“In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae first appeared in 1915 in the London magazine Punch, initially published anonymously, it quickly gained immense popularity due to its poignant portrayal of the sacrifices made by soldiers in World War I.
Introduction: “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae
“In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae first appeared in 1915 in the London magazine Punch, initially published anonymously, it quickly gained immense popularity due to its poignant portrayal of the sacrifices made by soldiers in World War I. The poem’s rondeau form, with its repeating refrain, contributes to its memorable quality. Its vivid imagery of poppies growing among the crosses and the call to continue the fight resonated deeply with readers, making it an enduring symbol of remembrance and a powerful testament to the human cost of war.
Downplays the sound of larks amidst the chaos of warfare
Verse
The entire poem is structured in three stanzas, each with a distinct rhyme scheme
Organizes the poem into rhythmic units, enhancing its musicality
Themes: “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae
Remembrance and Sacrifice: The poem vividly describes the scene of Flanders fields where poppies grow among the crosses marking the graves of fallen soldiers. McCrae’s use of imagery, such as “In Flanders fields the poppies blow / Between the crosses, row on row,” encapsulates the solemnity of remembrance and the enduring sacrifice of those who died in war. The poppies symbolize both the bloodshed of battle and the renewal of life amidst loss, urging future generations to honor and remember the fallen.
Duty and Continuation of Legacy: McCrae emphasizes the responsibility of the living to carry on the unfinished work of those who have died. Lines like “Take up our quarrel with the foe: / To you from failing hands we throw / The torch; be yours to hold it high” underscore the duty to uphold the cause for which the soldiers gave their lives. The metaphorical torch represents the legacy of defending freedom and justice, urging succeeding generations not to let their sacrifices be in vain.
Consequences of Betrayal and Commitment: The poem warns of the consequences should the living fail to honor the sacrifices of the dead. McCrae writes, “If ye break faith with us who die / We shall not sleep, though poppies grow / In Flanders fields,” highlighting the solemn commitment to remember and continue the struggle. This admonition underscores the importance of fidelity to the values and causes for which soldiers fought, ensuring their memory endures beyond the battlefield.
Resilience and Hope Amidst Tragedy: Despite the tragic backdrop of war, McCrae portrays resilience and hope through nature and the human spirit. The larks bravely singing amidst the gunfire in “The larks, still bravely singing, fly / Scarce heard amid the guns below” symbolize the enduring resilience of life and hope even in the face of destruction. This imagery suggests that amidst the horrors of war, there is still beauty and courage, echoing a message of resilience and the enduring human spirit.
Literary Theories and “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae
Focuses on the poem’s structure and sound devices, highlighting the emotional impact of the repeating refrain and the rhythmic pattern that mirrors the marching of soldiers and the inevitability of death. Neglects the historical and cultural context of the poem.
Biographical Criticism
Written by John McCrae, a Canadian physician and soldier, during World War I, after the death of a friend.
Provides insight into McCrae’s personal experiences and motivations behind the poem. Helps understand the emotional weight of the poem and its connection to the realities of war. However, it may limit the interpretation of the poem to McCrae’s personal perspective and context.
Reflects the cultural and historical context of World War I, the sense of loss, and the call for patriotism.
Analyzes the poem in relation to the broader historical events and cultural attitudes of the time. Reveals how the poem captured the collective grief and nationalistic sentiments of the era. However, it may overlook the universal themes of loss, sacrifice, and remembrance that transcend the specific historical context.
Critical Questions about “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae
To what extent does the poem romanticize war and its consequences?
While the poem honors the sacrifice of fallen soldiers, it could be argued that it also romanticizes the idea of dying for one’s country. The vivid imagery of poppies blowing in the wind and the call to “take up our quarrel with the foe” might be seen as glorifying the violence and downplaying the horrific realities of war. However, the poem also acknowledges the pain and loss of “short days ago We lived, felt dawn, saw sunset glow, Loved and were loved,” offering a more nuanced perspective.
How does the poem’s use of the first-person plural perspective (“we”) shape its meaning and impact?
The use of “we” creates a collective voice for the fallen soldiers, amplifying their message and emotional appeal. It fosters a sense of empathy and shared experience with the reader, making the call to action more personal and urgent. However, it could be argued that this collective voice obscures the individual experiences and perspectives of the soldiers, potentially reducing them to a single, unified entity.
To what degree does the poem’s structure (rondeau form) enhance its message?
The rondeau form, with its repeating refrain of “In Flanders fields,” reinforces the setting and the ongoing nature of the conflict. The cyclical structure could be interpreted as mirroring the endless cycle of war and death, or it could be seen as a call for remembrance and continuity. However, some might find the repetition overly sentimental or manipulative, potentially detracting from the poem’s overall impact.
In what ways does the poem’s language and imagery contribute to its enduring legacy?
The vivid imagery of poppies and larks juxtaposed with the sounds of guns creates a powerful contrast between the beauty of nature and the brutality of war. This imagery, combined with the emotive language and the poem’s simple yet powerful message, has resonated with readers across generations. However, some might argue that the poem’s idealized imagery of nature and its focus on the glory of sacrifice can obscure the harsh realities of war and its devastating impact on individuals and communities.
Literary Works Similar to “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae
“Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen: A powerful anti-war poem that vividly describes the horrors of gas warfare and challenges the notion of glory in war.
“For the Fallen” by Laurence Binyon: A solemn poem that includes the famous stanza beginning with “They shall grow not old, as we that are left grow old,” honoring those who died in World War I.
“The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke: Reflects on the patriotic sentiment and sacrifice of soldiers who give their lives for their country, with a sense of duty and honor.
“Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen: Explores the tragedy of war through the contrast between the chaos of battle and the traditional funeral rituals denied to the fallen soldiers.
“In Memoriam” by Ewart Alan Mackintosh: A poignant poem that remembers soldiers who died in World War I, capturing the loss and grief felt by those left behind.
Suggested Readings: “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae
“Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen first appeared in 1920, a year after his death, in the posthumous collection Poems.
Introduction: “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens
“Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen first appeared in 1920, a year after his death, in the posthumous collection Poems. The poem’s graphic imagery and unflinching portrayal of the horrors of World War I shocked readers and challenged the prevailing glorification of war. Owen’s use of visceral language, vivid metaphors, and irregular rhyme schemes creates a sense of chaos and despair, reflecting the psychological trauma experienced by soldiers. The poem’s bitter irony and condemnation of the lie that “it is sweet and fitting to die for one’s country” established it as a seminal work of war poetry and a poignant testament to the futility and brutality of conflict.
Text: “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens
Bent double, like old beggars under sacks,
Knock-kneed, coughing like hags, we cursed through sludge,
Till on the haunting flares we turned our backs,
And towards our distant rest began to trudge.
Men marched asleep. Many had lost their boots,
But limped on, blood-shod. All went lame; all blind;
Drunk with fatigue; deaf even to the hoots
Of gas-shells dropping softly behind.
Gas! GAS! Quick, boys!—An ecstasy of fumbling
Fitting the clumsy helmets just in time,
But someone still was yelling out and stumbling
And flound’ring like a man in fire or lime.—
Dim through the misty panes and thick green light,
As under a green sea, I saw him drowning.
In all my dreams before my helpless sight,
He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning.
If in some smothering dreams, you too could pace
Behind the wagon that we flung him in,
And watch the white eyes writhing in his face,
His hanging face, like a devil’s sick of sin;
If you could hear, at every jolt, the blood
Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs,
Obscene as cancer, bitter as the cud
Of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues,—
My friend, you would not tell with such high zest
To children ardent for some desperate glory,
The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est
Pro patria mori.
Annotations: “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens
“Dim through the misty panes and thick green light,”
Descriptive language that appeals to the sense of sight.
Helps the reader visualize the disorienting and terrifying experience of a gas attack.
Themes: “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens
The Horrors of War: In “Dulce et Decorum Est,” Wilfred Owen vividly portrays the brutal realities of war, emphasizing its gruesome and dehumanizing effects on soldiers. Through graphic imagery, such as “Bent double, like old beggars under sacks” and “blood-shod,” Owen illustrates the physical and mental toll that warfare takes on individuals. The soldiers are depicted as exhausted, injured, and stripped of their humanity, marching “asleep” and “lame; all blind” (Owen, 1917). This stark depiction serves to counter the romanticized view of war, revealing it as a nightmarish experience filled with pain and suffering.
The Futility of War: Owen’s poem also explores the futility and senselessness of war, highlighting the meaningless loss of life and the empty promises of glory. The repeated imagery of soldiers “coughing like hags” and “flound’ring like a man in fire or lime” underscores the chaotic and desperate nature of battle, where death is an ever-present threat (Owen, 1917). By portraying the soldiers’ struggles and the randomness of their deaths, Owen challenges the notion that war has any noble purpose, suggesting instead that it is a tragic waste of human life.
The Betrayal of the Youth: The poem critiques the older generation’s betrayal of the youth by propagating the “old Lie: Dulce et decorum est / Pro patria mori” (Owen, 1917). This Latin phrase, meaning “It is sweet and proper to die for one’s country,” is revealed to be a cruel deception used to encourage young men to enlist and fight. Owen’s use of vivid and horrific imagery, such as “the blood / Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs,” exposes the stark contrast between the idealized vision of war and its gruesome reality. This theme underscores the manipulation and exploitation of young soldiers by those in positions of power.
The Psychological Impact of War: Owen delves into the psychological trauma experienced by soldiers, depicting the lasting effects of their harrowing experiences. The speaker recounts haunting dreams in which a fellow soldier “plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning,” highlighting the persistent and inescapable nature of war’s horrors (Owen, 1917). This theme emphasizes the mental anguish and torment that soldiers endure long after the physical battles have ended, challenging the glorification of war and revealing its deep, lasting scars on the human psyche.
Literary Theories and “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens
Literary Theory
Application to “Dulce et Decorum Est”
References from the Poem
Critique
Modernism: Rejection of traditional forms and themes, focus on subjective experience, disillusionment with war.
Owen’s poem breaks from traditional notions of heroism and glory in war. It emphasizes the psychological trauma and physical suffering of soldiers, using fragmented imagery and irregular rhyme.
“Bent double, like old beggars under sacks,” “He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning.”
Effectively captures the chaotic and dehumanizing nature of war, but may alienate readers unfamiliar with modernist techniques.
Historical Context: Analysis of literature within its historical context, considering social and political factors.
The poem reflects the disillusionment and trauma experienced by soldiers in World War I. It challenges the propaganda that glorified war and exposes the brutal reality.
“Gas! GAS! Quick, boys!—An ecstasy of fumbling,” “The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est.”
Provides a valuable historical perspective, but may overlook individual interpretations and artistic merit.
Psychoanalytic Criticism: Exploration of unconscious desires and motivations, examining symbols and metaphors.
The poem’s imagery of drowning and suffocating can be interpreted as symbols of psychological trauma. The recurring nightmares suggest the speaker’s inability to escape the horrors of war.
“Dim through the misty panes and thick green light, As under a green sea, I saw him drowning.”
Offers a deeper understanding of the psychological impact of war, but may oversimplify the poem’s complex themes.
Critical Questions about “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens
How does Owen’s use of imagery impact the reader’s perception of war?
Wilfred Owen’s use of vivid and graphic imagery in “Dulce et Decorum Est” profoundly shapes the reader’s understanding of the horrors of war. Phrases like “Bent double, like old beggars under sacks” and “blood-shod” paint a gruesome picture of the soldiers’ physical state, making their suffering palpable (Owen, 1917). This stark imagery contrasts sharply with romanticized notions of war, forcing the reader to confront the brutal reality and dispelling any illusions of glory or honor associated with battle.
In what ways does the poem challenge the traditional notions of heroism and patriotism?
“Dulce et Decorum Est” directly challenges traditional notions of heroism and patriotism by exposing the harsh realities of war and the deception behind the phrase “Dulce et decorum est / Pro patria mori” (Owen, 1917). Owen’s depiction of soldiers as “coughing like hags” and “flound’ring like a man in fire or lime” reveals the grim truth behind the glorified image of dying for one’s country. By juxtaposing the soldiers’ suffering with the idealized vision of patriotic sacrifice, Owen critiques the societal and governmental propaganda that glorifies war and exploits young soldiers.
How does Owen convey the psychological trauma experienced by soldiers?
Owen vividly conveys the psychological trauma experienced by soldiers through the poem’s intense and haunting descriptions. The recurring nightmare of a dying comrade “plunging at me, guttering, choking, drowning” exemplifies the enduring mental anguish faced by soldiers (Owen, 1917). These harrowing images illustrate that the trauma of war extends beyond the battlefield, affecting soldiers’ minds and spirits long after the physical danger has passed, thereby emphasizing the lasting impact of war on mental health.
What is the significance of the poem’s title and the phrase “Dulce et decorum est / Pro patria mori”?
The title and the phrase “Dulce et decorum est / Pro patria mori,” which translates to “It is sweet and proper to die for one’s country,” are used ironically to underscore the poem’s central theme of disillusionment with the glorification of war (Owen, 1917). Owen’s vivid descriptions of the soldiers’ suffering and his bitter recounting of their agonizing deaths starkly contrast with the idealistic sentiment expressed by the phrase. By framing the poem with this ironic statement, Owen critiques the patriotic propaganda that romanticizes war and highlights the deceitful nature of such rhetoric.
Literary Works Similar to “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens
“The Death of the Ball Turret Gunner” by Randall Jarrell: A chillingly brief account of a young airman’s death in World War II, highlighting the dehumanization and expendability of soldiers.
“Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen: A mournful elegy lamenting the lack of proper mourning for fallen soldiers, emphasizing the loss of youth and potential.
“The Charge of the Light Brigade” by Alfred Lord Tennyson: A dramatic depiction of a doomed cavalry charge in the Crimean War, celebrating bravery while acknowledging the futility of war.
“Survivors” by Siegfried Sassoon: A bitter critique of the glorification of war, highlighting the psychological trauma and disillusionment of returning soldiers.
“The Man He Killed” by Thomas Hardy: A simple yet profound reflection on the senselessness of killing in war, as a soldier contemplates the common humanity he shares with his enemy.
Suggested Readings: “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owens
Books:
Stallworthy, Jon. Wilfred Owen. Oxford University Press, 1974.
“Bright Star” by John Keats first appeared in 1848, posthumously published in the collection Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of John Keats.
Introduction: “Bright Star” by John Keats
“Bright Star” by John Keats first appeared in 1848, posthumously published in the collection Life, Letters, and Literary Remains of John Keats. This sonnet, believed to have been written in 1819, is a passionate expression of love and longing for permanence. The speaker addresses a bright star, envying its steadfastness and unchanging nature, and wishes to be as constant in his love. The poem is rich in sensual imagery, evoking a sense of touch, sight, and sound. It explores themes of love, mortality, and the desire for eternal connection, making it a quintessential example of Romantic poetry.
The speaker admires the steadfastness and permanence of the bright star, desiring the same constancy.
Not in lone splendour hung aloft the night
The speaker does not wish to be solitary and isolated like the star, which hangs alone in the night sky.
And watching, with eternal lids apart,
The star is personified as having “eternal lids” that are always open, symbolizing constant vigilance.
Like nature’s patient, sleepless Eremite,
The star is compared to a hermit (“Eremite”) who lives in solitude and constant watchfulness, emphasizing its isolation.
The moving waters at their priestlike task
The star observes the waters, which are described as performing a “priestlike task,” suggesting a ritualistic and purifying action.
Of pure ablution round earth’s human shores,
The waters are engaged in a continuous act of cleansing (“ablution”) around the shores of the earth, symbolizing purity and renewal.
Or gazing on the new soft-fallen mask
The star also watches the fresh snow that covers the earth, likened to a “mask” that transforms the landscape.
Of snow upon the mountains and the moors—
The snow covers the mountains and moors, creating a serene and untouched scene observed by the star.
No—yet still stedfast, still unchangeable,
The speaker clarifies that while he does not wish to be isolated like the star, he still desires its steadfastness and unchangeability.
Pillow’d upon my fair love’s ripening breast,
The speaker wishes to be constant while resting on his lover’s chest, where her love is described as “ripening,” suggesting growth and maturity.
To feel for ever its soft fall and swell,
He wants to feel the gentle rise and fall of her breath eternally, finding comfort and constancy in this intimate connection.
Awake for ever in a sweet unrest,
The speaker desires to be forever awake, experiencing a “sweet unrest” that contrasts with the star’s detached vigilance.
Still, still to hear her tender-taken breath,
He wishes to continuously hear his lover’s gentle breathing, emphasizing the desire for perpetual closeness and intimacy.
And so live ever—or else swoon to death.
The speaker concludes with a longing to either live forever in this state of blissful love or to die if such constancy is unattainable, highlighting the intensity of his emotions.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Bright Star” by John Keats
Marks a shift from the speaker’s initial desire to emulate the star to a new longing for earthly love (9)
Themes: “Bright Star” by John Keats
The yearning for permanence amidst transience: The speaker expresses a deep longing to be “stedfast” and “unchangeable” like the bright star, contrasting it with the fleeting nature of human life. This desire for permanence is evident in the repetition of the word “still” and the wish to “live ever.” The star becomes a symbol of eternal love and beauty, a stark contrast to the ever-changing world around the speaker.
The conflict between the ideal and the real: The speaker initially admires the star’s isolated existence but soon realizes that true love and happiness lie in earthly connection. The volta, marked by the word “No,” signals a shift in the speaker’s desire. He no longer wishes for the star’s solitary existence but yearns for the warmth and intimacy of human love, recognizing the value of shared experiences and emotions.
The power of love to transcend mortality: Although the speaker acknowledges the inevitability of death, he believes that love can create a sense of immortality. The desire to “so live ever—or else swoon to death” suggests that love, even if it leads to death, is a powerful force that can transcend the limitations of human existence. The speaker’s wish to be “pillow’d upon my fair love’s ripening breast” and “hear her tender-taken breath” underscores the importance of physical and emotional connection in achieving this transcendent love.
The beauty and power of nature: Keats, a Romantic poet, celebrates the beauty and power of nature throughout the poem. The star, the moving waters, and the snow-covered mountains are all depicted as sources of awe and inspiration. The speaker’s initial desire to emulate the star’s steadfastness reflects a Romantic idealization of nature as a model for human behavior and a source of eternal truth and beauty.
“Bright Star” embodies key elements of Romanticism, such as the reverence for nature, the emphasis on personal emotion, and the quest for the sublime. Keats’ portrayal of the star and his lover reflects the Romantic ideal of transcendent beauty and eternal love.
Keats’ yearning for steadfastness mirrors the Romantic pursuit of the eternal and the sublime, contrasting the ephemeral nature of human experience with the enduring aspects of nature.
Through a psychoanalytic lens, the poem can be seen as an exploration of Keats’ unconscious desires and fears. The star symbolizes an idealized state of constancy and permanence, while the lover’s breath represents the life force and intimate connection Keats craves.
The dichotomy between the star’s isolation and the lover’s intimacy reflects Keats’ internal conflict between the desire for emotional detachment and the need for personal connection.
A New Critical approach focuses on the text itself, analyzing the formal elements like imagery, metaphor, and structure. “Bright Star” utilizes contrasts (steadfastness vs. change, isolation vs. intimacy) to develop its central themes without relying on external context.
The poem’s tight structure and use of natural imagery serve to highlight the tension between permanence and transience, creating a unified aesthetic experience that reveals Keats’ mastery of poetic form.
Critical Questions about “Bright Star” by John Keats
How does the speaker’s perception of the star evolve throughout the poem, and what does this reveal about his desires?
Initially, the speaker admires the star’s steadfastness and eternal existence, wishing to emulate its unchanging nature. However, a shift occurs in the volta (line 9) as he rejects this desire for solitary permanence. Instead, he yearns for the warmth and intimacy of human love, recognizing the value of shared experiences and emotions. This evolution reflects a deeper understanding of love as a dynamic, ever-evolving force that thrives on connection and shared vulnerability rather than on static isolation.
What is the significance of the imagery used to describe the star’s actions and surroundings?
The star is depicted as “watching” with “eternal lids apart,” observing the “moving waters” and the “new soft-fallen mask of snow.” This imagery emphasizes the star’s role as a passive observer, removed from the world’s changes and emotions. The contrast between the star’s distant gaze and the speaker’s desire for earthly connection highlights the limitations of a life devoid of human interaction and emotional depth.
How does the sonnet form contribute to the poem’s overall meaning and effect?
The sonnet’s structure, with its octave (eight lines) and sestet (six lines), mirrors the poem’s thematic shift. The octave explores the speaker’s initial desire for unchanging love like the star, while the sestet reveals a newfound appreciation for the dynamic nature of human love. The volta, occurring between the octave and sestet, marks a crucial turning point in the speaker’s understanding of love and its connection to mortality.
In what ways does the poem explore the tension between life and death, mortality and immortality?
The speaker’s desire for eternal love, like the star’s unchanging existence, clashes with the reality of human mortality. The poem juxtaposes images of life (“ripening breast,” “tender-taken breath”) with the prospect of death (“swoon to death”). This tension highlights the inherent paradox of love: it is a life-affirming force that can bring both joy and pain, ultimately leading to an acceptance of mortality and a celebration of life’s fleeting moments.
Literary Works Similar to “Bright Star” by John Keats
“To the Evening Star” by William Blake: This poem shares a similar admiration for a celestial body, reflecting on its beauty and symbolic significance.
“She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron: Like “Bright Star,” this poem idealizes the beloved, focusing on her beauty and the serene constancy she embodies.
“When I Have Fears” by John Keats: Another of Keats’ works, this poem explores themes of longing and the desire for permanence in the face of life’s fleeting nature.
“Sonnet 18” by William Shakespeare: Shakespeare’s famous sonnet also contemplates the theme of eternal beauty, comparing the beloved to a summer’s day and seeking to immortalize her through poetry.
“To a Skylark” by Percy Bysshe Shelley: This poem similarly celebrates a natural phenomenon, the skylark, and reflects on its ethereal qualities and the poet’s longing to capture its essence.
Suggested Readings: “Bright Star” by John Keats
Books:
Bate, Walter Jackson. John Keats. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1963.
The opening line expresses the speaker’s longing to be as constant and unwavering as the bright star.
Romanticism: Emphasizes the Romantic ideal of longing for eternal constancy and the sublime beauty of nature.
“Not in lone splendour hung aloft the night”
The speaker clarifies that while he admires the star’s steadfastness, he does not wish for its isolation.
Psychoanalytic Criticism: Highlights the tension between the desire for constancy and the fear of isolation, reflecting internal conflict.
“Pillow’d upon my fair love’s ripening breast,”
The speaker desires to be constant while resting on his lover’s chest, finding intimacy and connection.
New Criticism: Focuses on the imagery and metaphor of love as a source of comfort and permanence, essential to the poem’s unity.
“Awake for ever in a sweet unrest,”
The speaker wants to remain perpetually aware and alert in the presence of his beloved, experiencing blissful agitation.
Psychoanalytic Criticism: Reflects the paradoxical desire for eternal wakefulness and the subconscious yearning for an enduring, intense emotional state.
“And so live ever—or else swoon to death.”
The closing line presents the ultimate choice between eternal life in love or death, emphasizing the intensity of the speaker’s emotions.
Romanticism: Illustrates the Romantic theme of intense emotion and the dramatic interplay between life, love, and death, capturing the essence of Romantic ideals.
“Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen first appeared in 1920 in the posthumously published collection Poems.
Introduction: “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen
“Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen first appeared in 1920 in the posthumously published collection Poems. This sonnet, written in 1917 during the poet’s service in World War I, captures the tragic futility of war and the dehumanization of young soldiers. Through stark imagery, jarring juxtapositions, and a somber tone, Owen paints a haunting portrait of the battlefield and the absence of traditional mourning rituals for fallen soldiers. The poem’s raw emotional power and unflinching portrayal of war’s horrors cemented its status as one of the most significant works of war poetry and a testament to Owen’s extraordinary talent.
Text: “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen
What passing-bells for these who die as cattle? Only the monstrous anger of the guns. Only the stuttering rifles’ rapid rattle Can patter out their hasty orisons. No mockeries now for them; no prayers nor bells; Nor any voice of mourning save the choirs, The shrill, demented choirs of wailing shells; And bugles calling for them from sad shires. What candles may be held to speed them all? Not in the hands of boys, but in their eyes Shall shine the holy glimmers of good-byes. The pallor of girls’ brows shall be their pall; Their flowers the tenderness of patient minds, And each slow dusk a drawing-down of blinds.
Annotations: “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen
“Passing-bells” refer to the bells rung to announce a death. The comparison of soldiers dying as cattle highlights the dehumanization and mass slaughter of war.
Only the monstrous anger of the guns.
The sound of the guns replaces the traditional funeral bells, emphasizing the violent and impersonal nature of their deaths.
Only the stuttering rifles’ rapid rattle
The “stuttering rifles” create an image of machine gun fire, representing the chaos and relentless assault experienced by the soldiers.
Can patter out their hasty orisons.
“Orisons” are prayers. The rapid gunfire replaces the soldiers’ final prayers, suggesting their deaths are hurried and without the comfort of religious rites.
No mockeries now for them; no prayers nor bells;
The soldiers are denied the usual religious and ceremonial practices that honor the dead, pointing to the indignity of their deaths.
Nor any voice of mourning save the choirs,
The only “choirs” are the sounds of war—specifically the artillery shells—showing how traditional mourning is replaced by the noise of battle.
The shrill, demented choirs of wailing shells;
Describes the high-pitched, eerie sounds of artillery shells as “demented,” emphasizing the madness of war.
And bugles calling for them from sad shires.
Bugles were used in the military to signal various events. Here, they call the soldiers to their deaths, and “sad shires” indicates the grief of the soldiers’ home regions.
What candles may be held to speed them all?
Candles are traditionally used in funerals to guide the deceased’s soul. This line questions what can honor the soldiers who died in such circumstances.
Not in the hands of boys, but in their eyes
Instead of physical candles, the reflections of farewell in the eyes of young soldiers serve as a substitute.
Shall shine the holy glimmers of good-byes.
The “holy glimmers” suggest a spiritual farewell, with the soldiers’ eyes conveying their goodbyes.
The pallor of girls’ brows shall be their pall;
“Pallor” refers to the pale complexion of the grieving women, and “pall” is the cloth covering a coffin. The women’s grief replaces traditional funeral rites.
Their flowers the tenderness of patient minds,
The “flowers” are metaphorical, representing the compassionate and enduring thoughts of those who mourn.
And each slow dusk a drawing-down of blinds.
The “drawing-down of blinds” symbolizes the end of the day and the finality of death, suggesting a perpetual mourning as each day ends.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen
Creates a sense of order and control amidst the chaos of war
Throughout
Shift in Tone
From questioning (octave) to assertion (sestet)
Change in the speaker’s attitude
Marks a transition from despair to a glimmer of hope
8
Themes: “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen
The Futility of War: One of the central themes in “Anthem for Doomed Youth” is the futility and senselessness of war. Owen portrays the deaths of soldiers as meaningless and dehumanizing by comparing them to cattle being slaughtered: “What passing-bells for these who die as cattle?” This imagery starkly illustrates the mass, impersonal killing that characterizes trench warfare. The absence of traditional rites (“No mockeries now for them; no prayers nor bells”) further emphasizes the theme, suggesting that the soldiers’ sacrifices are not honored or recognized in the way they should be. Owen’s choice to forgo traditional funeral rites in favor of the violent sounds of battle underscores the senseless destruction of young lives.
Dehumanization: Owen explores the theme of dehumanization by depicting soldiers as mere animals led to slaughter and by replacing human rites with the sounds of war. The comparison to cattle in the opening line starkly dehumanizes the soldiers, reducing them to mere numbers in the machinery of war. The “monstrous anger of the guns” and “stuttering rifles’ rapid rattle” replace the solemnity of passing-bells and prayers, stripping the soldiers of their humanity. The transformation of traditional mourning sounds into the chaos of battle symbolizes how war reduces men to mere objects, devoid of individuality and dignity.
Mourning and Loss: Mourning and loss permeate the poem as Owen contrasts the expected rituals of death with the brutal reality faced by soldiers. Traditional mourning practices, such as prayers, bells, and choirs, are replaced by the “shrill, demented choirs of wailing shells” and “bugles calling for them from sad shires.” This shift highlights the deep sense of loss felt by those left behind and the inadequate means available to mourn the dead properly. By depicting the grief of the soldiers’ families and friends through metaphorical expressions such as “the pallor of girls’ brows” and “the tenderness of patient minds,” Owen underscores the personal and communal sorrow caused by the war.
The Sacrifice of Youth: The poem poignantly addresses the theme of youth and the sacrifice of young lives in war. The title itself, “Anthem for Doomed Youth,” sets the stage for this exploration, suggesting a somber hymn for the young soldiers whose lives are cut short. The imagery of “candles” held not in hands but shining in the eyes of boys underscores the youth and innocence of the soldiers. Owen’s portrayal of the soldiers’ final moments, marked by the “holy glimmers of good-byes” in their eyes, evokes a powerful sense of wasted potential and the tragic loss of a generation. This theme is reinforced by the concluding image of “each slow dusk a drawing-down of blinds,” symbolizing the end of life and the perpetual mourning for the young who never had the chance to grow old.
Literary Theories and “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen
Focuses on the poem’s structure (sonnet), rhyme scheme (ABABCDCDEFEFGG), meter (iambic pentameter), and literary devices (metaphor, simile, etc.). Analyzes how these elements contribute to the poem’s overall meaning and effect.
Provides a detailed analysis of the poem’s artistic construction but may neglect historical and social context.
Examines the poem in the context of World War I and its impact on society. Considers how the poem reflects the cultural and historical attitudes towards war and death at the time. References to “guns,” “shells,” and “bugles” ground the poem in the realities of war.
Offers a nuanced understanding of the poem’s historical significance but may overlook its universal themes of loss and grief.
Explores how readers interpret and react to the poem based on their individual experiences and perspectives. Analyzes how the poem’s emotional language and vivid imagery evoke strong feelings in readers. The rhetorical questions invite personal reflection on war and mourning.
Acknowledges the subjective nature of literary interpretation but may lack a cohesive analysis of the poem’s overall meaning.
Critical Questions about “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen
How does the poem’s title, “Anthem for Doomed Youth,” establish the poem’s central theme and tone?
The title “Anthem for Doomed Youth” immediately sets a somber and ironic tone. An anthem is typically a song of celebration or praise, but here it’s applied to young men fated to die in war. This juxtaposition highlights the tragic loss of life and the lack of proper recognition or commemoration for these soldiers. The irony deepens as the poem unfolds, contrasting the absence of traditional mourning rituals with the harsh realities of the battlefield. The title thus serves as a poignant introduction to the poem’s exploration of grief, loss, and the futility of war.
What specific poetic devices does Owen employ to convey the dehumanization and brutality of war?
Owen masterfully uses similes, metaphors, and onomatopoeia to depict the horrors of war. The opening line, “What passing-bells for these who die as cattle?” compares the soldiers to livestock, highlighting their expendability. The “monstrous anger of the guns” and the “stuttering rifles’ rapid rattle” personify the weapons, emphasizing their destructive power and the chaotic nature of combat. These vivid images, combined with the poem’s stark diction and relentless rhythm, create a visceral and unsettling portrayal of war’s brutality, leaving a lasting impression on the reader.
How does the poem’s structure, a Petrarchan sonnet, contribute to its overall meaning and impact?
The poem’s structure as a Petrarchan sonnet, divided into an octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six lines), mirrors the thematic shift within the poem. The octave focuses on the absence of traditional mourning rituals, emphasizing the futility and anonymity of death in war. The sestet, however, offers a glimmer of hope and remembrance, suggesting that the memories of fallen soldiers will live on in the hearts and minds of those they left behind. This structural division reinforces the poem’s exploration of both despair and resilience in the face of tragedy.
In what ways does “Anthem for Doomed Youth” challenge traditional notions of heroism and glory associated with war?
Owen’s poem starkly contrasts the idealized image of war with its grim reality. Instead of glorifying heroic deeds, he focuses on the senseless loss of young lives and the absence of traditional honors. The soldiers are not celebrated as heroes but rather mourned as victims of a brutal and dehumanizing conflict. This unflinching portrayal of war’s horrors challenges readers to reconsider the romanticized narratives often associated with warfare and to acknowledge the profound suffering it inflicts on individuals and communities alike.
Literary Works Similar to “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen
“Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen: Both poems critique the romanticized notion of war and highlight its brutal reality.
“The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke: This poem, like Owen’s, deals with themes of sacrifice and the personal cost of war, though Brooke’s is more patriotic in tone.
“In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae: Both poems address the aftermath of war and the memorialization of fallen soldiers.
“The Death of the Ball Turret Gunner” by Randall Jarrell: This poem, like Owen’s, starkly depicts the dehumanizing and mechanized nature of modern warfare.
“Break of Day in the Trenches” by Isaac Rosenberg: Similar to Owen’s work, this poem explores the grim realities of life in the trenches and the constant presence of death.
Suggested Readings: “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen
Books:
Stallworthy, Jon. Wilfred Owen. Oxford University Press, 1974.
“She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron, first appeared in 1815 in a collection titled Hebrew Melodies, is a classic example of Romantic poetry, celebrating the idealization of beauty and its connection to inner goodness.
Introduction: “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron
“She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron, first appeared in 1815 in a collection titled Hebrew Melodies, is a classic example of Romantic poetry, celebrating the idealization of beauty and its connection to inner goodness. It stands out for its lyrical language, rhythmic flow, and vivid imagery, capturing the essence of a woman whose beauty is both physical and spiritual. The poem’s harmonious structure and carefully chosen words create a sense of awe and admiration, while its themes of light, darkness, and inner radiance continue to resonate with readers today.
A rhetorical shift or dramatic change in thought and/or emotion.
Marks a transition from describing the woman’s external beauty to focusing on her inner qualities.
Themes: “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron
The Harmony of Contrasts: Byron’s poem celebrates the harmonious blending of opposing elements in the woman’s beauty. He juxtaposes “dark and bright,” “shade” and “ray,” to highlight the perfect balance that defines her allure. The woman’s beauty is not simply about her physical features but the seamless fusion of these contrasting elements, suggesting that true beauty lies in the harmonious coexistence of opposites. This harmony extends beyond the physical, reflecting a balance between inner and outer beauty, between thought and feeling, and between the earthly and the divine.
The Idealization of Beauty: “She Walks in Beauty” is an ode to idealized beauty, portraying the woman as a vision of perfection. Her “nameless grace,” “serenely sweet” thoughts, and “innocent” heart elevate her beyond mere mortal beauty. Byron employs vivid imagery and hyperbolic language, such as “tender light” and “days in goodness spent,” to create an aura of ethereal beauty that is almost otherworldly. The poem reflects the Romantic fascination with idealized beauty, capturing the sublime and unattainable nature of perfection.
The Connection Between Inner and Outer Beauty: Byron suggests that true beauty is not solely skin deep but emanates from within. The poem emphasizes the connection between the woman’s physical appearance and her inner qualities. Her “smiles that win” and “tints that glow” are not just superficial attributes but reflections of a “mind at peace with all below” and a “heart whose love is innocent.” This connection implies that genuine beauty is a manifestation of inner goodness, virtue, and a peaceful soul.
The Transcendent Power of Beauty: The poem suggests that beauty has the power to elevate the human spirit and connect us to something larger than ourselves. The woman’s beauty is described as “tender light / Which heaven to gaudy day denies,” suggesting a divine quality that surpasses the ordinary. Her beauty inspires awe and reverence, as if she is a celestial being gracing the earth with her presence. This theme reflects the Romantic belief in the transformative power of beauty, capable of inspiring wonder, joy, and a sense of connection to the sublime.
Literary Theories and “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron
Reference from the poem: “She walks in beauty, like the night”
Critique: New Criticism emphasizes close reading of the text itself, focusing on formal elements such as structure, language, and imagery. Byron’s use of visual imagery in comparing the woman’s beauty to the night sky (“like the night / Of cloudless climes and starry skies”) underscores the poem’s aesthetic appeal and evokes a sense of serene beauty. The precise choice of words like “cloudless,” “starry,” and “beauty” highlights the harmonious balance and visual allure of the woman’s appearance. New Criticism would analyze how Byron’s meticulous use of imagery contributes to the poem’s overall impact and theme of aesthetic perfection.
Reference from the poem: “A mind at peace with all below, / A heart whose love is innocent!”
Critique: Psychoanalytic Criticism explores unconscious desires, motivations, and conflicts reflected in literature. Byron’s depiction of the woman as having “a mind at peace” and “a heart whose love is innocent” suggests idealized virtues and inner tranquility. Psychoanalytic analysis would delve into how these qualities symbolize the speaker’s desires for purity and emotional fulfillment. The poem’s emphasis on the woman’s serenity and innocence may reflect the speaker’s idealized projection or longing for emotional harmony and moral integrity. This perspective would examine how Byron’s portrayal of the woman’s character serves to fulfill the speaker’s psychological needs and desires.
Reference from the poem: “And all that’s best of dark and bright / Meet in her aspect and her eyes;”
Critique: Feminist Criticism examines literature through the lens of gender roles, power dynamics, and representations of women. Byron’s description of the woman’s beauty as a blend of “dark and bright” qualities highlights her complexity and allure. Feminist analysis would explore how the poem portrays feminine beauty and identity, considering whether the woman is empowered or objectified through the speaker’s gaze. The poem’s focus on the woman’s external beauty and inner virtues could be critiqued for reinforcing traditional ideals of femininity that prioritize physical appearance and moral purity. Feminist theory would question how the poem constructs gender norms and whether it challenges or perpetuates stereotypes about women’s roles and attributes.
Critical Questions about “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron
How does Byron use contrasting imagery to enhance the theme of beauty in the poem?
Byron’s poem “She Walks in Beauty” employs contrasting imagery to accentuate the theme of beauty. The juxtaposition of “like the night / Of cloudless climes and starry skies” creates a vivid picture of the woman’s beauty as both serene and radiant (She Walks in Beauty). This contrast between darkness and light highlights her unique allure, suggesting that her beauty transcends ordinary descriptions. By merging elements of “dark and bright” in her “aspect and her eyes,” Byron emphasizes that her attractiveness lies in the harmonious balance of these opposites (She Walks in Beauty). This use of contrasting imagery not only enhances the visual appeal of the poem but also deepens the reader’s appreciation of the woman’s complex and multifaceted beauty.
In what ways does Byron idealize the woman’s inner qualities alongside her physical beauty?
In “She Walks in Beauty,” Byron idealizes the woman’s inner qualities as much as her physical beauty, suggesting a profound connection between outward appearance and inner virtue. He describes her “thoughts serenely sweet” and a face where such thoughts are “softly lightens o’er” (She Walks in Beauty). This portrayal of her inner serenity and sweetness as visibly manifest in her appearance elevates her beauty to a nearly divine status. Byron further emphasizes her moral purity by stating she has “a mind at peace with all below, / A heart whose love is innocent!” (She Walks in Beauty). This idealization of her internal qualities alongside her external beauty reinforces the Romantic ideal of harmony between inner virtue and outer appearance.
How does the poem reflect Romantic ideals about nature and beauty?
“She Walks in Beauty” reflects Romantic ideals by intertwining nature and beauty in its depiction of the woman. Byron’s comparison of her to a “night / Of cloudless climes and starry skies” aligns her beauty with natural elements, emphasizing the Romantic belief in the sublime qualities of nature (She Walks in Beauty). The tender light in her “aspect and her eyes,” which is mellowed and more delicate than the “gaudy day,” suggests that her beauty possesses a natural, unadorned purity that surpasses artificiality (She Walks in Beauty). This alignment of her beauty with the natural world underscores the Romantic ideal that true beauty is found in nature’s simplicity and purity, reflecting a deeper, spiritual essence.
What role does the speaker’s perspective play in shaping the portrayal of the woman in the poem?
The speaker’s perspective in “She Walks in Beauty” is crucial in shaping the portrayal of the woman, as it filters her beauty through his idealizing and admiring gaze. His observations begin with the striking simile, “She walks in beauty, like the night,” immediately setting a tone of reverent admiration (She Walks in Beauty). The speaker meticulously notes how “all that’s best of dark and bright / Meet in her aspect and her eyes,” suggesting that his perception is finely attuned to the nuances of her appearance (She Walks in Beauty). This perspective imbues the woman with an almost otherworldly grace and purity, as he attributes to her a “mind at peace” and “a heart whose love is innocent” (She Walks in Beauty). The speaker’s idealized view not only elevates her beauty but also shapes the reader’s understanding of her as a paragon of both physical and moral excellence.
Literary Works Similar to “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron
“Sonnet 18” by William Shakespeare: Celebrates the eternal beauty of the beloved, comparing it to a summer’s day and emphasizing its enduring nature.
“To Helen” by Edgar Allan Poe: Praises the timeless beauty of Helen, using classical references to convey admiration and reverence.
“La Belle Dame sans Merci” by John Keats: Describes an enchanting and mysterious woman whose beauty captivates and ensnares the speaker.
“Bright Star” by John Keats: Expresses the speaker’s desire for the constancy and eternal beauty of a bright star, symbolizing a loved one.
“When You Are Old” by W.B. Yeats: Reflects on the enduring beauty and deep love for the speaker’s beloved, even as time passes and physical beauty fades.
Suggested Readings: “She Walks in Beauty” by Lord Byron
Bloom, Harold, editor. Lord Byron. Chelsea House Publishers, 1986.
“Directive” by Robert Frost, first appeared in 1947 in his collection Steeple Bush, is characteristic of Frost’s later work, showcasing a darker, more meditative tone than his earlier, more optimistic poems.
Introduction: “Directive” by Robert Frost
“Directive” by Robert Frost, first appeared in 1947 in his collection Steeple Bush, is characteristic of Frost’s later work, showcasing a darker, more meditative tone than his earlier, more optimistic poems. “Directive” is a journey poem, guiding the reader through a physical and spiritual landscape, urging them to seek solace and meaning in a world that can often feel chaotic and disillusioning. The poem employs Frost’s signature plain-spoken language and deceptively simple imagery, while delving into deeper themes of loss, memory, and the search for spiritual fulfillment.
Text: “Directive” by Robert Frost
Back out of all this now too much for us, Back in a time made simple by the loss Of detail, burned, dissolved, and broken off Like graveyard marble sculpture in the weather, There is a house that is no more a house Upon a farm that is no more a farm And in a town that is no more a town. The road there, if you’ll let a guide direct you Who only has at heart your getting lost, May seem as if it should have been a quarry— Great monolithic knees the former town Long since gave up pretense of keeping covered. And there’s a story in a book about it: Besides the wear of iron wagon wheels The ledges show lines ruled southeast northwest, The chisel work of an enormous Glacier That braced his feet against the Arctic Pole. You must not mind a certain coolness from him Still said to haunt this side of Panther Mountain. Nor need you mind the serial ordeal Of being watched from forty cellar holes As if by eye pairs out of forty firkins. As for the woods’ excitement over you That sends light rustle rushes to their leaves, Charge that to upstart inexperience. Where were they all not twenty years ago? They think too much of having shaded out A few old pecker-fretted apple trees. Make yourself up a cheering song of how Someone’s road home from work this once was, Who may be just ahead of you on foot Or creaking with a buggy load of grain. The height of the adventure is the height Of country where two village cultures faded Into each other. Both of them are lost. And if you’re lost enough to find yourself By now, pull in your ladder road behind you And put a sign up CLOSED to all but me. Then make yourself at home. The only field Now left’s no bigger than a harness gall. First there’s the children’s house of make believe, Some shattered dishes underneath a pine, The playthings in the playhouse of the children. Weep for what little things could make them glad. Then for the house that is no more a house, But only a belilaced cellar hole, Now slowly closing like a dent in dough. This was no playhouse but a house in earnest. Your destination and your destiny’s A brook that was the water of the house, Cold as a spring as yet so near its source, Too lofty and original to rage. (We know the valley streams that when aroused Will leave their tatters hung on barb and thorn.) I have kept hidden in the instep arch Of an old cedar at the waterside A broken drinking goblet like the Grail Under a spell so the wrong ones can’t find it, So can’t get saved, as Saint Mark says they mustn’t. (I stole the goblet from the children’s playhouse.) Here are your waters and your watering place. Drink and be whole again beyond confusion.
A rhetorical shift or dramatic change in thought and/or emotion.
Marks a transition from the speaker’s focus on the past to a call for resilience and hope.
Themes: “Directive” by Robert Frost
The Quest for Spiritual Fulfillment: “Directive” presents a journey towards spiritual renewal, guiding the reader through a physical landscape that mirrors an inner quest for meaning. Frost invites us to “back out of all this now too much for us,” urging a retreat from the complexities of modern life. The dilapidated house, the abandoned farm, and the forgotten town symbolize the shedding of material attachments in favor of a simpler, more authentic existence. The “broken drinking goblet like the Grail” represents a spiritual treasure to be found in the most unexpected places, promising wholeness “beyond confusion.”
The Power of Memory and the Past: Frost explores the significance of memory and the past in shaping our present and future. The poem’s journey is not just physical but also temporal, leading the reader back through time to a place “made simple by the loss / Of detail.” The ruins of the town and the remnants of the children’s playhouse evoke a sense of nostalgia and longing for a simpler past. However, Frost doesn’t romanticize the past; he acknowledges its hardships and challenges, represented by the “coolness” of the Glacier and the watchful “eye pairs out of forty firkins.” The past serves as a guide, a source of wisdom, and a reminder of our connection to those who came before.
The Relationship Between Humanity and Nature: Frost masterfully weaves together human experience and the natural world, blurring the boundaries between the two. The landscape is not merely a backdrop but an active participant in the poem’s journey. The “monolithic knees” of the former town blend with the natural rock formations, suggesting a harmony between human creations and the environment. The brook, “too lofty and original to rage,” offers a source of purity and rejuvenation. Nature acts as a teacher, a healer, and a source of solace for those who are willing to listen and learn.
The Importance of Solitude and Self-Reliance: “Directive” advocates for a solitary retreat from society, a journey of self-discovery and self-reliance. The speaker encourages the reader to “pull in your ladder road behind you / And put a sign up CLOSED to all but me.” This isolation is not a rejection of others but a necessary step towards finding one’s true self. The “children’s house of make believe” and the “playthings in the playhouse” symbolize the illusions and distractions of society that we must shed to achieve genuine self-understanding. Only in solitude, surrounded by the simple beauty of nature, can we truly “drink and be whole again beyond confusion.”
Reference from the poem: “Back out of all this now too much for us,”
Commentary: New Criticism focuses on close reading of the text, emphasizing intrinsic literary elements such as imagery, structure, and language. Frost’s poem invites close examination of its imagery and language, such as the evocative descriptions of lost places (“graveyard marble sculpture,” “house that is no more a house”), which highlight themes of loss and nostalgia. The structured progression from past to present also underscores the poem’s introspective tone and thematic depth.
Reference from the poem: “The chisel work of an enormous Glacier / That braced his feet against the Arctic Pole.”
Commentary: Ecocriticism explores literature through the lens of environmental issues and relationships between humans and nature. Frost’s imagery of geological formations shaped by glaciers not only reflects on the physical landscape but also metaphorically suggests the passage of time and the impact of natural forces on human history. The poem’s engagement with nature and its transformations resonates with ecocritical perspectives on human interaction with the environment.
Reference from the poem: “Then make yourself up a cheering song of how / Someone’s road home from work this once was,”
Commentary: Psychoanalytic criticism examines literature through psychological concepts, exploring unconscious desires, motivations, and conflicts. Frost’s poem delves into themes of memory, nostalgia, and the passage of time, which can be analyzed through psychoanalytic lenses. The speaker’s directive to create a comforting narrative about a lost past may reflect a longing for stability and meaning amid change and loss, tapping into universal psychological themes of identity and nostalgia.
Critical Questions about “Directive” by Robert Frost
How does Frost use imagery to convey themes of loss and nostalgia?
In “Directive,” Robert Frost employs poignant imagery to evoke profound themes of loss and nostalgia. The poem vividly describes places transformed by time, such as “a house that is no more a house / Upon a farm that is no more a farm,” which symbolize the passage of time and the erosion of past realities (Directive). Frost’s imagery, such as “graveyard marble sculpture” and “belilaced cellar hole,” paints a picture of decay and impermanence, reinforcing the speaker’s reflective tone. These images not only depict physical changes in landscapes but also evoke a sense of longing for a simpler, bygone era. Through his masterful use of imagery, Frost invites readers to contemplate the inevitable changes brought by time and the emotional resonance of lost places.
How does Frost explore the relationship between memory and identity in “Directive”?
In “Directive,” Frost intricately explores the interplay between memory and identity, weaving them into the fabric of the poem’s narrative. The poem reflects on memories as integral to shaping personal and communal identities. For instance, Frost describes how “two village cultures faded / Into each other,” suggesting a blending of histories and identities (Directive). This blending highlights how memories of the past contribute to collective identity and cultural continuity. The speaker’s directive to reconstruct a comforting narrative (“Make yourself up a cheering song”) underscores the role of memory in defining personal and cultural narratives. Frost’s exploration of memory as a construct that influences identity resonates deeply, inviting readers to reflect on their own connections to history and memory.
What is the significance of the poem’s structural progression from description to directive?
The structural progression of “Directive” from descriptive passages to direct instructions plays a crucial role in shaping the poem’s narrative and thematic depth. Frost begins with evocative descriptions of lost places and histories, setting a nostalgic tone with lines like “Back out of all this now too much for us” (Directive). These descriptions create a sense of longing and introspection as the speaker reminisces about a simpler past. As the poem unfolds, the speaker shifts to direct the reader towards introspection and engagement with the past (“You must not mind…”), mirroring the speaker’s guiding role in the narrative (Directive). This progression invites readers to journey alongside the speaker, contemplating themes of memory, loss, and the passage of time. Frost’s strategic structural choices enhance the poem’s intimacy and emotional resonance, guiding readers through a reflective exploration of history and identity.
How does Frost use language and tone to create a sense of intimacy and guidance in “Directive
“? Robert Frost employs language and tone masterfully in “Directive” to foster intimacy and provide gentle guidance to the reader. The poem’s language is intimate and conversational, inviting readers to participate in the speaker’s nostalgic journey through phrases like “make yourself at home” and directives to imagine past lives (“Someone’s road home from work this once was”) (Directive). Frost’s tone is contemplative and reassuring, encouraging readers to reflect on their own connections to history and memory alongside the speaker. The gentle, instructive tone creates a sense of shared experience and personal reflection, drawing readers into the speaker’s nostalgic exploration of the past. Through his adept use of language and tone, Frost establishes a profound connection with readers, guiding them through themes of memory, belonging, and the passage of time in “Directive.”
Literary Works Similar to “Directive” by Robert Frost
“The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost: Another of Frost’s iconic poems, this one explores the theme of choices and their consequences, inviting readers to reflect on the paths they choose in life.
“Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost: This poem delves into themes of solitude, temptation, and the allure of the unknown, as a traveler pauses in a snowy woods, contemplating the mysteries of life and death.
“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot: A modernist masterpiece, this poem explores themes of disillusionment, spiritual emptiness, and the search for meaning in a fragmented world, employing a variety of allusions and fragmented narratives.
“Song of Myself” by Walt Whitman: This epic poem celebrates the individual, the natural world, and the interconnectedness of all things, offering a vision of spiritual transcendence and democratic ideals.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: This poem delves into the anxieties and insecurities of a modern man, grappling with feelings of isolation, inadequacy, and the fear of rejection.
The poem begins with a directive to retreat from overwhelming complexity and return to a simpler time.
New Criticism (Formalism): Emphasizes close reading of the text’s intrinsic elements like structure and language to interpret the poem’s introspective tone and thematic depth.
“Then make yourself up a cheering song of how / Someone’s road home from work this once was,”
The speaker encourages the reader to construct a comforting narrative about a lost past.
Psychoanalytic Criticism: Explores unconscious desires and motivations reflected in the speaker’s directive to reimagine a nostalgic narrative, revealing psychological themes of identity and nostalgia.
“The height of the adventure is the height / Of country where two village cultures faded / Into each other.”
Describes a place where two cultures merged and eventually disappeared.
Ecocriticism: Analyzes the poem’s engagement with natural environments and landscapes, reflecting on human interaction with and impact on the environment.
“Here are your waters and your watering place. / Drink and be whole again beyond confusion.”
Concludes with an invitation to drink from a stream and find clarity.
Reader-Response Theory: Focuses on the reader’s interpretation and emotional response to the speaker’s invitation, emphasizing the poem’s role in shaping personal meaning and experience.
“I have kept hidden in the instep arch / Of an old cedar at the waterside / A broken drinking goblet like the Grail”
Reveals a hidden treasure and invokes mythical imagery.
Mythological Criticism: Examines the poem’s use of mythical allusions like the Holy Grail, exploring how these references enrich the poem’s themes of quest and discovery.
“Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen first appeared in the posthumously published collection Poems in 1920.
Introduction: “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen
“Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen first appeared in the posthumously published collection Poems in 1920. The poem, a bitter critique of war propaganda, highlights the grim reality faced by soldiers on the front lines, contrasting it with the cheerful and encouraging messages propagated back home. Owen’s stark imagery and use of repetition emphasize the emotional disconnect between the soldiers’ experiences and the public’s perception, contributing to the poem’s haunting and ironic tone. This stark juxtaposition of battlefield horror and forced optimism showcases Owen’s mastery of language and his unwavering commitment to expose the truth of war.
Text: “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen
Head to limp head, the sunk-eyed wounded scanned
Yesterday’s Mail; the casualties (typed small)
And (large) Vast Booty from our Latest Haul.
Also, they read of Cheap Homes, not yet planned;
“For,” said the paper, “when this war is done
The men’s first instinct will be making homes.
Meanwhile their foremost need is aerodromes,
It being certain war has just begun.
Peace would do wrong to our undying dead,—
The sons we offered might regret they died
If we got nothing lasting in their stead.
We must be solidly indemnified.
Though all be worthy Victory which all bought.
We rulers sitting in this ancient spot
Would wrong our very selves if we forgot
The greatest glory will be theirs who fought,
Who kept this nation in integrity.”
Nation?—The half-limbed readers did not chafe
But smiled at one another curiously
Like secret men who know their secret safe.
(This is the thing they know and never speak,
That England one by one had fled to France
Not many elsewhere now save under France).
Pictures of these broad smiles appear each week,
And people in whose voice real feeling rings
Say: How they smile! They’re happy now, poor things.
Annotations of “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen
Suggests the soldiers’ shared understanding of the war’s true nature.
Themes in “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen
The Disillusionment of War: Owen vividly captures the soldiers’ disillusionment with the war through their reading of the newspaper. The “sunk-eyed wounded” scanning the “Yesterday’s Mail” filled with propaganda about “Vast Booty” and “Cheap Homes” reveals the stark contrast between the reality of their suffering and the false promises made by those in power. The soldiers’ smiles, described as “curious,” suggest a shared understanding of the lies they’ve been fed.
The Manipulation of Propaganda: The poem is a scathing critique of war propaganda, exposing how it manipulates public opinion and conceals the true horrors of war. The lines about “Cheap Homes, not yet planned” and “aerodromes” being the foremost need highlight the government’s prioritization of war efforts over the well-being of its soldiers. The repetition of “Smile, Smile, Smile” serves as a chilling reminder of the insincerity behind the forced optimism propagated by those in power.
The Loss of Individuality and Agency: The poem suggests that war strips soldiers of their individuality and agency, turning them into mere numbers on a casualty list. The phrase “half-limbed readers” emphasizes their dehumanization and physical sacrifices. The fact that the soldiers “did not chafe” but instead “smiled at one another curiously” implies a sense of resignation and acceptance of their fate.
The Futility and Absurdity of War: Owen’s poem ultimately questions the very purpose and meaning of war. The lines “Peace would do wrong to our undying dead” and “We must be solidly indemnified” reveal the warped logic and misguided priorities of those in power. The final stanza’s reference to “The greatest glory” belonging to those who fought highlights the irony and absurdity of celebrating a conflict that causes so much suffering and loss. The poem leaves the reader with a profound sense of the futility of war and the tragic consequences it inflicts on both individuals and nations.
Literary Theories and “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen
Marxist Literary Theory: From a Marxist perspective, Owen’s poem critiques the societal structures and the exploitation of working-class soldiers during wartime. The references to Cheap Homes, not yet planned and Vast Booty from our Latest Haul underscore the disparity between promises of future rewards and the immediate needs of soldiers. Owen highlights how the ruling class, symbolized by rulers sitting in this ancient spot, manipulates patriotic sentiments to justify war and pacify dissent among soldiers who have sacrificed so much. This theory emphasizes the economic and class dynamics embedded in Owen’s portrayal of war’s impact on individuals and society.
Feminist Literary Theory: Applying feminist theory to “Smile, Smile, Smile” reveals underlying gender dynamics and the absence of women’s voices in the poem. The focus on male soldiers (the men’s first instinct) and England one by one had fled to France suggests a narrative dominated by male experiences and sacrifices. The poem’s portrayal of soldiers as half-limbed readers underscores their physical and emotional scars, yet the voices and perspectives of women, often affected by war through loss and displacement, remain marginalized. This theory critiques the poem’s depiction of war’s impact solely through a masculine lens, questioning whose stories and voices are privileged in narratives of conflict.
New Historicism Literary Theory: New Historicism examines “Smile, Smile, Smile” in its historical context, emphasizing how Owen’s portrayal of wartime propaganda and soldierly experiences reflects broader cultural and political tensions of World War I. The references to Peace would do wrong to our undying dead and The sons we offered might regret they died illustrate Owen’s critique of nationalist rhetoric and the manipulation of public sentiment for political ends. By exploring contemporary newspapers (Yesterday’s Mail) and societal attitudes towards war and sacrifice, Owen critiques the official narratives of heroism and national integrity. This theory highlights how Owen’s poem engages with and challenges dominant historical discourses, offering a critical perspective on the consequences of war beyond conventional narratives of valor and victory.
Critical Questions: “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen
How does Owen use irony to convey the poem’s message?
The title, “Smile, Smile, Smile,” is a starkly ironic contrast to the grim reality the poem depicts. The soldiers’ smiles, far from genuine expressions of happiness, are portrayed as a result of manipulation and forced optimism. This irony underscores the poem’s critique of propaganda and the disconnect between the soldiers’ experiences and the public’s perception. The repetition of “Smile” further amplifies this irony, making it a haunting refrain that echoes the soldiers’ silent suffering.
What is the significance of the newspaper in the poem?
The newspaper serves as a symbol of the lies and propaganda disseminated by the government to maintain public support for the war. The wounded soldiers reading about “Vast Booty” and “Cheap Homes” highlight the stark contrast between the government’s promises and the soldiers’ grim reality. The newspaper also represents the public’s detachment from the war’s horrors, as they remain oblivious to the true cost of the conflict.
How does Owen portray the soldiers in the poem?
The soldiers are depicted as victims of both physical and psychological trauma. Their “sunk-eyed” and “half-limbed” appearance reflects the physical toll of war, while their curious smiles suggest a shared understanding of the lies they’ve been fed. Owen portrays them as dehumanized and objectified, reduced to mere statistics in the “casualties (typed small)” section of the newspaper. Yet, their silent camaraderie and knowing glances hint at a deeper understanding of the war’s futility and absurdity.
What is the overall message or theme of the poem?
The poem’s central theme is the disillusionment and betrayal experienced by soldiers in the face of war propaganda. Owen exposes the hypocrisy and manipulation behind the cheerful facade presented to the public, revealing the true cost of war in terms of human suffering and loss. The poem also questions the concept of nationalism and the blind obedience demanded of soldiers, suggesting that the true victims of war are often those who are most deeply invested in its supposed glory.
Topics, Essays Questions and Thesis Statements about “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen
How does Wilfred Owen depict the emotional and psychological toll of war on soldiers in “Smile, Smile, Smile”?
In “Smile, Smile, Smile,” Wilfred Owen portrays soldiers as disillusioned and marginalized by societal expectations, revealing the profound emotional and psychological scars left by war.
2. Critique of Propaganda and Nationalism
Discuss Owen’s critique of wartime propaganda and nationalism in “Smile, Smile, Smile.”
“Smile, Smile, Smile” critiques wartime propaganda by exposing how it manipulates public sentiment and undermines the true human cost of war, challenging notions of heroism and national identity.
3. Gender Dynamics and War
How does Owen address gender dynamics and the absence of female voices in “Smile, Smile, Smile”?
Owen’s portrayal in “Smile, Smile, Smile” underscores the gendered experiences of war, highlighting the absence of female perspectives and critiquing the societal roles imposed on men during wartime.
4. Historical Context and Cultural Critique
Analyze “Smile, Smile, Smile” within its historical context, exploring Owen’s cultural critique of World War I society.
“Smile, Smile, Smile” reflects Wilfred Owen’s critical examination of World War I society, exposing the hypocrisy and disillusionment amidst patriotic fervor and national sacrifice.
Literary Works Similar to “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen
“Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen – A poignant portrayal of the horrors of war and its impact on young soldiers.
“Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen – Exposes the brutal reality of warfare, challenging the romanticized notion of dying for one’s country.
“The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke – A contrasting poem that idealizes death in service of one’s nation, reflecting the patriotic fervor of the time.
“In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae – Uses vivid imagery to commemorate fallen soldiers and reflects on the enduring presence of war.
“The Next War” by Wilfred Owen – Anticipates the futility and continuation of conflict, questioning the lessons learned from past sacrifices.
Suggested Readings: “Smile, Smile, Smile” by Wilfred Owen
“Head to limp head, the sunk-eyed wounded scanned / Yesterday’s Mail…”
The opening lines establish the setting: wounded soldiers reading the newspaper.
Realism: Owen’s graphic depiction of the wounded soldiers contrasts sharply with the idealized images of war often presented in propaganda.
“Vast Booty from our Latest Haul. / Also, they read of Cheap Homes, not yet planned…”
The newspaper juxtaposes reports of war spoils with promises of postwar prosperity, highlighting the government’s manipulation of information.
Marxism: This reveals the economic motives behind war and the exploitation of soldiers for the benefit of the ruling class.
“Peace would do wrong to our undying dead,— / The sons we offered might regret they died / If we got nothing lasting in their stead.”
The poem critiques the idea that continued warfare is necessary to honor the sacrifices of fallen soldiers.
Pacifism: Owen challenges the glorification of war and suggests that peace is the true way to honor the dead.
“Nation?—The half-limbed readers did not chafe / But smiled at one another curiously / Like secret men who know their secret safe.”
The soldiers’ smiles are not expressions of joy but of shared understanding and resignation in the face of the war’s absurdity.
Psychoanalytic Theory: The smiles could be interpreted as a defense mechanism against the trauma of war, a way to cope with the unspeakable horrors they have witnessed.
“Pictures of these broad smiles appear each week, / And people in whose voice real feeling rings / Say: How they smile! They’re happy now, poor things.”
The final lines emphasize the disconnect between the soldiers’ experiences and the public’s perception, fueled by propaganda.
Media Studies: Owen critiques the role of media in shaping public opinion and perpetuating the myth of a glorious war.
“Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery, first published in 1974 in the Poetry magazine, is a complex and evocative poem۔
Introduction: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery
“Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery, first published in 1974 in the Poetry magazine, is a complex and evocative poem that delves into themes of art, perception, and the nature of self. Inspired by the 16th-century painting of the same name by Parmigianino, Ashbery’s poem weaves together ekphrastic descriptions of the artwork with philosophical musings on time, memory, and the limitations of representation. The poem’s fragmented structure, shifting perspectives, and elusive language create a sense of ambiguity and open-endedness, inviting readers to engage in their own interpretations of the artwork and the poem’s broader implications.
Text: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery
As Parmigianino did it, the right hand Bigger than the head, thrust at the viewer And swerving easily away, as though to protect What it advertises. A few leaded panes, old beams, Fur, pleated muslin, a coral ring run together In a movement supporting the face, which swims Toward and away like the hand Except that it is in repose. It is what is Sequestered. Vasari says, “Francesco one day set himself To take his own portrait, looking at himself from that purpose In a convex mirror, such as is used by barbers . . . He accordingly caused a ball of wood to be made By a turner, and having divided it in half and Brought it to the size of the mirror, he set himself With great art to copy all that he saw in the glass,” Chiefly his reflection, of which the portrait Is the reflection, of which the portrait Is the reflection once removed. The glass chose to reflect only what he saw Which was enough for his purpose: his image Glazed, embalmed, projected at a 180-degree angle. The time of day or the density of the light Adhering to the face keeps it Lively and intact in a recurring wave Of arrival. The soul establishes itself. But how far can it swim out through the eyes And still return safely to its nest? The surface Of the mirror being convex, the distance increases Significantly; that is, enough to make the point That the soul is a captive, treated humanely, kept In suspension, unable to advance much farther Than your look as it intercepts the picture. Pope Clement and his court were “stupefied” By it, according to Vasari, and promised a commission That never materialized. The soul has to stay where it is, Even though restless, hearing raindrops at the pane, The sighing of autumn leaves thrashed by the wind, Longing to be free, outside, but it must stay Posing in this place. It must move As little as possible. This is what the portrait says. But there is in that gaze a combination Of tenderness, amusement and regret, so powerful In its restraint that one cannot look for long. The secret is too plain. The pity of it smarts, Makes hot tears spurt: that the soul is not a soul, Has no secret, is small, and it fits Its hollow perfectly: its room, our moment of attention. That is the tune but there are no words. The words are only speculation (From the Latin speculum, mirror): They seek and cannot find the meaning of the music. We see only postures of the dream, Riders of the motion that swings the face Into view under evening skies, with no False disarray as proof of authenticity. But it is life englobed. One would like to stick one’s hand Out of the globe, but its dimension, What carries it, will not allow it. No doubt it is this, not the reflex To hide something, which makes the hand loom large As it retreats slightly. There is no way To build it flat like a section of wall: It must join the segment of a circle, Roving back to the body of which it seems So unlikely a part, to fence in and shore up the face On which the effort of this condition reads Like a pinpoint of a smile, a spark Or star one is not sure of having seen As darkness resumes. A perverse light whose Imperative of subtlety dooms in advance its Conceit to light up: unimportant but meant. Francesco, your hand is big enough To wreck the sphere, and too big, One would think, to weave delicate meshes That only argue its further detention. (Big, but not coarse, merely on another scale, Like a dozing whale on the sea bottom In relation to the tiny, self-important ship On the surface.) But your eyes proclaim That everything is surface. The surface is what’s there And nothing can exist except what’s there. There are no recesses in the room, only alcoves, And the window doesn’t matter much, or that Sliver of window or mirror on the right, even As a gauge of the weather, which in French is Le temps, the word for time, and which Follows a course wherein changes are merely Features of the whole. The whole is stable within Instability, a globe like ours, resting On a pedestal of vacuum, a ping-pong ball Secure on its jet of water. And just as there are no words for the surface, that is, No words to say what it really is, that it is not Superficial but a visible core, then there is No way out of the problem of pathos vs. experience. You will stay on, restive, serene in Your gesture which is neither embrace nor warning But which holds something of both in pure Affirmation that doesn’t affirm anything.
The balloon pops, the attention Turns dully away. Clouds In the puddle stir up into sawtoothed fragments. I think of the friends Who came to see me, of what yesterday Was like. A peculiar slant Of memory that intrudes on the dreaming model In the silence of the studio as he considers Lifting the pencil to the self-portrait. How many people came and stayed a certain time, Uttered light or dark speech that became part of you Like light behind windblown fog and sand, Filtered and influenced by it, until no part Remains that is surely you. Those voices in the dusk Have told you all and still the tale goes on In the form of memories deposited in irregular Clumps of crystals. Whose curved hand controls, Francesco, the turning seasons and the thoughts That peel off and fly away at breathless speeds Like the last stubborn leaves ripped From wet branches? I see in this only the chaos Of your round mirror which organizes everything Around the polestar of your eyes which are empty, Know nothing, dream but reveal nothing. I feel the carousel starting slowly And going faster and faster: desk, papers, books, Photographs of friends, the window and the trees Merging in one neutral band that surrounds Me on all sides, everywhere I look. And I cannot explain the action of leveling, Why it should all boil down to one Uniform substance, a magma of interiors. My guide in these matters is your self, Firm, oblique, accepting everything with the same Wraith of a smile, and as time speeds up so that it is soon Much later, I can know only the straight way out, The distance between us. Long ago The strewn evidence meant something, The small accidents and pleasures Of the day as it moved gracelessly on, A housewife doing chores. Impossible now To restore those properties in the silver blur that is The record of what you accomplished by sitting down “With great art to copy all that you saw in the glass” So as to perfect and rule out the extraneous Forever. In the circle of your intentions certain spars Remain that perpetuate the enchantment of self with self: Eyebeams, muslin, coral. It doesn’t matter Because these are things as they are today Before one’s shadow ever grew Out of the field into thoughts of tomorrow.
Tomorrow is easy, but today is uncharted, Desolate, reluctant as any landscape To yield what are laws of perspective After all only to the painter’s deep Mistrust, a weak instrument though Necessary. Of course some things Are possible, it knows, but it doesn’t know Which ones. Some day we will try To do as many things as are possible And perhaps we shall succeed at a handful Of them, but this will not have anything To do with what is promised today, our Landscape sweeping out from us to disappear On the horizon. Today enough of a cover burnishes To keep the supposition of promises together In one piece of surface, letting one ramble Back home from them so that these Even stronger possibilities can remain Whole without being tested. Actually The skin of the bubble-chamber’s as tough as Reptile eggs; everything gets “programmed” there In due course: more keeps getting included Without adding to the sum, and just as one Gets accustomed to a noise that Kept one awake but now no longer does, So the room contains this flow like an hourglass Without varying in climate or quality (Except perhaps to brighten bleakly and almost Invisibly, in a focus sharpening toward death–more Of this later). What should be the vacuum of a dream Becomes continually replete as the source of dreams Is being tapped so that this one dream May wax, flourish like a cabbage rose, Defying sumptuary laws, leaving us To awake and try to begin living in what Has now become a slum. Sydney Freedberg in his Parmigianino says of it: “Realism in this portrait No longer produces and objective truth, but a bizarria . . . . However its distortion does not create A feeling of disharmony . . . . The forms retain A strong measure of ideal beauty,” because Fed by our dreams, so inconsequential until one day We notice the hole they left. Now their importance If not their meaning is plain. They were to nourish A dream which includes them all, as they are Finally reversed in the accumulating mirror. They seemed strange because we couldn’t actually see them. And we realize this only at a point where they lapse Like a wave breaking on a rock, giving up Its shape in a gesture which expresses that shape. The forms retain a strong measure of ideal beauty As they forage in secret on our idea of distortion. Why be unhappy with this arrangement, since Dreams prolong us as they are absorbed? Something like living occurs, a movement Out of the dream into its codification.
As I start to forget it It presents its stereotype again But it is an unfamiliar stereotype, the face Riding at anchor, issued from hazards, soon To accost others, “rather angel than man” (Vasari). Perhaps an angel looks like everything We have forgotten, I mean forgotten Things that don’t seem familiar when We meet them again, lost beyond telling, Which were ours once. This would be the point Of invading the privacy of this man who “Dabbled in alchemy, but whose wish Here was not to examine the subtleties of art In a detached, scientific spirit: he wished through them To impart the sense of novelty and amazement to the spectator” (Freedberg). Later portraits such as the Uffizi “Gentleman,” the Borghese “Young Prelate” and The Naples “Antea” issue from Mannerist Tensions, but here, as Freedberg points out, The surprise, the tension are in the concept Rather than its realization. The consonance of the High Renaissance Is present, though distorted by the mirror. What is novel is the extreme care in rendering The velleities of the rounded reflecting surface (It is the first mirror portrait), So that you could be fooled for a moment Before you realize the reflection Isn’t yours. You feel then like one of those Hoffmann characters who have been deprived Of a reflection, except that the whole of me Is seen to be supplanted by the strict Otherness of the painter in his Other room. We have surprised him At work, but no, he has surprised us As he works. The picture is almost finished, The surprise almost over, as when one looks out, Startled by a snowfall which even now is Ending in specks and sparkles of snow. It happened while you were inside, asleep, And there is no reason why you should have Been awake for it, except that the day Is ending and it will be hard for you To get to sleep tonight, at least until late.
The shadow of the city injects its own Urgency: Rome where Francesco Was at work during the Sack: his inventions Amazed the soldiers who burst in on him; They decided to spare his life, but he left soon after; Vienna where the painting is today, where I saw it with Pierre in the summer of 1959; New York Where I am now, which is a logarithm Of other cities. Our landscape Is alive with filiations, shuttlings; Business is carried on by look, gesture, Hearsay. It is another life to the city, The backing of the looking glass of the Unidentified but precisely sketched studio. It wants To siphon off the life of the studio, deflate Its mapped space to enactments, island it. That operation has been temporarily stalled But something new is on the way, a new preciosity In the wind. Can you stand it, Francesco? Are you strong enough for it? This wind brings what it knows not, is Self–propelled, blind, has no notion Of itself. It is inertia that once Acknowledged saps all activity, secret or public: Whispers of the word that can’t be understood But can be felt, a chill, a blight Moving outward along the capes and peninsulas Of your nervures and so to the archipelagoes And to the bathed, aired secrecy of the open sea. This is its negative side. Its positive side is Making you notice life and the stresses That only seemed to go away, but now, As this new mode questions, are seen to be Hastening out of style. If they are to become classics They must decide which side they are on. Their reticence has undermined The urban scenery, made its ambiguities Look willful and tired, the games of an old man. What we need now is this unlikely Challenger pounding on the gates of an amazed Castle. Your argument, Francesco, Had begun to grow stale as no answer Or answers were forthcoming. If it dissolves now Into dust, that only means its time had come Some time ago, but look now, and listen: It may be that another life is stocked there In recesses no one knew of; that it, Not we, are the change; that we are in fact it If we could get back to it, relive some of the way It looked, turn our faces to the globe as it sets And still be coming out all right: Nerves normal, breath normal. Since it is a metaphor Made to include us, we are a part of it and Can live in it as in fact we have done, Only leaving our minds bare for questioning We now see will not take place at random But in an orderly way that means to menace Nobody–the normal way things are done, Like the concentric growing up of days Around a life: correctly, if you think about it.
A breeze like the turning of a page Brings back your face: the moment Takes such a big bite out of the haze Of pleasant intuition it comes after. The locking into place is “death itself,” As Berg said of a phrase in Mahler’s Ninth; Or, to quote Imogen in Cymbeline, “There cannot Be a pinch in death more sharp than this,” for, Though only exercise or tactic, it carries The momentum of a conviction that had been building. Mere forgetfulness cannot remove it Nor wishing bring it back, as long as it remains The white precipitate of its dream In the climate of sighs flung across our world, A cloth over a birdcage. But it is certain that What is beautiful seems so only in relation to a specific Life, experienced or not, channeled into some form Steeped in the nostalgia of a collective past. The light sinks today with an enthusiasm I have known elsewhere, and known why It seemed meaningful, that others felt this way Years ago. I go on consulting This mirror that is no longer mine For as much brisk vacancy as is to be My portion this time. And the vase is always full Because there is only just so much room And it accommodates everything. The sample One sees is not to be taken as Merely that, but as everything as it May be imagined outside time–not as a gesture But as all, in the refined, assimilable state. But what is this universe the porch of As it veers in and out, back and forth, Refusing to surround us and still the only Thing we can see? Love once Tipped the scales but now is shadowed, invisible, Though mysteriously present, around somewhere. But we know it cannot be sandwiched Between two adjacent moments, that its windings Lead nowhere except to further tributaries And that these empty themselves into a vague Sense of something that can never be known Even though it seems likely that each of us Knows what it is and is capable of Communicating it to the other. But the look Some wear as a sign makes one want to Push forward ignoring the apparent NaÏveté of the attempt, not caring That no one is listening, since the light Has been lit once and for all in their eyes And is present, unimpaired, a permanent anomaly, Awake and silent. On the surface of it There seems no special reason why that light Should be focused by love, or why The city falling with its beautiful suburbs Into space always less clear, less defined, Should read as the support of its progress, The easel upon which the drama unfolded To its own satisfaction and to the end Of our dreaming, as we had never imagined It would end, in worn daylight with the painted Promise showing through as a gage, a bond. This nondescript, never-to-be defined daytime is The secret of where it takes place And we can no longer return to the various Conflicting statements gathered, lapses of memory Of the principal witnesses. All we know Is that we are a little early, that Today has that special, lapidary Todayness that the sunlight reproduces Faithfully in casting twig-shadows on blithe Sidewalks. No previous day would have been like this. I used to think they were all alike, That the present always looked the same to everybody But this confusion drains away as one Is always cresting into one’s present. Yet the “poetic,” straw-colored space Of the long corridor that leads back to the painting, Its darkening opposite–is this Some figment of “art,” not to be imagined As real, let alone special? Hasn’t it too its lair In the present we are always escaping from And falling back into, as the waterwheel of days Pursues its uneventful, even serene course? I think it is trying to say it is today And we must get out of it even as the public Is pushing through the museum now so as to Be out by closing time. You can’t live there. The gray glaze of the past attacks all know-how: Secrets of wash and finish that took a lifetime To learn and are reduced to the status of Black-and-white illustrations in a book where colorplates Are rare. That is, all time Reduces to no special time. No one Alludes to the change; to do so might Involve calling attention to oneself Which would augment the dread of not getting out Before having seen the whole collection (Except for the sculptures in the basement: They are where they belong). Our time gets to be veiled, compromised By the portrait’s will to endure. It hints at Our own, which we were hoping to keep hidden. We don’t need paintings or Doggerel written by mature poets when The explosion is so precise, so fine. Is there any point even in acknowledging The existence of all that? Does it Exist? Certainly the leisure to Indulge stately pastimes doesn’t, Any more. Today has no margins, the event arrives Flush with its edges, is of the same substance, Indistinguishable. “Play” is something else; It exists, in a society specifically Organized as a demonstration of itself. There is no other way, and those assholes Who would confuse everything with their mirror games Which seem to multiply stakes and possibilities, or At least confuse issues by means of an investing Aura that would corrode the architecture Of the whole in a haze of suppressed mockery, Are beside the point. They are out of the game, Which doesn’t exist until they are out of it. It seems like a very hostile universe But as the principle of each individual thing is Hostile to, exists at the expense of all the others As philosophers have often pointed out, at least This thing, the mute, undivided present, Has the justification of logic, which In this instance isn’t a bad thing Or wouldn’t be, if the way of telling Didn’t somehow intrude, twisting the end result Into a caricature of itself. This always Happens, as in the game where A whispered phrase passed around the room Ends up as something completely different. It is the principle that makes works of art so unlike What the artist intended. Often he finds He has omitted the thing he started out to say In the first place. Seduced by flowers, Explicit pleasures, he blames himself (though Secretly satisfied with the result), imagining He had a say in the matter and exercised An option of which he was hardly conscious, Unaware that necessity circumvents such resolutions. So as to create something new For itself, that there is no other way, That the history of creation proceeds according to Stringent laws, and that things Do get done in this way, but never the things We set out to accomplish and wanted so desperately To see come into being. Parmigianino Must have realized this as he worked at his Life-obstructing task. One is forced to read The perfectly plausible accomplishment of a purpose Into the smooth, perhaps even bland (but so Enigmatic) finish. Is there anything To be serious about beyond this otherness That gets included in the most ordinary Forms of daily activity, changing everything Slightly and profoundly, and tearing the matter Of creation, any creation, not just artistic creation Out of our hands, to install it on some monstrous, near Peak, too close to ignore, too far For one to intervene? This otherness, this “Not-being-us” is all there is to look at In the mirror, though no one can say How it came to be this way. A ship Flying unknown colors has entered the harbor. You are allowing extraneous matters To break up your day, cloud the focus Of the crystal ball. Its scene drifts away Like vapor scattered on the wind. The fertile Thought-associations that until now came So easily, appear no more, or rarely. Their Colorings are less intense, washed out By autumn rains and winds, spoiled, muddied, Given back to you because they are worthless. Yet we are such creatures of habit that their Implications are still around en permanence, confusing Issues. To be serious only about sex Is perhaps one way, but the sands are hissing As they approach the beginning of the big slide Into what happened. This past Is now here: the painter’s Reflected face, in which we linger, receiving Dreams and inspirations on an unassigned Frequency, but the hues have turned metallic, The curves and edges are not so rich. Each person Has one big theory to explain the universe But it doesn’t tell the whole story And in the end it is what is outside him That matters, to him and especially to us Who have been given no help whatever In decoding our own man-size quotient and must rely On second-hand knowledge. Yet I know That no one else’s taste is going to be Any help, and might as well be ignored. Once it seemed so perfect–gloss on the fine Freckled skin, lips moistened as though about to part Releasing speech, and the familiar look Of clothes and furniture that one forgets. This could have been our paradise: exotic Refuge within an exhausted world, but that wasn’t In the cards, because it couldn’t have been The point. Aping naturalness may be the first step Toward achieving an inner calm But it is the first step only, and often Remains a frozen gesture of welcome etched On the air materializing behind it, A convention. And we have really No time for these, except to use them For kindling. The sooner they are burnt up The better for the roles we have to play. Therefore I beseech you, withdraw that hand, Offer it no longer as shield or greeting, The shield of a greeting, Francesco: There is room for one bullet in the chamber: Our looking through the wrong end Of the telescope as you fall back at a speed Faster than that of light to flatten ultimately Among the features of the room, an invitation Never mailed, the “it was all a dream” Syndrome, though the “all” tells tersely Enough how it wasn’t. Its existence Was real, though troubled, and the ache Of this waking dream can never drown out The diagram still sketched on the wind, Chosen, meant for me and materialized In the disguising radiance of my room. We have seen the city; it is the gibbous Mirrored eye of an insect. All things happen On its balcony and are resumed within, But the action is the cold, syrupy flow Of a pageant. One feels too confined, Sifting the April sunlight for clues, In the mere stillness of the ease of its Parameter. The hand holds no chalk And each part of the whole falls off And cannot know it knew, except Here and there, in cold pockets Of remembrance, whispers out of time.
Annotations: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery
“As Parmigianino did it, the right hand / Bigger than the head, thrust at the viewer”
Reference to Parmigianino’s famous self-portrait painted in a convex mirror, which distorts proportions.
“A few leaded panes, old beams, / Fur, pleated muslin, a coral ring run together”
Description of elements in the portrait, blending Renaissance and Baroque aesthetics.
“Vasari says, ‘Francesco one day set himself / To take his own portrait, looking at himself from that purpose / In a convex mirror, such as is used by barbers . . .'”
Quoting Giorgio Vasari’s “Lives of the Artists” to provide historical context.
“The glass chose to reflect only what he saw / Which was enough for his purpose: his image”
Exploration of the relationship between the artist’s perception and reality.
“The soul establishes itself. / But how far can it swim out through the eyes / And still return safely to its nest?”
Philosophical musing on the nature of the soul and self-perception.
“Pope Clement and his court were ‘stupefied’ / By it, according to Vasari”
Historical reference to the reception of Parmigianino’s work by Pope Clement VII.
“The surface / Of the mirror being convex, the distance increases / Significantly;”
Analysis of the effect of the convex mirror on perception and representation.
“Francesco, your hand is big enough / To wreck the sphere, and too big, / One would think, to weave delicate meshes”
Commentary on the tension between the physical and the delicate nature of artistic creation.
“But your eyes proclaim / That everything is surface. The surface is what’s there / And nothing can exist except what’s there.”
Reflection on the philosophical idea that surface reality is all that exists.
“Our landscape / Is alive with filiations, shuttlings; / Business is carried on by look, gesture,”
Imagery depicting the vibrant, interconnected nature of contemporary life.
“A breeze like the turning of a page / Brings back your face: the moment / Takes such a big bite out of the haze / Of pleasant intuition it comes after.”
Metaphor comparing a breeze to the turning of a page, symbolizing sudden clarity or realization.
“The gray glaze of the past attacks all know-how: / Secrets of wash and finish that took a lifetime / To learn”
Lamenting the loss of traditional artistic skills and techniques over time.
“Today has no margins, the event arrives / Flush with its edges, is of the same substance, / Indistinguishable.”
Comment on the modern experience of time and events as seamless and indistinct.
“Often he finds / He has omitted the thing he started out to say / In the first place.”
Reflection on the artistic process and how it often diverges from initial intentions.
“Parmigianino / Must have realized this as he worked at his / Life-obstructing task.”
Concluding thought on Parmigianino’s awareness of the inherent challenges in his artistic endeavor.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery
The general character or attitude of a place, piece of writing, situation, etc.
Reflects the melancholy and contemplative mood of the poem
Themes: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery
Art and Perception: The poem extensively explores the nature of art and how it shapes and distorts perception. Ashbery uses Parmigianino’s self-portrait as a metaphor for the ways art manipulates reality, emphasizing the distorted proportions caused by the convex mirror. This distortion is highlighted in lines such as, “As Parmigianino did it, the right hand / Bigger than the head, thrust at the viewer,” which showcases the deliberate alteration of physical dimensions to create a specific artistic effect.
Parmigianino’s self-portrait as a symbol
Distortion of reality through art
Visual manipulation and perception
Philosophical Musings on Self and Soul: Ashbery delves into philosophical reflections on the nature of the self and the soul, questioning how far the soul can extend beyond the physical body. This theme is poignantly expressed in lines like, “The soul establishes itself. / But how far can it swim out through the eyes / And still return safely to its nest?” Here, Ashbery contemplates the limits of self-perception and the essence of identity beyond the physical form.
Contemplation of the soul’s reach
Identity beyond physical appearance
Limits of self-perception
Temporal Displacement and Historical Context: The poem juxtaposes different time periods, reflecting on the loss of traditional artistic skills and the seamless nature of contemporary experiences. Ashbery laments, “The gray glaze of the past attacks all know-how: / Secrets of wash and finish that took a lifetime / To learn,” indicating a disconnection from the meticulous craftsmanship of the past. This theme underscores the impact of time on art and perception.
Juxtaposition of past and present
Loss of traditional skills
Impact of time on art and experience
Modernity and Fragmented Reality: Ashbery captures the fragmented and interconnected nature of modern life, where events blend seamlessly without distinct boundaries. He remarks, “Today has no margins, the event arrives / Flush with its edges, is of the same substance, / Indistinguishable.” This observation highlights the blurred lines in contemporary experiences and the challenge of finding distinct meaning in a constantly shifting reality.
Fragmentation of modern life
Blurred boundaries of events
Search for meaning in contemporary experiences
Critical Questions about “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery
How does Ashbery’s poem challenge the traditional concept of the self-portrait through its engagement with Parmigianino’s painting?
Ashbery’s poem doesn’t merely describe the painting; it interrogates the very act of self-representation. While Parmigianino’s convex mirror distorts the physical image, Ashbery suggests that the distortion lies deeper, in the gap between the self as subject and the self as object of representation. Lines like “The soul is a captive, treated humanely, kept in suspension” and “The soul is not a soul, / Has no secret, is small” question the ability of any portrait, be it painted or poetic, to capture the essence of a person. This challenges the notion that a self-portrait can offer a definitive or authentic representation of the self.
How does Ashbery explore the relationship between art, perception, and reality in “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror”?
The poem delves into the complexities of how art mediates our perception of reality, particularly self-perception. The convex mirror acts as a symbol of both distortion and revelation, showing us a version of ourselves that is both familiar and unfamiliar. The lines “everything is surface” and “there are no recesses in the room, only alcoves” suggest that the visible world is all we have access to, yet it is also constantly shifting and elusive. Through the poem’s engagement with Parmigianino’s painting, Ashbery questions whether art can ever fully capture the truth of reality, or if it inevitably distorts and reshapes our understanding of the world.
How does the poem’s structure and style contribute to its overall meaning and effect?
Ashbery’s poem is characterized by its fragmented structure, shifting perspectives, and digressive nature. The poem weaves together ekphrastic descriptions of the painting with personal reflections, philosophical musings, and historical allusions. This fragmented form mirrors the fragmented nature of the self, the difficulty of capturing it in a unified representation. The poem’s shifting perspectives, sometimes adopting the voice of the poet, sometimes that of Parmigianino, or even the painting itself, create a sense of ambiguity and open-endedness, inviting readers to actively participate in the creation of meaning.
What is the role of time and memory in Ashbery’s exploration of the self in “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror”?
The poem grapples with the elusive nature of time and memory, suggesting that our understanding of the self is constantly shaped and reshaped by the passage of time and the accumulation of memories. The lines “A peculiar slant of memory that intrudes on the dreaming model” and “Whose curved hand controls, Francesco, the turning seasons and the thoughts that peel off and fly away…” highlight the role of memory in both distorting and preserving our sense of self. Time is portrayed as both a destructive and creative force, eroding the past while simultaneously giving rise to new possibilities for self-understanding. The poem suggests that our relationship to time and memory is a central aspect of our identity, shaping who we are and how we see ourselves.
Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery
How does Ashbery use Parmigianino’s self-portrait to explore the relationship between art and reality?
Ashbery uses the distortion in Parmigianino’s self-portrait to highlight the manipulative nature of art in shaping and altering our perception of reality.
Philosophical Musings on Self and Soul
What does the poem suggest about the nature of the self and the soul?
“Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” suggests that the soul’s essence transcends physical form, raising questions about the boundaries of self-perception and identity.
Temporal Displacement and Historical Context
How does Ashbery address the impact of time on artistic skills and perception?
Ashbery contrasts the meticulous craftsmanship of the past with the seamless, fragmented nature of contemporary experiences, highlighting the temporal displacement in art and perception.
Modernity and Fragmented Reality
In what ways does the poem reflect the fragmented and interconnected nature of modern life?
The poem portrays modern life as a series of seamless, indistinguishable events, emphasizing the difficulty in finding distinct meaning in a fragmented, interconnected reality.
Literary Works Similar to “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery
“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot: Like Ashbery, Eliot’s poem explores fragmented perceptions and the complexities of modern existence.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: This poem delves into the introspective and fragmented nature of self-perception, similar to Ashbery’s work.
“The Idea of Order at Key West” by Wallace Stevens: Stevens’ poem examines the relationship between reality and artistic creation, akin to Ashbery’s themes.
“The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens: Stevens’ exploration of art and reality mirrors Ashbery’s reflections on perception and representation.
“Directive” by Robert Frost: Frost’s poem navigates the blurred lines between past and present, echoing Ashbery’s temporal displacement themes.
Suggested Readings: “Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror” by John Ashbery
Books:
Ashbery, John. Self-Portrait in a Convex Mirror. Penguin Books, 1975.
“As Parmigianino did it, the right hand / Bigger than the head, thrust at the viewer / And swerving easily away”
Describes the painting technique used by Parmigianino, focusing on the distortion created by the convex mirror.
Ekphrasis and the relationship between visual and literary arts
“The glass chose to reflect only what he saw”
Highlights the subjective nature of perception and reflection.
Subjectivity and phenomenology
“Your eyes proclaim / That everything is surface”
Suggests the superficial nature of appearances and the depth beneath them.
Postmodernism and surface/depth dichotomy
“But your eyes proclaim / That everything is surface. The surface is what’s there / And nothing can exist except what’s there”
Reinforces the idea that only the visible surface is acknowledged, denying deeper meanings.
Postmodern skepticism of depth and meaning
“The soul establishes itself. / But how far can it swim out through the eyes / And still return safely to its nest?”
Questions the limits of the soul’s expression through physical form and perception.
Metaphysics and the limits of self-representation
“It is as though my life will never get better than / This, never reach this stage of being lived / And presented, which is the happiness / Of the artist looking at the finished work”
Reflects on the fleeting nature of perfection and artistic achievement.
Aesthetic theory and the temporality of art
“We have seen the city; it is the gibbous / Mirrored eye of an insect.”
Uses a surreal image to convey the distorted and fragmented perception of reality.
“Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson first appeared in 1897 in the collection The Children of the Night.
Introduction: “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
“Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson first appeared in 1897 in the collection The Children of the Night. The poem, one of Robinson’s most famous, is noted for its stark simplicity of language and form, which effectively underscores the tragic irony of the narrative. It tells the story of a wealthy, admired man who seemingly has everything, yet takes his own life, challenging readers’ assumptions about happiness and success. The poem’s enduring appeal lies in its exploration of the hidden depths of human despair, the deceptive nature of appearances, and the universal longing for connection and understanding.
Text: “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
Whenever Richard Cory went down town,
We people on the pavement looked at him:
He was a gentleman from sole to crown,
Clean favored, and imperially slim.
And he was always quietly arrayed,
And he was always human when he talked;
But still he fluttered pulses when he said,
“Good-morning,” and he glittered when he walked.
And he was rich—yes, richer than a king—
And admirably schooled in every grace:
In fine, we thought that he was everything
To make us wish that we were in his place.
So on we worked, and waited for the light,
And went without the meat, and cursed the bread;
And Richard Cory, one calm summer night,
Went home and put a bullet through his head.
Annotations: “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
Stanza
Annotation
1
Introduces Richard Cory, a wealthy and refined gentleman who commands attention and admiration from the public.
2
Describes Cory’s elegant appearance and demeanor, describing him as “quietly arrayed” and “human” in conversation, but also captivating and impressive.
3
Emphasizes Cory’s wealth and refinement, suggesting that he has everything anyone could want, leading the public to envy his position.
4
Contrasts the public’s struggles and hardships with Cory’s apparent perfection, leading to a shocking revelation that Cory has committed suicide, suggesting that appearances can be deceiving.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
Themes: “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
The Illusion of Happiness: The poem primarily focuses on the deceptive nature of appearances. Richard Cory is presented as the embodiment of success, with the townspeople viewing him as the epitome of happiness due to his wealth, charm, and social standing. The lines “clean favored, and imperially slim” and “glittered when he walked” create an image of perfection and allure. However, the shocking ending, “Went home and put a bullet through his head,” shatters this illusion, highlighting that material wealth and external appearances do not guarantee happiness.
Social Disparity and Envy: The poem also explores the theme of social inequality. The “people on the pavement” represent the working class, who admire and envy Cory’s seemingly perfect life. The lines “we thought that he was everything/ To make us wish that we were in his place” underscore this yearning for a better life. Yet, the poem suggests that envy and comparison can be misleading, as Cory’s internal struggles remain hidden from the outside world.
Isolation and Loneliness: Despite his outward charm and social interactions, Richard Cory’s suicide suggests a profound sense of isolation. The poem does not delve into his inner thoughts, but his actions imply a deep-seated loneliness and despair. The phrase “always quietly arrayed” may hint at a reserved nature that prevented him from forming genuine connections, ultimately leading to his tragic end.
The Futility of Materialism: The poem critiques the pursuit of material wealth as the sole source of happiness. Richard Cory’s riches and possessions ultimately fail to fulfill him, leading to his demise. The lines “So on we worked, and waited for the light,/ And went without the meat, and cursed the bread” depict the townspeople’s struggle for basic necessities, contrasting sharply with Cory’s abundance. The poem implies that true happiness lies beyond material possessions, in genuine connections and inner peace.
Literary Theories and “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
Marxist Theory: A Marxist reading of “Richard Cory” would focus on the socioeconomic disparities between Richard Cory and the townspeople. Cory is presented as a symbol of the capitalist elite, “richer than a king,” while the townspeople are the exploited working class, “went without the meat, and cursed the bread.” The poem highlights the stark contrast between their lives, suggesting that Cory’s wealth is built upon their labor. However, the Marxist critique oversimplifies the poem’s message. Cory’s suicide complicates the narrative, suggesting that wealth doesn’t necessarily lead to happiness or fulfillment, challenging the idea that economic status is the sole determinant of well-being.
Psychoanalytic Theory: A psychoanalytic approach might interpret Richard Cory’s suicide as a manifestation of repressed psychological trauma or a deep-seated existential crisis. The poem doesn’t explicitly reveal Cory’s inner life, but his outward perfection could be a mask concealing inner turmoil. The phrase “always quietly arrayed” may suggest a guarded personality, hinting at the suppression of emotions that ultimately lead to his tragic end. However, this interpretation relies on speculation about Cory’s psychology, as the poem offers no concrete evidence of his internal struggles.
New Criticism/Formalism: A formalist reading would analyze the poem’s structure, language, and literary devices to derive meaning. The poem’s consistent ABAB rhyme scheme and iambic pentameter create a sense of order and predictability, mirroring the townspeople’s perception of Cory’s life. The sudden shift in the final stanza, with Cory’s suicide, disrupts this order, highlighting the unexpected nature of his actions. However, this approach might overlook the poem’s social commentary and the broader implications of Cory’s tragedy. It focuses solely on the text itself, neglecting the historical and cultural context that informs the poem’s meaning.
Critical Questions about “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
What is the significance of Richard Cory’s portrayal as a character?
Edwin Arlington Robinson’s portrayal of Richard Cory as a seemingly perfect and enviable figure serves as a critique of societal perceptions of wealth and success. Cory is depicted as wealthy, cultured, and admired by those around him, yet his tragic end reveals the stark contrast between outward appearances and internal reality. This portrayal underscores Robinson’s commentary on the dangers of placing too much value on external markers of success without considering the complexities of a person’s inner life. By juxtaposing Cory’s admired status with his ultimate despair, Robinson prompts readers to reflect on the limitations of material wealth and the often-hidden burdens carried by individuals deemed successful in society.
How does the use of irony contribute to the poem’s message?
Irony plays a pivotal role in “Richard Cory,” fundamentally shaping the poem’s message about the disconnect between appearance and reality. Cory is initially presented as a flawless and admired figure, admired by all who encounter him. However, the poem’s concluding lines reveal the shocking truth of Cory’s suicide, turning the initial admiration into a profound irony. This irony highlights the superficiality of societal judgments based solely on external appearances and wealth. Robinson employs irony not merely for dramatic effect but to provoke deeper contemplation on the complexities of human existence and the limitations of outward success as a measure of happiness.
What thematic contrasts are explored in the poem?
“Richard Cory” explores several thematic contrasts that enrich its narrative depth. The most striking is the contrast between appearance and reality. Cory is depicted as the embodiment of success, wealth, and social admiration, yet his tragic end reveals the unseen struggles and emotional turmoil beneath his composed exterior. Another thematic contrast is between social classes and perceptions of happiness. While the townspeople envy Cory’s life and status, his ultimate act challenges the assumption that material wealth equates to fulfillment. Additionally, the poem contrasts the public persona of Cory with his private suffering, underscoring the disparity between outward appearances and inner reality.
How does the poem’s structure enhance its thematic exploration?
Robinson’s choice of a traditional quatrain form with an ABAB rhyme scheme and consistent meter contributes to the poem’s thematic exploration in several ways. The structured form initially mirrors the orderly and seemingly perfect life of Richard Cory himself. However, the rigid structure also serves as a stark contrast to the underlying tension and eventual disruption revealed in the poem’s conclusion. The regularity of the form underscores the facade of perfection maintained by Cory, while the abruptness of his tragic end disrupts the poem’s rhythmic flow, mirroring the disruption of societal norms and expectations. Thus, the poem’s structure not only enhances the narrative’s impact but also reinforces its thematic exploration of appearances versus realities and the fragility of human contentment.
Topics, Questions, and Thesis Statements about “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
How does Robinson critique societal attitudes towards wealth and success in “Richard Cory”?
In “Richard Cory,” Robinson critiques societal perceptions of wealth by juxtaposing Richard Cory’s admired exterior with his tragic reality, revealing the superficiality of social judgments based on material success.
Irony and Its Role
What role does irony play in shaping the message of “Richard Cory”?
Irony in “Richard Cory” underscores the disparity between appearances and realities, challenging the assumption that outward success equates to happiness and prompting a deeper reflection on the complexities of human emotions.
Characterization of Richard Cory
How does Robinson characterize Richard Cory in the poem?
Robinson portrays Richard Cory as a figure of admiration and envy among the townspeople, emphasizing his outward perfection while subtly hinting at the inner turmoil hidden beneath his facade.
Theme of Alienation and Isolation
How does “Richard Cory” explore the theme of alienation and isolation?
“Richard Cory” explores themes of alienation and isolation through Cory’s tragic fate, revealing the loneliness and disconnect that can exist even in the midst of outward success, thereby challenging conventional notions of happiness and fulfillment.
Literary Works Similar to “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
“We Wear the Mask” by Paul Laurence Dunbar: This poem, like “Richard Cory,” explores the theme of hidden suffering behind a facade of normalcy, as individuals wear masks to conceal their pain from society.
“The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost: Although more focused on individual choices, this poem shares the thematic concern of the unseen aspects of life, as the speaker contemplates the paths not taken and the unknown possibilities they represent.
“Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley: Both poems reflect on the fleeting nature of power and glory, with Ozymandias’ crumbled statue serving as a stark reminder of the impermanence of human achievements.
“The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe: While darker in tone, this poem shares the element of a sudden and tragic end, as the raven’s presence symbolizes the speaker’s descent into despair and grief.
“Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” by Dylan Thomas: Both poems grapple with the theme of mortality, as the speakers urge defiance against death and a celebration of life, even in the face of darkness.
Suggested Readings: “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson
“Remember” by Christina Rossetti was first published in 1862 in her collection Goblin Market and Other Poems.
Introduction: “Remember” by Christina Rossetti
“Remember” by Christina Rossetti was first published in 1862 in her collection Goblin Market and Other Poems. The poem is a Petrarchan sonnet, known for its emotional depth and evocative language. It explores themes of love, loss, and remembrance, with a focus on the speaker’s plea to be remembered after death. The poem’s enduring appeal lies in its universal themes, poignant imagery, and the musicality of its rhyme and meter.
“Better by far you should forget and smile / Than that you should remember and be sad”
A statement that appears to contradict itself but may nonetheless be true.
Creates a sense of poignancy and complexity, emphasizes the speaker’s selfless wish for the listener’s happiness.
Themes: “Remember” by Christina Rossetti
Mortality and the Inevitability of Death: The poem grapples with the inevitability of death, depicted as a journey to a “silent land” where the speaker will be “gone away.” The speaker’s awareness of mortality prompts a heartfelt plea to be remembered, underscoring the human desire to leave a lasting impact even after physical existence ceases. The phrase “When you can no more hold me by the hand” poignantly captures the finality of death and the separation it brings.
The Power and Importance of Memory: Memory emerges as a central theme, with the speaker repeatedly urging the addressee to “remember me.” Memory serves as a bridge between the living and the departed, allowing the speaker’s essence to persist in the thoughts and emotions of the bereaved. The lines “Only remember me; you understand / It will be late to counsel then or pray” highlight the urgency of remembrance, as it becomes the sole connection after death.
The Ambiguity of Grief and Remembrance: While remembrance is cherished, the poem also acknowledges the potential pain it can inflict. The speaker paradoxically wishes for the addressee to forget if remembering brings sorrow, expressing a selfless desire for their happiness. The lines “Better by far you should forget and smile / Than that you should remember and be sad” reveal a conflict between the longing for remembrance and the recognition that forgetting might be a kinder option.
Love and Loss: The poem is permeated with the underlying theme of love and the profound loss that accompanies death. The speaker’s plea to be remembered is rooted in a deep emotional connection with the addressee, evident in the intimate references to shared plans and conversations. The poem’s emotional resonance stems from the universal experience of love, loss, and the enduring power of memory to preserve the bonds that transcend physical separation.
Literary Theories and “Remember” by Christina Rossetti
Reader-Response Theory: This theory suggests that meaning in literature is created through the interaction between the text and the reader. In “Remember,” “Remember me when no more day by day” invites the reader to imagine the scenario of gradual absence and fading memory, prompting them to reflect on personal experiences of loss and remembrance. The poem’s power lies in how readers emotionally engage with its themes of separation and memory, influencing their interpretation based on their own memories and emotional responses. This theory underscores the poem’s effectiveness in evoking varied reader responses, ranging from nostalgia to contemplation of mortality, as each reader brings unique experiences to their interpretation.
Feminist Theory: Viewing the poem through a feminist lens, one can explore how Rossetti challenges traditional gender roles and constructs. “Nor I half turn to go yet turning stay” suggests a nuanced approach to departure, where the speaker exhibits agency in their farewell. The poem subverts expectations by prioritizing the speaker’s desire to be remembered on their terms, rather than conforming to societal expectations of female passivity. By asserting her agency in requesting remembrance despite absence, Rossetti’s speaker asserts a feminist perspective on memory and autonomy, challenging conventional notions of feminine vulnerability.
Psychoanalytic Theory (Freudian): This theory explores the poem’s themes through the lens of unconscious desires and fears. “Better by far you should forget and smile / Than that you should remember and be sad” reflects a psychological defense mechanism against the pain of loss. The speaker’s advice can be seen as a manifestation of unconscious guilt or fear of burdening the loved one with sadness after death. Freudian theory illuminates the complex emotions underlying the speaker’s plea, suggesting a subconscious struggle between the desire for remembrance and the fear of causing emotional distress, highlighting deeper psychological dimensions within the poem.
Critical Questions about “Remember” by Christina Rossetti
How does the poem explore the tension between memory and emotional detachment?
The line “Yet if you should forget me for a while / And afterwards remember, do not grieve” highlights this tension. It prompts reflection on whether forgetting is a form of emotional self-preservation or a betrayal of memory. The speaker’s plea suggests a nuanced approach to remembrance, advocating for a balance between honoring the past and embracing the present. This question invites readers to consider the complexities of memory—whether forgetting serves as a coping mechanism against grief or as a means to preserve emotional well-being.
In what ways does the poem challenge traditional notions of mourning and loss?
The lines “Better by far you should forget and smile / Than that you should remember and be sad” challenge conventional mourning practices. They suggest an unconventional approach where forgetting is seen as preferable to remembering with sorrow. This challenges the expectation that remembrance must always be accompanied by grief, proposing instead a path to emotional healing through selective memory. This question encourages exploration of how Rossetti redefines the relationship between memory and mourning, proposing a perspective that prioritizes emotional well-being over traditional expressions of grief.
How does the speaker negotiate agency and vulnerability in the act of remembrance?
The line “Only remember me; you understand” underscores the speaker’s agency in dictating the terms of remembrance. It raises questions about whether the speaker’s request for remembrance signifies vulnerability or empowerment. This negotiation of agency complicates traditional gender roles and societal expectations, suggesting that remembrance can be an act of strength and self-affirmation. By interrogating the dynamics of agency and vulnerability within remembrance, this question prompts a deeper examination of power dynamics and autonomy in the speaker’s plea.
What role does temporality play in shaping the poem’s thematic concerns?
The line “It will be late to counsel then or pray” highlights the poem’s preoccupation with the passage of time. It invites consideration of how temporality influences the speaker’s perspective on memory and separation. The poem’s temporal dimension underscores the urgency of remembrance and the inevitability of change, prompting readers to reflect on the fleeting nature of human connection and the lasting impact of memory. By examining how temporality shapes the poem’s thematic concerns, this question invites exploration of how time influences the speaker’s emotional landscape and the reader’s interpretation of loss and remembrance.
Literary Works Similar to Poem
“Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” by Dylan Thomas: Both poems grapple with the theme of mortality and the speaker’s plea for resistance against death’s embrace.
“Because I could not stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson: Both poems explore the concept of death as a journey and contemplate its implications for the living.
“When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats: Both poems express the speaker’s anxieties about death and the desire to leave a lasting legacy through their work.
“Sonnet 18 (Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?)” by William Shakespeare: Both poems use the sonnet form to explore themes of love, loss, and the enduring power of memory.
“Song: To Celia” by Ben Jonson: Both poems address a loved one and express the desire to be remembered after death.
Suggested Readings: “Remember” by Christina Rossetti
