. They explore how the repetition of specific words or phrases relates to other elements in the text, such as binary oppositions or recurring motifs, to uncover the text’s deeper structures and cultural codes.
  3. Reader-Response Criticism: Reader-response critics focus on the effect of diacope on the reader’s experience and interpretation of the text. They investigate how the repetition of words or phrases creates emotional impact, reinforces key ideas, and influences the reader’s engagement with the work, emphasizing the subjective nature of literary interpretation.
  4. Psychoanalytic Criticism: Psychoanalytic critics analyze diacope as a manifestation of unconscious desires or anxieties in the author or characters. They explore how the repetition of words or phrases might reveal hidden meanings, repressed emotions, or unresolved conflicts, using diacope as a tool to delve into the psychological depths of the text.
  5. Marxist Criticism: Marxist critics examine diacope in relation to social and economic structures. They analyze how the repetition of words or phrases might reflect or challenge power dynamics, class struggles, or ideological conflicts within the text, revealing how language and literature are influenced by material conditions and historical context.
Diacope in Literature: Relevant Terms
Literary Device/TermDefinition
RepetitionThe intentional reuse of a word, phrase, or structure for emphasis or effect.
AnaphoraRepetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.
EpistropheRepetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses or sentences.
EpanalepsisRepetition of a word or phrase at the beginning and end of a sentence or clause.
EpizeuxisRepetition of a word or phrase in immediate succession, for vehemence or emphasis.
ParallelismUse of similar grammatical structures in a pair or series of related words, phrases, or clauses.
AntithesisJuxtaposition of contrasting ideas, often in parallel structure.
Rhetorical QuestionA question asked in order to create a dramatic effect or to make a point rather than to get an answer.
ChiasmusA reversal of grammatical structures in successive phrases or clauses.
AnadiplosisRepetition of the last word of one clause at the beginning of the following clause.
Diacope in Literature: Suggested Readings
  1. Corbett, Edward P. J., and Robert J. Connors. Classical Rhetoric for the Modern Student. 4th ed., Oxford UP, 1999.
  2. Khan, Abdul Bari, and Tallat Jabeen. “Stylistics analysis of the poem ‘To Autumn’by John Keats.International Journal of Academic Research and Reflection 3.1 (2015): 127-137.
  3. Hollander, John. Rhyme’s Reason: A Guide to English Verse. 3rd ed., Yale UP, 2001.
  4. Lanham, Richard A. A Handlist of Rhetorical Terms. 2nd ed., University of California Press, 1991.
  5. Quinn, Arthur. Figures of Speech: 60 Ways to Turn a Phrase. Peregrine Smith Books, 1982.

“Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth: A Critical Analysis

“Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth first appeared in 1807 as part of the collection Poems, in Two Volumes.

"Splendour in the Grass" by William Wordsworth: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth

“Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth first appeared in 1807 as part of the collection Poems, in Two Volumes. The poem is a poignant meditation on the loss of youthful innocence and the inevitable passage of time. Wordsworth’s signature romantic qualities are evident in the poem’s focus on nature’s beauty and its ability to evoke powerful emotions. He employs vivid imagery to capture the fleeting “splendour in the grass” and “glory in the flower,” contrasting them with the speaker’s wistful longing for a past that can never be regained. The poem’s lyrical language and melancholic tone create a sense of nostalgia and introspection, inviting readers to reflect on their own experiences of loss and the enduring power of memory.

Text: “Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth

What though the radiance

which was once so bright

Be now for ever taken from my sight,

Though nothing can bring back the hour

Of splendour in the grass,

of glory in the flower,

We will grieve not, rather find

Strength in what remains behind;

In the primal sympathy

Which having been must ever be;

In the soothing thoughts that spring

Out of human suffering;

In the faith that looks through death,

In years that bring the philosophic mind.

Annotations of “Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth
LineAnnotation
What though the radianceThe poem starts by acknowledging the loss of something precious and beautiful, referred to as “radiance”.
which was once so brightThe radiance was once intense and vibrant, but is now lost.
Be now for ever taken from my sightThe speaker can no longer see or experience the radiance.
Though nothing can bring back the hourTime cannot be reversed, and the moment of radiance cannot be regained.
Of splendour in the grass,The radiance was present in nature, specifically in the grass.
of glory in the flower,The radiance was also present in flowers, emphasizing the beauty and wonder of nature.
We will grieve not, rather findInstead of dwelling on the loss, the speaker chooses to find strength and solace.
Strength in what remains behind;The speaker finds comfort in the memories and experiences that still remain.
In the primal sympathyThe speaker finds comfort in the shared human experience of loss and suffering.
Which having been must ever be;The experience of loss is a fundamental part of human existence, and it shapes who we are.
In the soothing thoughts that springThe speaker finds comfort in the thoughts and reflections that come from experiencing loss.
Out of human suffering;Suffering is a universal human experience, and it can lead to growth and understanding.
In the faith that looks through death,The speaker finds comfort in the belief that there is something beyond mortality.
In years that bring the philosophic mind.With age and experience, the speaker has developed a deeper understanding and appreciation of life.
Literary and Poetic Devices in “Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth
DeviceExample(s)Explanation and Function
Allusion“Of splendour in the grassReference to a well-known phrase (Psalm 23) adds depth and a sense of shared cultural understanding.
AnaphoraIn the soothing thoughts that spring… In the faith that looks through death… In years that bring…”Repetition of a phrase at the beginning of successive clauses creates a rhythmic pattern and emphasizes the ideas.
Assonance“In the primal sympathy”Repetition of vowel sounds within nearby words creates internal rhyme and a harmonious effect.
Consonance“Strength in what remains behindRepetition of consonant sounds at the end of nearby words adds subtle emphasis and a pleasing sound.
Enjambment“Of splendour in the grass,”Continuation of a sentence beyond the end of a line creates a sense of flow and can emphasize certain words.
Imagery“Of splendour in the grass,”Vivid descriptive language that appeals to the senses (sight in this case) to create a picture in the reader’s mind.
Metaphor“Strength in what remains behind”Implied comparison between strength and memories, suggesting memories can provide resilience.
Oxymoron“Splendour in the Grass”Contradictory terms (splendour and grass) are combined, creating a surprising and thought-provoking effect.
Paradox“In the faith that looks through death,”A seemingly contradictory statement that reveals a deeper truth about faith’s ability to transcend death.
Personification“Strength in what remains behind”Giving human qualities (strength) to non-human things (memories) makes them more relatable.
Repetition“In the soothing thoughts that spring”Repeating a phrase reinforces the idea and creates emphasis.
Rhyme“The hour / Of splendour in the grass,”Correspondence of sound between words (hour and flower) creates a musical effect and helps structure the poem.
SimileNone in this excerpt.Comparison using “like” or “as” (not present in this excerpt, but often used in other poems).
Symbolism“Splendour in the Grass”The title phrase symbolizes the beauty and innocence of youth.
Synecdoche“In years that bring the philosophic mind”A part (years) is used to represent the whole (life experience), suggesting that wisdom comes with age.
Tone“We will grieve not, rather find”The author’s hopeful and resilient attitude towards loss and aging.
Understatement“We will grieve not, rather find”Deliberately downplaying the significance of grief, highlighting the focus on resilience.
Verbal IronyNone in this excerpt.Saying one thing but meaning the opposite (not present in this excerpt).
Volta“In the faith that looks through death,”The turning point in the poem, where the focus shifts from loss to hope and resilience.
Themes in “Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth
  1. Loss of Innocence and Nostalgia for Youth: The poem’s opening lines, “What though the radiance which was once so bright / Be now for ever taken from my sight,” express a profound sense of loss. The speaker mourns the fading of youthful exuberance and the inability to recapture the intense joy and wonder once experienced in nature. This theme resonates with the Romantic emphasis on the purity and vibrancy of childhood, which is often contrasted with the disillusionment of adulthood.
  2. Transcendence and the Eternal Nature of the Soul: Despite the lament for lost youth, the poem does not succumb to despair. Instead, it finds solace and strength in the enduring power of the human spirit and the belief in an eternal essence that transcends the limitations of time and mortality. The lines “In the primal sympathy / Which having been must ever be” suggest an innate connection to the universe and a spiritual continuity that persists beyond the individual lifespan.
  3. Resilience and Finding Solace in Adversity: Wordsworth advocates for finding strength and resilience in the face of loss and suffering. The poem urges the reader to “grieve not” but to seek solace in “what remains behind.” This could refer to the enduring beauty of nature, the comforting power of human connection, or the wisdom gained through experience and reflection. The poem encourages a shift from mourning to acceptance and finding meaning in the present moment.
  4. The Healing Power of Nature and Philosophical Reflection: The poem emphasizes the restorative power of nature and the importance of cultivating a philosophical mindset. The “soothing thoughts that spring / Out of human suffering” can be interpreted as a reference to the contemplative and introspective benefits of engaging with the natural world. The poem suggests that through philosophical reflection and a deeper understanding of the human condition, we can find a sense of peace and acceptance amidst the challenges of life.
Literary Theories and “Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth
Literary TheoryReferences from PoemCritique
Romanticism“splendour in the grass,” “glory in the flower,” “primal sympathy,” “faith that looks through death”This theory aligns with the poem’s emphasis on nature’s beauty, emotional experience, and the power of the individual imagination. However, it may overlook the poem’s more complex themes of loss and aging.
Psychoanalytic Criticism“radiance which was once so bright,” “nothing can bring back the hour,” “grieve not”This theory could explore the poem as a meditation on the loss of childhood innocence and the unconscious desire to return to a state of blissful ignorance. However, it might oversimplify the poem’s emphasis on resilience and spiritual growth.
Ecocriticism“splendour in the grass,” “glory in the flower,” “soothing thoughts that spring / Out of human suffering”This theory would highlight the poem’s focus on the natural world as a source of comfort and inspiration. It might also explore the poem’s underlying message about the importance of preserving nature’s beauty. However, it may not fully address the poem’s deeper philosophical and spiritual themes.
Topics, Essays Questions and Thesis Statements about “Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth

TopicEssay QuestionThesis Statement
Nature’s TransienceHow does Wordsworth explore the theme of transience in “Splendour in the Grass”?In “Splendour in the Grass,” Wordsworth portrays the fleeting nature of beauty and human experience through vivid imagery and reflective contemplation.
Relationship Between Memory and LossExplore the relationship between memory and loss in Wordsworth’s “Splendour in the Grass.”Wordsworth’s poem “Splendour in the Grass” illuminates how memories of past beauty and loss shape present understanding and resilience.
Reflections on Human ResilienceHow does Wordsworth depict human resilience in “Splendour in the Grass”?Through introspective contemplation and philosophical inquiry, Wordsworth in “Splendour in the Grass” celebrates the resilience of the human spirit in the face of impermanence.
The Role of Nature in Emotional HealingDiscuss the role of nature in providing solace and healing in Wordsworth’s “Splendour in the Grass.”Wordsworth’s depiction of nature in “Splendour in the Grass” underscores its transformative power in comforting and restoring emotional wounds, offering solace amidst life’s fleeting moments.
Critical Questions about “Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth
  • Question 1: How does the speaker’s attitude towards loss and memory shape their response to the fleeting nature of beauty and wonder in life, as embodied in the “splendour in the grass”?
  • The speaker’s decision to “grieve not” and instead “find strength in what remains behind” (lines 7-8) suggests a focus on the enduring power of memory and experience, rather than the pain of loss. This attitude is reinforced by the poem’s emphasis on the “primal sympathy” that connects all human experiences of suffering (line 9), implying that the speaker finds comfort in the shared human experience of loss. By choosing to focus on the memories of beauty rather than the pain of its loss, the speaker is able to transform their grief into a deeper appreciation for the beauty that still remains.
  • Question 2: What role does nature play in the speaker’s meditation on loss, memory, and the human experience?
  • The poem’s imagery of “splendour in the grass” and “glory in the flower” (lines 5-6) suggests that nature is a source of beauty and wonder, but also a reminder of the transience of life. The speaker’s focus on the natural world may be seen as a way of finding comfort in the cyclical nature of life and death, and the way that beauty and wonder can be found in even the smallest and most fleeting things. By emphasizing the beauty of nature, the speaker is able to find solace in the fact that even in death, beauty can still be found.
  • Question 3: How does the poem’s use of language, form, and structure contribute to its exploration of loss, memory, and the human experience?
  • The poem’s use of simple, direct language and its loose, conversational structure create a sense of intimacy and introspection, drawing the reader into the speaker’s meditation on loss. The poem’s rhythm and meter also create a sense of steady, reflective pace, which reinforces the speaker’s focus on the enduring power of memory. The use of enjambment and caesura adds to the sense of flow and pause, mirroring the speaker’s thoughts and emotions. Furthermore, the poem’s use of metaphor and imagery adds depth and complexity to the speaker’s emotions, creating a rich and nuanced exploration of loss and memory.
  • Question 4: What does the poem suggest about the relationship between suffering, understanding, and personal growth?
  • The speaker’s claim that “in years that bring the philosophic mind” (line 14) they have come to find comfort in the memories of past experiences suggests that suffering can be a catalyst for deeper understanding and appreciation of life. This idea is reinforced by the poem’s emphasis on the “soothing thoughts that spring out of human suffering” (line 11), implying that the speaker has gained a deeper understanding of themselves and the world through their experiences of loss. By exploring the relationship between suffering and understanding, the poem suggests that personal growth and transformation can come from even the darkest of experiences.
Literary Works Similar to “Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth
  1. “Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood” by William Wordsworth: Explores themes of memory, childhood innocence, and the passage of time with profound philosophical reflections.
  2. “To Autumn” by John Keats: Celebrates the beauty of nature’s cycles and the richness of the present moment through vivid sensory imagery.
  3. Lines Composed a Few Miles above Tintern Abbey” by William Wordsworth: Reflects on the power of nature to inspire spiritual and emotional renewal, blending personal reminiscence with philosophical contemplation.
  4. “The Prelude” by William Wordsworth: A semi-autobiographical epic poem that explores the growth of the poet’s mind and spirit, emphasizing the transformative power of nature and memory.
Suggesting Readings: “Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth

Books:

Articles:

  • Hartman, Geoffrey H. “Wordsworth, Inscriptions, and Romantic Nature Poetry.” PMLA, vol. 96, no. 5, 1981, pp. 817-832. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/462033.
Representative Quotations from about “Splendour in the Grass” by William Wordsworth
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“What though the radiance
which was once so bright”
The speaker reflects on the loss of something beautiful and precious.Romanticism: emphasis on beauty, nature, and the emotional response to loss.
“We will grieve not, rather find
Strength in what remains behind”
The speaker chooses to focus on the memories and experiences that still remain.Existentialism: emphasis on finding meaning and strength in the present moment, despite loss.
“In the primal sympathy
Which having been must ever be”
The speaker finds comfort in the shared human experience of suffering.Humanism: emphasis on the shared experiences and emotions that connect all humans.
“In the soothing thoughts that spring
Out of human suffering”
The speaker finds comfort in the thoughts and reflections that come from experiencing loss.Psychoanalytic Theory: emphasis on the role of suffering in shaping the self and promoting personal growth.
“In years that bring the philosophic mind”The speaker reflects on how their experiences have led to a deeper understanding of life.Bildungsroman: emphasis on the process of personal growth and development through experience and reflection.

“Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare: A Critical Analysis

“Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare first appeared in 1609, as part of the Quarto edition of “Fair Youth” sequence — love for a young man.

"Sonnet 106" by William Shakespeare: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare

“Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare first appeared in 1609, as part of the Quarto edition of “Fair Youth” sequence, where the speaker expresses admiration and love for a young man. The sonnet explores the theme of beauty as described in historical texts and poetry, with the speaker suggesting that past writers lacked the adequate words to capture the true essence of the young man’s loveliness. It grapples with the inadequacy of language to describe perfect beauty, highlighting the timelessness of beauty and the power it holds over generations. The poem utilizes vivid imagery and metaphors, along with a reflective tone, to create a sense of awe and reverence for the young man’s exceptional beauty.

Text: “Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare

When in the chronicle of wasted time

I see descriptions of the fairest wights,

And beauty making beautiful old rhyme

In praise of ladies dead and lovely knights,

Then, in the blazon of sweet beauty’s best,

Of hand, of foot, of lip, of eye, of brow,

I see their antique pen would have express’d

Even such a beauty as you master now.

So all their praises are but prophecies

Of this our time, all you prefiguring;

And, for they look’d but with divining eyes,

They had not skill enough your worth to sing:

For we, which now behold these present days,

Have eyes to wonder, but lack tongues to praise.

Annotations: “Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare
LineAnnotation
When in the chronicle of wasted timeThe speaker begins by referencing historical records (“chronicle”) and the passage of time (“wasted time”). This sets a contemplative tone, suggesting a reflection on the past.
I see descriptions of the fairest wights,The speaker encounters written accounts of the most beautiful people (“fairest wights”) in these historical records. “Wights” is an archaic term for beings or creatures.
And beauty making beautiful old rhymeThe speaker notes how the beauty of these individuals inspired beautiful poetry (“old rhyme”) in the past. This emphasizes the enduring power of beauty to inspire art.
In praise of ladies dead and lovely knights,The poetry praised both women (“ladies dead”) and men (“lovely knights”), suggesting that beauty transcends gender.
Then, in the blazon of sweet beauty’s best,The speaker shifts to focusing on the detailed descriptions of beauty (“blazon”). A blazon was a poetic convention of cataloging a beloved’s physical attributes.
Of hand, of foot, of lip, of eye, of brow,The speaker lists specific body parts that were often praised in these blazons, highlighting the detailed focus on physical beauty in past poetry.
I see their antique pen would have express’dThe speaker imagines how the poets of the past (“their antique pen”) would have reacted to the beauty they witness now.
Even such a beauty as you master now.The speaker addresses their beloved (“you”) and suggests that their beauty surpasses even the most beautiful figures from the past.
So all their praises are but propheciesThis is a turning point in the sonnet. The speaker claims that all the past praises of beauty were actually predictions (“prophecies”) of the beloved’s arrival.
Of this our time, all you prefiguring;The beloved is seen as the culmination of all past beauty, the figure that past poets were unknowingly anticipating.
And, for they look’d but with divining eyes,The past poets are described as having “divining eyes,” suggesting a limited vision of the future. They could only glimpse the idea of perfect beauty.
They had not skill enough your worth to sing:The speaker asserts that past poets lacked the ability (“skill”) to adequately describe the beloved’s true worth.
For we, which now behold these present days,The speaker includes themselves and their contemporaries in the present moment, contrasting them with the past.
Have eyes to wonder, but lack tongues to praise.The speaker admits that even they, who witness the beloved’s beauty firsthand, cannot find words (“lack tongues”) to fully express its magnificence.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare
DeviceExample(s)ExplanationFunction
Alliterationwasted time,” “fairest wights,” “beauty beautiful,” “ladies dead and lovely”Repetition of initial consonant soundsEnhances musicality, emphasizes words, and creates connections between ideas.
AnaphoraOf hand, of foot, of lip, of eye, of brow”Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.Emphasizes the cataloging of beauty and creates a sense of rhythm.
Apostrophe“you master now” (line 8)Direct address to an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction.Heightens the emotional intensity of the poem and creates a sense of intimacy.
Assonance“wasted time”Repetition of vowel sounds within wordsEnhances musicality and creates a sense of internal rhyme.
Caesura“Then, in the blazon of sweet beauty’s best,” (line 5)A pause or break within a line of poetry, usually marked by punctuation.Creates a dramatic pause and emphasizes the following phrase.
Consonancelovely knight**s”Repetition of consonant sounds within or at the end of wordsCreates a subtle sense of rhyme and musicality.
Hyperbole“Have eyes to wonder, but lack tongues to praise” (line 14)Exaggeration for emphasis or dramatic effect.Emphasizes the speaker’s inability to fully capture the beloved’s beauty in words.
Iambic pentameter(The entire sonnet follows this meter)A metrical pattern of five pairs of unstressed and stressed syllables.Creates a rhythmic structure and contributes to the poem’s formal beauty.
Imagery“chronicle of wasted time,” “divining eyes,” “eyes to wonder”Vivid descriptive language that appeals to the senses.Creates a vivid picture in the reader’s mind and enhances the emotional impact.
Metaphor“all their praises are but prophecies” (line 9)A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”Suggests that past praise prefigures the beloved’s beauty.
Metonymy“antique pen” (line 7)Substitution of the name of an attribute for the thing meant.Creates a poetic shorthand and avoids repetition.
Octave and Sestet(The sonnet is divided into an 8-line octave and a 6-line sestet)The structural division of a sonnet, often marking a shift in theme or tone.Creates a sense of balance and allows for the development of ideas.
Personification“beauty making beautiful old rhyme” (line 3)Attribution of human qualities to an inanimate object or abstract concept.Makes the abstract concept of beauty more vivid and relatable.
Rhyme schemeABABCDCDEFEFGGThe ordered pattern of rhymes at the ends of the lines of a poem or verse.Creates a sense of unity and structure, and enhances musicality.
SimileNone in this excerpt.A comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as.”(Not present in this excerpt, but often used in other sonnets)
Symbolism“wasted time,” “divining eyes”The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.Adds layers of meaning and allows for multiple interpretations.
Synecdoche“hand, of foot, of lip, of eye, of brow” (line 6)A figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole or vice versa.Creates a vivid image of the beloved’s beauty through a focus on specific body parts.
ToneReverential, admiring, self-deprecatingThe attitude of the speaker toward the subject.Shapes the reader’s emotional response and creates a sense of intimacy.
Themes: “Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare
  • Time and Beauty: Shakespeare’s “Sonnet 106” meditates on the timeless allure of beauty amidst the passage of time. By referencing “the chronicle of wasted time” and “descriptions of the fairest wights,” Shakespeare suggests that beauty transcends temporal boundaries. The sonnet implies that beauty is not confined to the present but is perpetuated through literature and poetry. This theme underscores the idea that poetry serves as a medium to immortalize beauty, allowing it to resonate across centuries. Shakespeare’s use of language, such as “antique pen” and “sweet beauty’s best,” evokes a sense of continuity between past and present, highlighting the enduring power of aesthetic appreciation.
  • Poetry and Prophecy: Within “Sonnet 106,” Shakespeare explores the prophetic nature of poetry in foreseeing and celebrating beauty. The sonnet implies that poets, through their craft, can foresee the future allure of individuals like the beloved, albeit imperfectly. Shakespeare suggests that past poets, with their “antique pen,” attempted to capture the beauty of their time, anticipating the beauty of the beloved in the present. This theme reveals poetry’s capacity not only to reflect but also to shape perceptions of beauty, elevating the beloved to a status prophesied by earlier literary works. The sonnet’s structure and language convey a sense of continuity and anticipation, emphasizing poetry’s role in envisioning and honoring timeless beauty.
  • Limitations of Language: “Sonnet 106” also addresses the inherent limitations of language in capturing the essence of beauty. Shakespeare laments that even though poets have “eyes to wonder” at the beauty they behold, they lack “tongues to praise” it adequately. This theme highlights the inadequacy of words in conveying the full spectrum of human experience, particularly the ineffable qualities of beauty. Shakespeare’s use of contrast between sight and speech underscores the tension between what is seen and what can be expressed through language. The sonnet suggests that while poetry attempts to encapsulate beauty, it ultimately acknowledges the limitations of linguistic expression in capturing its profound and elusive nature.
  • The Poet’s Role: Finally, “Sonnet 106” explores the role of the poet in immortalizing beauty through verse. Shakespeare portrays poets as visionary figures who, through their craft, seek to preserve and celebrate the beauty of the beloved. The sonnet suggests that poets are akin to diviners who foresee and articulate the enduring allure of individuals like the beloved. By praising the beloved in poetry, the poet transcends temporal boundaries, ensuring that beauty is perpetuated through literary expression. Shakespeare’s portrayal of the poet as a custodian of beauty underscores poetry’s transformative power in commemorating and perpetuating aesthetic appreciation across time and cultural contexts.
Literary Theories and “Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare
TheoryReferenceCritique
Platonism“So all their praises are but prophecies
Of this our time, all you prefiguring;” (lines 9-10)
Shakespeare’s sonnet reflects Platonic ideals by suggesting that beauty is eternal and transcends time. However, some critics argue that this view reinforces a static and unattainable notion of beauty (Bloom, 1998).
Marxism“When in the chronicle of wasted time
I see descriptions of the fairest wights;” (lines 1-2)
Marxist critics might interpret the sonnet as a commentary on the commodification of beauty, where the speaker critiques the excesses of the past (Eagleton, 1983). However, others argue that Shakespeare’s focus on individual beauty overlooks larger social structures (Sinfield, 1992).
Feminism“Of hand, of foot, of lip, of eye, of brow,
I see their antique pen would have express’d” (lines 5-6)
Feminist critics argue that the sonnet objectifies women, reducing them to physical attributes (Milford, 2005). However, others contend that Shakespeare’s emphasis on beauty subverts traditional gender roles, allowing women to occupy a space of agency and power (Jardine, 1983).
Critical Questions about “Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare
  • How does Shakespeare explore the theme of time and its impact on beauty in Sonnet 106?
  • Shakespeare introduces the theme of time immediately with the phrase “chronicle of wasted time.” This sets a tone of reflection on the past and the fleeting nature of beauty. The poem contrasts the “fairest wights” of the past with the beauty of the present, suggesting that beauty is not immune to the passage of time. However, the speaker argues that the beloved’s beauty transcends time, as it fulfills the “prophecies” of past poets and serves as a culmination of all previous beauty. This implies that true beauty is timeless, even if individual instances of it are ephemeral.
  • What is the significance of the “blazon” in Sonnet 106, and how does it relate to the overall theme of the poem?
  • The blazon, a poetic convention of cataloging a beloved’s physical attributes, is used in lines 5-6 to emphasize the meticulous detail with which past poets described beauty. By listing specific body parts (“hand, of foot, of lip, of eye, of brow”), Shakespeare highlights the focus on physical perfection in traditional love poetry. However, the speaker later claims that even these detailed descriptions fall short of capturing the true essence of the beloved’s beauty, suggesting that true beauty transcends mere physical attributes.
  • How does Shakespeare use language and imagery to elevate the beloved’s beauty above that of figures from the past?
  • Shakespeare employs hyperbole and metaphor to elevate the beloved’s beauty. The speaker claims that past poets’ “praises are but prophecies” of the beloved, implying that their beauty surpasses anything previously imagined. The use of religious language, like “prophecies” and “divining eyes,” further elevates the beloved to an almost divine status. The speaker’s own admission of inadequacy (“lack tongues to praise”) reinforces the idea that the beloved’s beauty is beyond the capacity of language to describe.
  • What is the role of the speaker’s self-deprecation in Sonnet 106, and how does it contribute to the poem’s overall meaning?
  • The speaker’s self-deprecation is evident in the final couplet: “For we, which now behold these present days, / Have eyes to wonder, but lack tongues to praise.” By admitting their inability to adequately praise the beloved, the speaker humbles themself before the transcendent nature of the beloved’s beauty. This self-deprecation not only intensifies the praise of the beloved but also acknowledges the limitations of human language and perception in the face of true beauty.
Literary Works Similar to “Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare
  1. Sonnet 18” by William Shakespeare: Celebrates the timeless beauty of the beloved, using natural imagery to immortalize their essence.
  2. “Sonnet 55” by William Shakespeare: Explores the power of poetry to preserve the beloved’s beauty against the ravages of time and historical oblivion.
  3. Sonnet 19: When I consider how my light is spent” by John Milton: Reflects on the poet’s struggles with blindness and the limitations it imposes on his ability to serve God, echoing themes of time and mortality.
  4. “Ode on a Grecian Urn” by John Keats: Contemplates the timeless beauty and permanence of art, contrasting it with the fleeting nature of human life.
  5. To His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell: Urges the beloved to seize the moment and embrace love before time and mortality take their toll, encapsulating themes of time’s passage and the urgency of love.

Suggested Readings: “Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare

Books:

Articles:

  • Duncan-Jones, Katherine. “Wasted Time in Shakespeare’s Sonnets.” Shakespeare Quarterly, vol. 35, no. 2, 1984, pp. 166-178.

Web Resources:

Representative Quotations of “Sonnet 106” by William Shakespeare
QuotationContextTheoretical PerspectiveSignificance
“When in the chronicle of wasted time / I see descriptions of the fairest wights” (lines 1-2)The speaker begins by reflecting on historical records and the descriptions of beauty found within them.New Historicism: This quotation highlights the importance of historical context in understanding literature. It also suggests that beauty standards are influenced by cultural and historical factors.The opening lines set the stage for a comparison between past and present beauty, emphasizing the enduring fascination with the concept of beauty across time.
“And beauty making beautiful old rhyme / In praise of ladies dead and lovely knights” (lines 3-4)The speaker acknowledges the power of beauty to inspire art, particularly poetry.Reader-Response Criticism: This quotation invites readers to consider their own responses to beauty and how it may inspire creative expression.It emphasizes the transformative power of beauty and its ability to transcend time and mortality through artistic representation.
“So all their praises are but prophecies / Of this our time, all you prefiguring” (lines 9-10)The speaker suggests that past praise of beauty foreshadowed the arrival of the beloved in the present.Formalism: This quotation demonstrates the sonnet’s turn (volta) where the focus shifts from the past to the present.It elevates the beloved’s beauty, suggesting that it surpasses anything previously imagined, and positions them as the culmination of all past beauty.
“And, for they look’d but with divining eyes, / They had not skill enough your worth to sing” (lines 11-12)The speaker suggests that past poets, despite their attempts, lacked the ability to fully capture the beloved’s true worth.Psychoanalytic Criticism: This quotation could be interpreted as the speaker’s projection of their own inadequacy onto past poets, highlighting the anxiety and insecurity that can accompany intense admiration.It reinforces the idea that the beloved’s beauty is transcendent and beyond the capacity of language to fully describe.
“For we, which now behold these present days, / Have eyes to wonder, but lack tongues to praise” (lines 13-14)The speaker admits their own inability to adequately express the beloved’s beauty.Deconstruction: This quotation deconstructs the traditional sonnet form by acknowledging the limits of language in capturing true beauty.The final couplet serves as a humble tribute to the beloved, suggesting that even the most eloquent praise falls short of expressing their true worth.

“Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda: A Critical Analysis

“Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda first appeared in 1924 as part of his collection Twenty Love Poems and a Song of Despair, originally written in Spanish.

"Sonnet XIV" by Pablo Neruda: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda

“Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda first appeared in 1924 as part of his collection Twenty Love Poems and a Song of Despair, originally written in Spanish. The poem was later translated into English in 1969 by W.S. Merwin. This sonnet, like others in the collection, is characterized by its passionate and sensual language, exploring the complexities of love and desire. Neruda’s vivid imagery and metaphors, such as comparing his lover to the light of the universe, evoke a sense of awe and wonder. The poem also delves into the vulnerability and uncertainty inherent in love, as the speaker grapples with the intensity of his emotions and the fear of loss.

Text: “Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda

Every day you play with the light of the universe.
Subtle visitor, you arrive in the flower and the water.
You are more that this white head that I hold tightly
as a cluster of fruit, every day, between my hands.

You are like nobody since I love you.
Let me spread you out among the yellow garlands.
Who writes your name in letters of smoke among the stars of the south?
Oh let me remember you as you were before you existed.

Suddenly the wind howls and bangs my shut window.
The sky is a net crammed with shadowy fish.
Here all the winds will let go sooner or later, all of them.
The rain takes off her clothes.

The birds go by, fleeing.
The wind. The wind.
I can contend only against the power of men.
The storm whirls dark leaves
and turns loose all the boats that were moored last night to the sky.

You are here. Oh you do not run away.
You will answer me to the last cry.
Cling to me as though you were frightened.
Even so, at one time a strange shadow ran through your eyes.

Now, now too, little one, you bring me honeysuckle,
and even your breasts smell of it.
While the sad wind goes slaughtering butterflies
I love you, and my happiness bites the plum of your mouth.

How you must have suffered against getting accustomed to me,
my savage, solitary soul, my name that sends them all running.
So many times have we seen the morning star burn, kissing our eyes,
and over our heads the grey light unwind in turning fans.

My words rained over you, stroking you.
A long time I have loved the sunned mother-of-pearl of your body.
I go so far as to think you own the universe.
I will bring you happy flowers from the mountains, bluebells,
dark hazels, and rustic baskets of kisses.
I want
to do with you what spring does with the cherry trees.

Annotations: “Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda
StanzaAnnotation
1Neruda establishes the ethereal and all-encompassing nature of his beloved, likening her to the light of the universe. She is both delicate (“subtle visitor”) and essential, arriving in natural elements like flowers and water.
2The speaker emphasizes the uniqueness of his love. He holds her head gently, comparing it to a cluster of fruit. His love transcends the physical, as he desires to spread her essence among symbolic garlands.
3A shift in tone occurs. The speaker questions the origin of his beloved, wondering who could have created such a being. The imagery of smoke and stars adds to her mysterious and celestial aura.
4The natural world reflects a sudden upheaval. The wind howls, and the sky is filled with menacing imagery. This could symbolize external forces or the tumultuous nature of love itself.
5Despite the chaos, the beloved remains a constant. She is a source of stability and will answer his calls. The speaker pleads for her to cling to him, acknowledging past shadows in her eyes, possibly hinting at shared vulnerabilities.
6Tenderness returns. The beloved brings gifts of honeysuckle, even her scent is intertwined with nature. The contrast between the destructive wind and their love highlights the resilience of their bond.
7The speaker reflects on the challenges of their relationship. His “savage, solitary soul” might have been difficult for her to understand. Yet, they have shared countless intimate moments, symbolized by the morning star and the turning of dawn.
8Their love has been transformative. The speaker’s words have nurtured her, and he adores her body. He goes as far as to attribute the ownership of the universe to her, showcasing the magnitude of his feelings.
9The poem concludes with a promise. The speaker desires to shower his beloved with nature’s beauty, bringing flowers and kisses. He wants their love to be as rejuvenating and fruitful as spring’s effect on cherry trees.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda
DeviceExampleExplanationFunction
Alliteration“shadowy fish”Repetition of initial consonant soundsCreates a musical quality
Amplification“You are more than this white head”Emphasizes the subject’s importanceHighlights the speaker’s admiration
Analogy“like nobody since I love you”Compares the subject to something uniqueIllustrates the subject’s singularity
Anaphora“The wind. The wind.”Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clausesEmphasizes the wind’s importance
Apostrophe“Oh let me remember you”Addressing a person or entity not presentExpresses the speaker’s longing
Assonance“yellow garlands”Repetition of vowel soundsCreates a musical quality
Enjambment“You are more than this white head / that I hold tightly”Carrying a sentence or phrase over to the next line without a pauseCreates a sense of urgency
Hyperbole“I love you, and my happiness bites the plum of your mouth”Exaggeration for emphasisConveys the speaker’s intense emotions
Imagery“the light of the universe”, “honeysuckle”, “mother-of-pearl”Vivid descriptions of sensory experiencesCreates a rich and sensory atmosphere
Irony“my savage, solitary soul”Contrasts the speaker’s gentle words with their self-described harsh natureHighlights the speaker’s vulnerability
Juxtaposition“The rain takes off her clothes / The birds go by, fleeing”Placing two contrasting ideas side by sideCreates a sense of contrast and tension
Metaphor“You are a cluster of fruit”Comparison between two unlike thingsIllustrates the subject’s beauty and abundance
Metonymy“the power of men”Using a part to represent the wholeCreates a sense of universality
Onomatopoeia“howls and bangs”Words that imitate soundsCreates a vivid and dynamic atmosphere
Oxymoron“sad wind”Combination of two opposing ideasCreates a sense of paradox and tension
Personification“The sky is a net”, “The storm whirls dark leaves”Attributing human qualities to non-human entitiesCreates a sense of agency and dynamism
Repetition“You”, “I love you”Repeating words or phrases for emphasisCreates a sense of unity and cohesion
Simile“like spring does with the cherry trees”Comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as”Illustrates the speaker’s desire for union
Synecdoche“the morning star”Using a part to represent the wholeCreates a sense of universality
Symbolism“light”, “wind”, “honeysuckle”Using objects or colors to represent abstract ideasCreates a rich and layered meaning
Themes: “Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda
  • Theme 1: Love and Adoration: The speaker’s love for the subject is a profound and all-consuming force, transcending the ordinary boundaries of human connection. They are enthralled by the subject’s presence, which illuminates their world like the “light of the universe” (line 1). The speaker’s adoration is evident in their tender words, as they implore the subject to “cling to me as though you were frightened” (line 19), suggesting a deep longing for closeness and intimacy. The comparison of their love to the power of nature, “I love you, and my happiness bites the plum of your mouth” (lines 25-26), underscores the idea that their affection is as unstoppable and transformative as a natural force. The speaker’s ultimate desire is to merge with the subject, to “do with you what spring does with the cherry trees” (line 28), implying a union that is both beautiful and life-affirming.
  • Theme 2: Nature and its Power: The poem highlights the awe-inspiring power of nature, which serves as a backdrop for the speaker’s emotions. The wind, rain, and sky are all depicted as forces beyond human control, with the wind “howling and banging” at the speaker’s window (line 9), and the rain “taking off her clothes” (line 11). The speaker acknowledges the limits of their own power, confessing that they “can contend only against the power of men” (line 15). This admission underscores the idea that nature is a formidable force, one that commands respect and humility. By juxtaposing the power of nature with the speaker’s own emotions, Neruda suggests that human feelings are both intensified and humbled by the natural world.
  • Theme 3: Memory and Longing: The speaker’s memories of the subject are vivid and evocative, conjuring up a sense of longing and yearning. They recall the subject’s presence, both physical and emotional, remembering how they “bring me honeysuckle, and even your breasts smell of it” (lines 21-22). The speaker also alludes to a past moment of intensity or conflict, when a “strange shadow” ran through the subject’s eyes (line 23). These memories serve as a reminder of the subject’s absence, and the speaker’s desire to be reunited with them. The speaker’s longing is palpable, as they implore the subject to remain with them, to “answer me to the last cry” (line 18).
  • Theme 4: Possessiveness and Ownership: The speaker’s love for the subject is accompanied by a strong sense of possessiveness, as they seek to claim and possess the subject entirely. They assert that the subject is “more than this white head that I hold tightly” (line 3), implying that their love encompasses the subject’s entire being. The speaker’s desire to “spread you out among the yellow garlands” (line 5) and “bring you happy flowers from the mountains” (line 29) suggests a wish to adorn and embellish the subject, to make them their own. This possessiveness is tempered by a recognition of the subject’s autonomy, as the speaker acknowledges that they “own the universe” (line 27). Ultimately, the speaker’s desire for possession is rooted in a deep love and admiration for the subject, rather than a desire to control or dominate them.
Literary Theories and “Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda
Literary TheoryApplication to “Sonnet XIV”
Feminist TheoryReference: The poem centers around a female figure, highlighting her beauty, resilience, and connection to nature. The speaker’s adoration and desire to please her are evident throughout. Critique: While celebrating feminine attributes, the poem can be viewed as objectifying the woman. She is often described in terms of her physicality and serves as a muse for the speaker’s artistic expression.
Archetypal TheoryReference: The poem utilizes archetypal imagery such as light/dark, wind/storm, and the cycle of seasons. The woman embodies the archetype of the anima (the feminine principle within the male psyche), representing inspiration and love. Critique: While the use of archetypes enhances the poem’s universal appeal, it can also limit the depth of character development. The woman may remain somewhat one-dimensional due to her symbolic function.
Psychoanalytic TheoryReference: The poem delves into the speaker’s subconscious desires and anxieties. The tumultuous imagery (wind, storm) may represent internal conflicts or fears of loss. The speaker’s idealization of the woman can be interpreted as a projection of his own needs and longing for emotional fulfillment. Critique: Psychoanalytic readings can offer rich insights into the speaker’s psyche, but they might also overshadow the aesthetic and emotional aspects of the poem. The focus on hidden meanings can sometimes detract from the beauty of the language and imagery.
Critical Questions about “Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda
  • To what extent does the natural world serve as a reflection of the speaker’s emotional state in “Sonnet XIV”?
  • The poem opens with serene imagery of light and flowers, mirroring the speaker’s initial joy and awe at his beloved. However, a sudden shift occurs as the “wind howls and bangs” the window, potentially symbolizing internal turmoil or external challenges to their relationship. The turbulent weather (“sky is a net crammed with shadowy fish,” “rain takes off her clothes”) could parallel the speaker’s emotional vulnerability and fear of loss. By the end, the return of gentler imagery (“happy flowers from the mountains”) might suggest a reconciliation or acceptance of the complexities of love.
  • How does the speaker’s depiction of the female figure contribute to or challenge traditional gender roles?
  • The woman is initially portrayed as a delicate and ethereal being, associated with nature’s beauty and light. However, she is also depicted as resilient, remaining steadfast during the storm. This challenges the conventional trope of the fragile female. Yet, the speaker’s possessiveness (“I go so far as to think you own the universe”) and emphasis on her physicality (“sunned mother-of-pearl of your body”) can be seen as reinforcing traditional views of women as objects of desire and possession.
  • What is the significance of the speaker’s assertion that he can “contend only against the power of men”?
  • This line introduces a socio-political dimension to the poem, suggesting that the speaker’s love provides solace and strength against societal pressures and conflicts. It could be interpreted as a commentary on the personal nature of love versus the larger forces of the world, or perhaps a reflection on the challenges faced by marginalized individuals seeking refuge in intimate relationships.
  • In what ways does the poem explore the paradoxical nature of love?
  • The poem juxtaposes opposing forces: light and darkness, serenity and turmoil, tenderness and possessiveness. The speaker’s feelings range from adoration (“You are like nobody since I love you”) to anxiety (“Cling to me as though you were frightened”). This suggests that love is not a simple, linear emotion, but rather a complex interplay of conflicting feelings and experiences. The poem’s ending, with its promise of “happy flowers” and the desire to “do with you what spring does with the cherry trees,” hints at the possibility of renewal and growth despite the inherent challenges of love.
Literary Works Similar to “Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda
  1. How Do I Love Thee?” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning: A sonnet that explores the depths of love and adoration, much like Neruda’s poem.
  2. “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher Marlowe: A poem that promises eternal love and devotion, echoing Neruda’s romantic sentiments.
  3. “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day?” by William Shakespeare: A sonnet that compares the beloved to the beauty of nature, similar to Neruda’s use of metaphors.
  4. Love’s Philosophy” by Percy Bysshe Shelley: A poem that explores the connection between love and the natural world, much like Neruda’s poem.
  5. To His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell: A poem that passionately argues for the beloved to reciprocate love, similar to Neruda’s urgent and longing tone.
Suggested Readings: “Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda

Books:

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Representative Quotations of “Sonnet XIV” by Pablo Neruda
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“Every day you play with the light of the universe.”The poem’s opening line, setting the tone for the speaker’s adoration.Platonic Idealism: The speaker sees the beloved as a source of divine light, echoing Plato’s idea of the Forms.
“You are more than this white head that I hold tightly”The speaker’s assertion of the beloved’s significance, beyond physical appearance.Existentialism: The speaker emphasizes the beloved’s essence over their physical being, highlighting their existential importance.
“Who writes your name in letters of smoke among the stars of the south?”A metaphorical question, suggesting the beloved’s name is written in the heavens.Romanticism: The speaker uses a romantic, dreamlike image to convey the beloved’s celestial significance.
“I love you, and my happiness bites the plum of your mouth”A passionate declaration, using sensual imagery to express joy.Freudian Psychoanalysis: The speaker’s happiness is linked to the beloved’s mouth, suggesting a connection between love and oral pleasure.
“I go so far as to think you own the universe”The speaker’s assertion of the beloved’s universal significance.Postcolonialism: The speaker’s declaration can be seen as a reversal of colonialism, where the beloved is given ownership of the universe, rather than a dominant power structure.

“Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare: A Critical Analysis

“Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare first appeared in 1609 as part of the collection known as the “Sonnets.”

"Sonnet 75" by William Shakespeare: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare

“Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare first appeared in 1609 as part of the collection known as the “Sonnets.” This sonnet, like many others in the sequence, explores the complex emotions of love and longing. It is characterized by its vivid imagery, comparing the beloved to essential sustenance like food and life-giving rain. The poem delves into the speaker’s conflicting feelings of joy and insecurity, likening his love to a miser’s obsession with treasure. The sonnet’s emotional depth and relatable themes of love, loss, and the passage of time have contributed to its enduring appeal.

Text: “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare

So are you to my thoughts as food to life,

Or as sweet-season’d showers are to the ground;

And for the peace of you I hold such strife

As ‘twixt a miser and his wealth is found.

Now proud as an enjoyer, and anon

Doubting the filching age will steal his treasure;

Now counting best to be with you alone,

Then better’d that the world may see my pleasure:

Sometime all full with feasting on your sight,

And by and by clean starved for a look;

Possessing or pursuing no delight

Save what is had, or must from you be took.

   Thus do I pine and surfeit day by day,

   Or gluttoning on all, or all away.

Annotations: “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare
LineTextAnnotation
1So are you to my thoughts as food to life,The speaker compares the importance of the beloved to their thoughts as essential as food is to sustaining life.
2Or as sweet-season’d showers are to the ground;The comparison is extended – the beloved is like refreshing rain to the dry earth.
3And for the peace of you I hold such strifeThe speaker’s love for the beloved is not entirely peaceful, it brings inner turmoil.
4As ‘twixt a miser and his wealth is found.This inner turmoil is likened to the constant worry a miser has for their treasure.
5Now proud as an enjoyer, and anonAt times, the speaker feels proud to have the beloved’s love.
6Doubting the filching age will steal his treasure;But then, fears of old age or death robbing them of this love arise.
7Now counting best to be with you alone,The speaker vacillates between wanting to keep the beloved all to themselves.
8Then better’d that the world may see my pleasure:And then wanting to show off their love to the world.
9Sometime all full with feasting on your sight,There are moments of feeling complete from simply being in the beloved’s presence.
10And by and by clean starved for a look;These are quickly followed by intense longing when the beloved is absent.
11Possessing or pursuing no delightThe speaker’s happiness solely depends on the beloved.
12Save what is had, or must from you be took.Their joy is derived only from what they have of the beloved’s affection, or what they hope to get.
13Thus do I pine and surfeit day by day,The speaker summarizes their emotional state – constantly fluctuating between longing and feeling overwhelmed.
14Or gluttoning on all, or all away.This is further emphasized – either completely consumed by love or utterly deprived of it.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare
DeviceExampleExplanation and Function
Alliteration“Sweet-season’d showers”Repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words. Adds musicality and emphasizes the pleasantness of the showers.
Allusion“‘Twixt a miser and his wealth”Reference to the behavior of a miser, highlighting the speaker’s intense feelings towards the beloved as akin to possessiveness over wealth.
Anaphora“Now proud as an enjoyer, and anon”Repetition of the word “now” at the beginning of successive clauses. Emphasizes changing emotional states or attitudes towards the beloved.
Assonance“Possessing or pursuing no delight”Repetition of vowel sounds (“o” in “possessing” and “pursuing”). Creates internal rhyme and emphasizes the lack of joy in pursuits other than the beloved.
Consonance“Counting best to be with you alone”Repetition of consonant sounds (“t” and “n” in “counting” and “best”). Provides a rhythmic quality and emphasizes the speaker’s preference for solitude with the beloved.
Enjambment“Then better’d that the world may see my pleasure:”Continuation of a sentence beyond the end of a line of verse. Emphasizes the speaker’s desire for public acknowledgment of their happiness with the beloved.
Hyperbole“Clean starved for a look”Exaggeration for emphasis. Highlights the intense longing and deprivation the speaker feels in the absence of seeing the beloved.
Imagery“Feasting on your sight”Use of vivid language to create sensory experiences. Evokes the idea of consuming visual images of the beloved as nourishment.
Irony“Or gluttoning on all, or all away”Use of language that signifies the opposite of what is meant. Contrasts the extremes of indulgence and deprivation experienced by the speaker.
Metaphor“As food to life”Implied comparison between thoughts of the beloved and sustenance essential for life. Enhances the significance of the beloved’s presence in the speaker’s thoughts.
Oxymoron“Clean starved”Combination of contradictory words (“clean” and “starved”). Emphasizes the intensity of the speaker’s hunger for a look from the beloved.
Paradox“Possessing or pursuing no delight”A statement that appears self-contradictory but may reveal a deeper truth. Highlights that the only joy the speaker seeks is directly tied to the beloved.
Personification“Doubting the filching age will steal his treasure”Attribution of human qualities to an abstract concept (age). Suggests the passage of time as a potential threat to the speaker’s happiness with the beloved.
Repetition“Now proud as an enjoyer, and anon”Repeated use of the word “now”. Emphasizes the fluctuating emotional states of the speaker towards the beloved.
Simile“Or as sweet-season’d showers are to the ground”Comparison using “as” or “like”. Compares the effect of the beloved to nourishing rain showers, emphasizing their importance and pleasantness.
Symbolism“Feasting on your sight”Use of an object or action to represent something abstract. Sight symbolizes the enjoyment and fulfillment the speaker derives from seeing the beloved.
Synecdoche“The filching age will steal his treasure”A part of something used to represent the whole or vice versa. “Age” represents the passage of time that threatens the speaker’s happiness.
Tone“Now proud as an enjoyer, and anon”The author’s attitude toward the subject. The shifting tones reflect the speaker’s fluctuating emotions and attitudes toward the beloved.
Understatement“Then better’d that the world may see my pleasure:”Deliberate presentation of something as lesser in magnitude than it actually is. Understates the speaker’s desire for public recognition of their happiness with the beloved.
Verbal Irony“Then better’d that the world may see my pleasure:”A statement where the intended meaning is opposite to what is being expressed. The speaker expresses a desire for public recognition, while suggesting it is for the world’s benefit.
Themes: “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare
  1. Immortality through Verse: One prominent theme in “Sonnet 75” is the idea of achieving immortality through poetry. The speaker expresses a belief that by immortalizing his beloved in verse, their beauty and essence will endure beyond the ravages of time. This theme is encapsulated in lines such as “So are you to my thoughts as food to life,” where the beloved is likened to a source of sustenance essential for survival. The act of preserving the beloved’s memory through poetry reflects the speaker’s desire to transcend mortality and ensure their legacy lives on.
  2. Transience and Impermanence: Despite the speaker’s aspirations of immortalizing the beloved, another theme that emerges is the inevitability of transience and impermanence. The poem explores the fleeting nature of beauty and happiness, emphasizing the passage of time and its potential to diminish even the most cherished moments. This theme is evident in lines like “Possessing or pursuing no delight / Save what is had, or must from you be took,” highlighting the fleeting nature of joy derived solely from the beloved’s presence and the constant struggle against time’s erosion.
  3. Love’s Struggle and Paradoxes: The theme of love’s struggle and paradoxes permeates the poem, portraying the complexities inherent in romantic relationships. The speaker oscillates between moments of fulfillment and deprivation, joy and despair, as captured in lines such as “Sometime all full with feasting on your sight, / And by and by clean starved for a look.” These contrasts underscore the intense emotional turmoil experienced in love, where moments of ecstasy are juxtaposed with periods of longing and dissatisfaction.
  4. The Power of Artistic Creation: Finally, “Sonnet 75” explores the transformative power of artistic creation, particularly through poetry. The act of writing and immortalizing the beloved in verse becomes a form of personal and creative expression for the speaker. This theme is reflected in lines like “Then better’d that the world may see my pleasure:,” where the speaker desires public recognition for their artistic endeavor and the validation of their emotional investment. The poem suggests that through art, one can transcend personal experience and communicate universal truths about love and mortality.
Literary Theories and “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare
Literary TheoryApplication to Sonnet 75Critique
Psychoanalytic CriticismFocuses on the speaker’s internal conflicts and desires. The sonnet reveals a dependency on the beloved for emotional well-being (“So are you to my thoughts as food to life“) and anxiety about losing them (“Doubting the filching age will steal his treasure“).This theory helps understand the speaker’s emotional state but may oversimplify the complex nature of love.
Feminist CriticismExplores the power dynamics between the speaker and the beloved. The speaker objectifies the beloved, comparing them to possessions (“his treasure“) and sources of sustenance (“food to life“).While valid, this critique might not fully capture the nuances of the speaker’s emotional dependence and the sonnet’s exploration of love’s complexities.
New CriticismEmphasizes close reading and analysis of the poem’s structure, imagery, and language. The sonnet’s use of paradoxes (“pine and surfeit,” “gluttoning on all, or all away“) and metaphors (“sweet-season’d showers“) create a rich tapestry of emotions.This theory offers a detailed analysis of the poem’s literary techniques but may overlook the broader social and historical contexts.
Critical Questions about “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare
  • How does the speaker reconcile the tension between immortality and transience in love?
  • In “Sonnet 75,” the speaker grapples with the paradoxical nature of love’s durability and its inevitable vulnerability to time. The phrase “And for the peace of you I hold such strife,” encapsulates this tension, suggesting that the very essence of the beloved brings both fulfillment and struggle. This raises the question of whether the speaker’s attempt to immortalize the beloved through poetry is a futile endeavor against the relentless march of time. The poem navigates through moments of intense emotional attachment, where the speaker experiences profound joy in the beloved’s presence, and contrasting moments of despair, symbolized by “Or gluttoning on all, or all away,” illustrating the ephemeral nature of happiness derived solely from the beloved’s fleeting presence. Analyzing how the speaker confronts and reconciles these contradictions provides insights into Shakespeare’s exploration of love’s complexities and the human desire for permanence in the face of mortality.
  • What role does poetic language play in shaping the speaker’s relationship with the beloved?
  • “Sonnet 75” showcases the transformative power of poetry as a means to immortalize and elevate the beloved’s beauty and significance. The phrase “Now proud as an enjoyer, and anon / Doubting the filching age will steal his treasure,” underscores the speaker’s dual role as both a celebrant of the beloved’s virtues and a guardian against the passage of time. The poem’s language evokes sensory experiences and emotional depth, such as “Feasting on your sight,” where sight becomes a metaphorical feast that sustains the speaker’s emotional and artistic endeavors. Analyzing how Shakespeare employs poetic devices like metaphor, simile, and imagery to elevate the beloved’s presence beyond the temporal realm enriches our understanding of how language shapes and defines the speaker’s emotional landscape.
  • In what ways does the sonnet form contribute to the exploration of love’s complexities?
  • The structured form of the sonnet in “Sonnet 75” provides a framework for exploring the speaker’s emotional fluctuations and existential dilemmas. The poem’s division into an octave and a sestet allows for a progression of thought and emotion, evident in lines like “Then better’d that the world may see my pleasure:,” where the volta marks a shift from personal introspection to a desire for public acknowledgment. The sonnet’s strict rhyme scheme and meter enforce a rhythmic cadence that mirrors the oscillating emotions of love, as seen in phrases such as “Possessing or pursuing no delight / Save what is had, or must from you be took,” where the structured form intensifies the contrast between fulfillment and longing. Analyzing how the sonnet form shapes the expression of love’s complexities enhances our appreciation of Shakespeare’s mastery in using structure to convey emotional depth and thematic resonance.
  • How does the speaker’s portrayal of love challenge traditional notions of romantic idealism?
  • “Sonnet 75” presents a nuanced depiction of love that challenges idealized notions of eternal devotion and unending happiness. The phrase “Or as sweet-season’d showers are to the ground,” invokes natural imagery to convey the ephemeral nature of love’s pleasures, suggesting that even the most cherished moments are subject to the forces of change and decay. The poem critiques conventional ideals by portraying the speaker’s struggle with fluctuating emotions and contradictory desires, such as the longing for both intimacy and public validation, as illustrated in “Then better’d that the world may see my pleasure:.” This prompts critical reflection on whether Shakespeare intends to subvert or reaffirm societal expectations of love and relationships. Analyzing how the poem navigates between moments of fulfillment and disillusionment offers insights into Shakespeare’s exploration of love as a complex and multifaceted experience, challenging simplistic portrayals of romanticism.
Literary Works Similar to “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare
  1. Sonnet 29 by William Shakespeare: Like “Sonnet 75,” this poem delves into the speaker’s shifting emotional states, from despair to elation, highlighting the transformative power of love.
  2. How Do I Love Thee? (Sonnet 43)” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning: Echoing the depth of emotion in “Sonnet 75,” this poem passionately explores the vastness and multifaceted nature of love.
  3. “When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats: Sharing the theme of fearing loss and the passage of time with “Sonnet 75,” this poem focuses on the speaker’s anxiety about mortality and unfulfilled potential.
  4. “Love Is Not All” by Edna St. Vincent Millay: Unlike the all-consuming love depicted in “Sonnet 75,” this poem questions the sufficiency of love alone for a fulfilling life, while acknowledging its importance.
  5. Bright Star, Would I Were Stedfast as Thou Art” by John Keats: Similar to the speaker’s yearning in “Sonnet 75,” this poem expresses a desire for eternal love and unwavering devotion, though directed towards a celestial body.
Suggested Readings: “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare
Representative Quotations of “Sonnet 75” by William Shakespeare
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective
“So are you to my thoughts as food to life,”The speaker compares the beloved to essential sustenance, suggesting that thoughts of the beloved are vital for survival.Psychoanalytic perspective: Views love as a fundamental human need, highlighting the psychological dependency on the beloved for emotional fulfillment.
“Or as sweet-season’d showers are to the ground;”Likens the beloved’s presence to refreshing rain showers that nourish the earth, emphasizing their essential and pleasurable impact.Ecocritical perspective: Analyzes the poem’s natural imagery to explore human relationships with nature and the environment, suggesting parallels between emotional and ecological sustenance.
“Sometime all full with feasting on your sight,”Describes moments of intense joy and fulfillment when beholding the beloved, highlighting the sensory pleasure derived from their presence.Phenomenological perspective: Focuses on subjective experiences and perceptions, exploring how sensory stimuli (such as sight) shape emotional states and interpersonal connections.
“And by and by clean starved for a look;”Expresses the speaker’s alternating states of emotional fulfillment and longing in the absence of the beloved’s gaze.Post-structuralist perspective: Examines the poem’s binaries (feasting/starved) to deconstruct fixed meanings and question the stability of identity and desire.
“Then better’d that the world may see my pleasure:”The speaker desires public recognition and validation of their happiness derived from the beloved, seeking to immortalize their joy through public acknowledgment.Cultural criticism perspective: Analyzes societal norms and values reflected in the poem, questioning the desire for external validation and the construction of identity through public perception.

“In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh: A Critical Analysis

“In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh was initially published in 1917 as part of his collection A Highland Regiment.

"In Memoriam" by Ewart Alan Mackintosh: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh

“In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh was initially published in 1917 as part of his collection A Highland Regiment. The poem serves as a poignant elegy for fallen soldiers, demonstrating Mackintosh’s ability to encapsulate both the devastation of war and the enduring resilience of those who served. Through stark yet evocative language and vivid imagery, the poem explores the profound themes of loss and remembrance. Its emotional resonance continues to captivate readers, solidifying its place as a timeless piece of war literature.

Text: “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh

Private D. Sutherland
killed in action in the German trench, May 16, 1916,
and the others who died

So you were David’s father,
And he was your only son,
And the new-cut peats are rotting
And the work is left undone,
Because of an old man weeping,
Just an old man in pain,
For David, his son David,
That will not come again.

Oh, the letters he wrote you,
And I can see them still,
Not a word of the fighting,
But just the sheep on the hill
And how you should get the crops in
Ere the year get stormier,
And the Bosches have got his body,
And I was his officer.

You were only David’s father,
But I had fifty sons
When we went up in the evening
Under the arch of the guns,
And we came back at twilight –
O God! I heard them call
To me for help and pity
That could not help at all.

Oh, never will I forget you,
My men that trusted me,
More my sons than your fathers’,
For they could only see
The little helpless babies
And the young men in their pride.
They could not see you dying,
And hold you while you died.

Happy and young and gallant,
They saw their first-born go,
But not the strong limbs broken
And the beautiful men brought low,
The piteous writhing bodies,
The screamed ‘Don’t leave me, Sir’,
For they were only your fathers
But I was your officer.

Annotations: “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh
TextAnnotation
So you were David’s father, / And he was your only son,Introduces the characters of the poem: David’s father and his only son, David, who has died in the war.
And the new-cut peats are rotting / And the work is left undone,Illustrates how David’s death has left tasks unfinished and life disrupted for his father.
Because of an old man weeping, / Just an old man in pain,Emphasizes the sorrow and pain of David’s father mourning his loss.
For David, his son David, / That will not come again.Reinforces the permanence of David’s death and his father’s grief.
Oh, the letters he wrote you, / And I can see them still,Reflects on the personal letters David sent to his father, highlighting their bond.
Not a word of the fighting, / But just the sheep on the hillShows David’s desire to shield his father from the horrors of war, focusing instead on mundane, peaceful topics.
And how you should get the crops in / Ere the year get stormier,David’s concern for his father’s well-being and practical matters despite the war.
And the Bosches have got his body, / And I was his officer.Reveals the harsh reality of David’s death at the hands of the enemy and the officer’s connection to him.
You were only David’s father, / But I had fifty sonsContrasts the singular loss felt by David’s father with the officer’s responsibility for many soldiers.
When we went up in the evening / Under the arch of the guns,Describes the soldiers’ movement into battle, highlighting the danger they faced.
And we came back at twilight – / O God! I heard them callReflects on the devastating aftermath of battle and the cries of the wounded.
To me for help and pity / That could not help at all.Expresses the officer’s helplessness and anguish in the face of his soldiers’ suffering.
Oh, never will I forget you, / My men that trusted me,Shows the deep bond and sense of responsibility the officer feels for his men.
More my sons than your fathers’, / For they could only seeHighlights the officer’s paternal-like connection to his soldiers, deeper than their biological fathers’.
The little helpless babies / And the young men in their pride.Contrasts the innocent image of the soldiers in their fathers’ eyes with their wartime reality.
They could not see you dying, / And hold you while you died.Emphasizes the officer’s role in witnessing and tending to his soldiers’ deaths, a painful duty.
Happy and young and gallant, / They saw their first-born go,Reflects the fathers’ memories of their sons leaving for war, full of pride and hope.
But not the strong limbs broken / And the beautiful men brought low,Contrasts the fathers’ memories with the grim reality of their sons’ injuries and deaths.
The piteous writhing bodies, / The screamed ‘Don’t leave me, Sir’,Highlights the graphic and emotional horror of the battlefield.
For they were only your fathers / But I was your officer.Concludes with the officer reaffirming his deep, paternal-like bond and responsibility for his men, beyond that of their biological fathers.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh
DeviceExample(s)Explanation & Function
Alliteration“new-cut peats,” “sheep on the hill,” “strong limbs”Repetition of initial consonant sounds creates rhythm and emphasis.
Anaphora“And the…,” “Oh, the…,” “You were only…”Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses builds intensity and emotional weight.
Apostrophe“O God!”Direct address to an absent or imaginary person intensifies emotion and serves as a plea.
Assonance“new-cut peats,” “sheep on the hill”Repetition of vowel sounds within words creates internal rhyme and musicality.
Caesura“And we came back at twilight – O God!”A pause or break within a line, often marked by punctuation, emphasizes the following words and creates a dramatic effect.
Consonance“first-born go,” “beautiful men brought low”Repetition of consonant sounds within or at the end of words creates emphasis and sonic texture.
Diction (Colloquial)“Bosches,” “Don’t leave me, Sir”Informal language creates a sense of authenticity and reflects the soldiers’ speech.
Enjambment“And the Bosches have got his body, / And I was his officer.”The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line creates a sense of flow and connection between ideas.
Imagery“new-cut peats,” “sheep on the hill,” “piteous writhing bodies”Vivid and descriptive language appeals to the senses and creates a powerful emotional impact.
Irony“Happy and young and gallant”The contrast between the initial happiness of the soldiers and their ultimate fate creates a sense of tragedy and loss.
Juxtaposition“little helpless babies” and “young men in their pride”Placement of contrasting ideas or images highlights their differences and creates a complex emotional landscape.
Metaphor“My men that trusted me, / More my sons than your fathers'”Implicit comparison between the speaker and a father figure emphasizes the depth of his connection to his soldiers.
Metonymy“The arch of the guns”Substitution of the name of an attribute or adjunct for that of the thing meant creates a condensed and evocative image.
Oxymoron“beautiful men brought low”Combination of contradictory terms creates a paradoxical effect and emphasizes the tragedy of war.
Parallelism“And the…,” “You were only…”Repetition of a grammatical structure creates a sense of balance and rhythm.
Personification“the year get stormier”Attribution of human characteristics to inanimate objects creates a vivid and engaging image.
Repetition“David,” “father,” “son”Repeating key words emphasizes their significance and creates a sense of unity and focus.
Rhetorical Question“That will not come again.”A question asked for effect, not requiring an answer, prompts reflection and emphasizes the finality of death.
Symbolism“new-cut peats,” “sheep on the hill”Use of objects or images to represent abstract ideas adds depth and complexity to the poem.
Themes: “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh
  • The Devastation of War on the Home Front: The poem starkly illustrates the far-reaching impact of war beyond the battlefield. It opens with the image of “new-cut peats rotting” and work “left undone” because of David’s death, symbolizing the disruption of daily life and the loss of potential. “Because of an old man weeping, / Just an old man in pain” highlights the profound grief experienced by loved ones left behind.
  • The Personal Cost of Leadership: The poem presents a powerful contrast between the officer’s sense of responsibility and the helplessness he feels in the face of his soldiers’ suffering. The lines “They could not see you dying, / And hold you while you died” reveal the emotional burden of leadership, where the officer witnesses the deaths of his men but cannot offer the comfort a father would.
  • The Intimate Bond Between Soldiers: The poem emphasizes the unique camaraderie among soldiers, a bond often stronger than familial ties. The officer refers to his men as “More my sons than your fathers'”, highlighting the shared experiences and trust that develop in the trenches. This bond intensifies the pain of loss and the sense of duty to remember the fallen.
  • The Importance of Remembrance: “In Memoriam” is a tribute to the fallen and a call to remember their sacrifice. The poem’s title itself, meaning “in memory of,” underscores this theme. The officer’s promise, “Oh, never will I forget you, / My men that trusted me”, is a pledge to keep their memory alive and honor their service. This theme resonates throughout the poem, emphasizing the importance of acknowledging the individual lives lost in war.
Literary Theories and “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh
Literary TheoryApplicationCritiqueReferences
Psychoanalytic TheoryThis theory can be applied to explore the emotional and psychological depth of the poem. The grief and trauma experienced by David’s father and the officer reflect the profound psychological impact of war. The poem can be analyzed for its depiction of mourning, loss, and the subconscious effects of war trauma.The poem reveals the inner turmoil of both the father and the officer, highlighting their intense emotional struggles. The officer’s sense of guilt and helplessness can be examined as manifestations of psychological conflict and repressed emotions.Freud, S. (1917). Mourning and melancholia. In J. Strachey (Ed.), The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud (Vol. 14, pp. 237-258). Hogarth Press.
Marxist TheoryMarxist theory can be used to analyze the socio-economic implications of the poem. The disruption of rural life and labor due to the war reflects the broader impact of war on the working class. The poem can be viewed as a critique of how the lower classes bear the brunt of the war’s consequences.The poem portrays the stark reality of how the war disrupts the lives of ordinary people, particularly the working class. The father’s unfinished work and the officer’s loss of his “fifty sons” underscore the human cost of war, often borne by the less privileged.Eagleton, T. (1976). Marxism and Literary Criticism. Routledge.
Feminist TheoryWhile “In Memoriam” focuses on male characters, a feminist reading can examine the gender dynamics and the roles of masculinity. The poem can be analyzed for its portrayal of men as protectors and providers, and how the war challenges these traditional roles. Additionally, the absence of women in the narrative can be critiqued.The poem reinforces traditional masculine roles, with men depicted as soldiers and workers. A feminist critique might explore the implications of this portrayal and the emotional burden placed on men to conform to these roles, as well as the silencing of female perspectives in wartime narratives.Gilbert, S. M., & Gubar, S. (1979). The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination. Yale University Press.
Critical Questions about “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh
  • How does the poem’s use of language and imagery contribute to its emotional impact and overall message?
  • Mackintosh’s choice of simple, direct language and vivid imagery creates a visceral connection to the experiences of loss and grief. The “new-cut peats rotting” symbolize the wasted potential of a young life, while the “piteous writhing bodies” and the plea “Don’t leave me, Sir” evoke the raw horror of the battlefield. This stark portrayal forces readers to confront the human cost of war.
  • What is the significance of the officer’s perspective in the poem, and how does it shape our understanding of the war experience?
  • By focusing on the officer’s voice, the poem offers a unique perspective on the burden of leadership and the emotional toll of witnessing the deaths of one’s men. The officer’s guilt and helplessness, expressed in lines like “That could not help at all,” reveal the psychological scars of war often hidden from view. This perspective challenges the romanticized image of war and highlights the complex emotions experienced by those in command.
  • How does the poem explore the themes of fatherhood and familial relationships in the context of war?
  • The poem contrasts the biological father-son relationship with the surrogate father-son bond between the officer and his men. The lines “More my sons than your fathers'” emphasize the deep connection formed in the face of shared danger, while the image of the “old man weeping” for his “only son” highlights the profound personal loss experienced by families. This exploration of different forms of paternal love adds another layer of complexity to the poem’s portrayal of grief and loss.
  • To what extent does “In Memoriam” serve as a commentary on the social and political realities of war?
  • While the poem focuses on personal experiences of grief and loss, it also subtly critiques the systems that perpetuate war. The repetition of “officer” and “father” hints at the societal structures that send young men to their deaths. The officer’s inability to protect his men could be interpreted as a condemnation of the futility of war. By focusing on individual stories, the poem implicitly questions the broader social and political forces that drive conflict.
Literary Works Similar to “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh
  1. Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen: A poignant war poem that vividly captures the horrors of World War I, challenging notions of patriotism and heroism.
  2. “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen: A Critical Analysis“Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen: Another powerful war poem that explores the brutal realities of war and its impact on young soldiers.
  3. “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke: Reflects on the nobility of dying for one’s country, contrasting with the gritty realism often portrayed in other war poems.
  4. “For the Fallen” by Laurence Binyon: Honors those who died in World War I with solemnity and reverence, capturing the collective grief and sacrifice of war.
  5. In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae: A war poem that uses vivid imagery of poppies to symbolize fallen soldiers, urging remembrance and reflection.
Suggested Readings: “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh
Representative Quotations of “In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh
QuotationContextTheoretical Perspective (in bold)
“So you were David’s father, / And he was your only son,”Introduces the central relationship between David’s father and his deceased son, setting the emotional tone of the poem.Psychoanalytic Theory: This quotation reveals the deep emotional bond and loss experienced by David’s father, exploring grief and mourning.
“And the Bosches have got his body, / And I was his officer.”Describes the harsh reality of David’s death in combat and the officer’s connection to him as a commanding officer.Marxist Theory: This line can be analyzed for its portrayal of the consequences of war on individuals and the broader socio-economic impact of conflict.
“You were only David’s father, / But I had fifty sons”Contrasts the singular loss felt by David’s father with the officer’s responsibility for many soldiers under his command.Feminist Theory: This quotation can be examined for its depiction of masculinity and paternal roles, highlighting societal expectations and gender dynamics.
“Oh, never will I forget you, / My men that trusted me,”Expresses the officer’s deep bond and sense of responsibility towards his soldiers who trusted him in battle.Psychoanalytic Theory: This line reveals the psychological weight and trauma experienced by the officer, exploring themes of trust and leadership.
“For they were only your fathers / But I was your officer.”Concludes with the officer reaffirming his paternal-like bond and responsibility for his soldiers beyond that of their biological fathers.Marxist Theory: This quotation can be critiqued for its portrayal of authority and hierarchy within a military context, reflecting on power dynamics and social class.