August 20, 2024 - English Studies

“The Resistance To Theory” By Paul De Man: Summary and Critique

“The Resistance To Theory” by Paul de Man first appeared in 1979 in the collection of essays titled Resistance to Theory.

Introduction: “The Resistance To Theory” By Paul De Man

“The Resistance To Theory” by Paul de Man first appeared in 1979 in the collection of essays titled Resistance to Theory. Originally commissioned for a broader scholarly volume, the essay was ultimately rejected, a fact that de Man found revealing. Central to the piece is de Man’s exploration of the inherent tension between theory and its practice, arguing that resistance to theory is, paradoxically, a condition of its existence. This provocative stance has had a profound impact on literary and theoretical discourse, prompting critical examination of the relationship between language, meaning, and interpretation. De Man’s insights continue to shape contemporary discussions about the nature of textual analysis and the limits of knowledge.

Summary of “The Resistance To Theory” By Paul De Man

The Advent of Literary Theory: Literary theory emerges when the study of literary texts moves away from non-linguistic considerations, such as historical or aesthetic value, and focuses instead on “the modalities of production and reception of meaning and value” (De Man). This shift necessitates a new discipline that critically investigates how meaning and value are established.
Linguistic Terminology in Literary Discourse: The use of linguistic terminology, which prioritizes the function of language over intuition, marks a significant break from traditional literary history and criticism. According to De Man, this terminology considers “reference as a function of language” rather than as an intuition tied to perception or aesthetics.

Impact of Saussurian Linguistics: Contemporary literary theory is heavily influenced by Saussurian linguistics, which views language as a “system of signs and signification” rather than as a set of fixed meanings. This perspective challenges the traditional separation between literary and non-literary language, “liberating the corpus from the secular weight of textual canonization” (De Man).
Misunderstandings of Literariness: Literariness is often confused with aesthetic response, but De Man argues that it is instead related to the “autonomous potential of language” to reveal the unreliability of linguistic utterances. This leads to the “voiding, rather than the affirmation, of aesthetic categories” and challenges the conventional role of aesthetics in literary interpretation.
Literature as Fiction and the Role of Language: De Man emphasizes that literature is fiction not because it denies reality, but because it is uncertain whether language functions according to the principles of the phenomenal world. He states, “It is therefore not a priori certain that literature is a reliable source of information about anything but its own language.”

Language and Ideology: The confusion between linguistic and natural reality is what De Man identifies as ideology. He argues that the study of linguistics in literature is a powerful tool for unmasking ideological aberrations. Those who resist literary theory, he claims, do so out of fear that their own ideological mystifications will be exposed.
Resistance to Theory as Resistance to Language: The resistance to theory is fundamentally a resistance to the use of language about language, which in turn is a resistance to the complexity and ambiguity inherent in language itself. De Man highlights that “language contains factors or functions that cannot be reduced to intuition,” making it an unstable and overdetermined concept.
The Unstable Relationship Between Grammar and Rhetoric: De Man discusses the tension within the classical trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic), particularly the “uncertain relationship between grammar and rhetoric.” He argues that tropes, which are central to rhetoric, challenge the stability of grammatical models and lead to an “epistemologically unstable” understanding of language.

Reading as a Disruptive Process: The act of reading, according to De Man, is not a straightforward decoding of grammatical structures but a process where “grammatical cognition is undone” by rhetorical elements. He suggests that the resistance to theory is, in essence, a resistance to reading itself, as reading reveals the inherent instability and complexity of language.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Resistance To Theory” By Paul De Man

Term	Definition	Significance in the Text
Literariness	The quality that distinguishes literary language from ordinary language.	De Man argues that literariness is not synonymous with aesthetic value but rather involves a foregrounding of the materiality of language, revealing its instability and unreliability.
Mimesis	The imitation of reality in art.	De Man challenges the traditional view of literature as mimetic, arguing that language does not simply reflect reality but constructs it through its own operations.
Rhetoric	The art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing.	De Man emphasizes the rhetorical dimension of language, arguing that it undermines the stability of grammar and logic, revealing the inherent instability of meaning.
Trope	A figure of speech involving the use of words in other than their literal sense.	Tropes, such as metaphor and metonymy, are central to de Man’s understanding of how language functions, creating meaning through displacement and deferral.
Deconstruction	A method of critical analysis that exposes the contradictions and ambiguities inherent in language.	While not explicitly named, de Man’s analysis of the instability of language and meaning anticipates key deconstructive concepts.
Ideology	A system of ideas and beliefs that shape social, political, and cultural life.	De Man argues that ideology is produced through language and can be exposed through a close analysis of its rhetorical strategies.

Contribution of “The Resistance To Theory” By Paul De Man to Literary Theory/Theories

Structuralism: De Man’s essay emphasizes the application of linguistic structures to the study of literature, heavily drawing on Saussurian linguistics. Structuralism, which focuses on understanding language as a system of signs, finds support in De Man’s assertion that language should be viewed as “a system of signs and of signification rather than as an established pattern of meanings” (De Man). This perspective aligns with structuralism’s effort to uncover the underlying structures that govern the production of meaning in texts.
Post-structuralism : “The Resistance to Theory” contributes significantly to post-structuralist thought by challenging the stability of meaning in language. De Man argues that literature reveals the “unreliability of linguistic utterance” and that language’s relationship to the world is not phenomenally but conventionally determined. This skepticism toward fixed meaning and the deconstruction of language’s referential function is central to post-structuralist theory, where meaning is seen as inherently unstable and contingent on the interplay of signifiers.

Deconstruction: As a key figure in deconstruction, De Man’s work in “The Resistance to Theory” advances the idea that language deconstructs itself, leading to the “undoing of theory” through the disruption of logical and grammatical systems. His exploration of how rhetorical elements in texts destabilize meaning supports the deconstructive view that any text inherently contains contradictions and tensions that undermine its apparent coherence. The essay posits that “reading will be a negative process in which the grammatical cognition is undone,” aligning with deconstruction’s focus on the indeterminacy of textual interpretation.
Formalism: While De Man’s essay is often seen as opposing traditional formalist approaches, it nevertheless engages with formalism by addressing the materiality of the signifier and the autonomous potential of language. De Man critiques the formalist emphasis on aesthetic categories, arguing instead for the significance of rhetoric and its capacity to reveal the illusory nature of aesthetic effects. His critique of formalism is rooted in the belief that literature “involves the voiding, rather than the affirmation, of aesthetic categories.”
Reader-Response Theory: De Man’s exploration of the act of reading as a disruptive process contributes to reader-response theory by emphasizing the active role of the reader in creating meaning. He argues that the resistance to theory is fundamentally a resistance to reading, which reveals the complexities and instabilities of language. This perspective aligns with reader-response theory’s focus on the interpretive role of the reader, suggesting that meaning is not inherent in the text but emerges through the reader’s engagement with it.

Ideology Critique (Marxist Theory): De Man’s essay contributes to ideology critique by highlighting how literary theory can expose ideological mystifications. He argues that the study of literariness “is a powerful and indispensable tool in the unmasking of ideological aberrations.” By challenging the ideological functions of language, De Man aligns with Marxist theory’s goal of revealing the ways in which texts reinforce or challenge dominant ideologies. His assertion that those who resist theory are often afraid of having their “ideological mystifications exposed” directly engages with the Marxist critique of ideology.
Semiotics: In discussing the application of linguistic models to literature, De Man’s work contributes to semiotics by examining how signs function within literary texts. He supports the semiotic view that language and literature are systems of signs that do not simply reflect reality but construct it. De Man’s emphasis on the non-referential nature of language and the conventional relationship between signifier and signified advances semiotic analysis, particularly in its application to literary texts.
Hermeneutics: De Man’s critique of hermeneutic approaches, which seek to uncover stable meanings in texts, contributes to the ongoing debate within hermeneutics about the role of interpretation. His argument that “no grammatical decoding, however refined, could claim to reach the determining figural dimensions of a text” challenges hermeneutic attempts to stabilize meaning through interpretation. This critique encourages a rethinking of hermeneutics that acknowledges the indeterminacy and complexity of textual meaning.

Rhetorical Criticism: De Man’s focus on rhetoric, particularly its role in disrupting grammatical and logical systems, significantly contributes to rhetorical criticism. He argues that the rhetorical dimension of language, which is foregrounded in literature, “undoes the claims of the trivium (and by extension, of language) to be an epistemologically stable construct.” This perspective reinforces rhetorical criticism’s emphasis on the persuasive and destabilizing effects of language, suggesting that rhetoric plays a central role in shaping and challenging meaning in literary texts.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Resistance To Theory” By Paul De Man

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through De Man’s “The Resistance to Theory”
“Pride and Prejudice” by Jane Austen	Language constructs social norms rather than merely reflecting them. The novel’s use of dialogue and narrative voice might be seen as participating in the rhetorical displacement of meaning, complicating any straightforward interpretation.
“The Fall of Hyperion” by John Keats	Emphasizes the undecidability in the title itself. The phrase “The Fall of Hyperion” resists a clear grammatical or logical interpretation, highlighting the instability of meaning that De Man argues is inherent in all literary texts, reflecting the tension between grammar and rhetoric in Keats’ work.
“Heart of Darkness” by Joseph Conrad	Exposes the ideological underpinnings of colonialism. The novel’s language could be analyzed for its rhetorical functions, revealing how Conrad’s text deconstructs itself, challenging the stability of its own narrative and the ideologies it portrays.
“Ulysses” by James Joyce	Joyce’s radical use of language disrupts traditional narrative forms and meaning. The text resists conventional readings, with its rhetorical complexity undermining any stable interpretation, aligning with De Man’s notion of reading as a negative process.

Criticism Against “The Resistance To Theory” By Paul De Man

Methodological Issues:

Overemphasis on Deconstruction: Critics argue that de Man’s focus on deconstruction leads to a neglect of other critical approaches and a reduction of literary texts to mere linguistic puzzles.

Ahistorical Approach: De Man’s focus on textual analysis is often criticized for ignoring historical and cultural contexts, leading to a limited understanding of literary works.
Formalism: Critics contend that de Man’s emphasis on language and form over content diminishes the importance of the human subject and the social world.

Philosophical Concerns:

Nihilism: Some critics argue that de Man’s insistence on the instability of language and meaning ultimately leads to a nihilistic worldview where meaning is impossible.
Relativism: De Man’s emphasis on the indeterminacy of texts can be seen as promoting a relativistic stance, where any interpretation is equally valid.

Political Implications:

Apolitical Stance: Critics argue that de Man’s focus on textual analysis neglects the political and social dimensions of literature, leading to an apolitical stance.
Complicity with Power: Some critics have accused de Man of complicity with oppressive power structures through his emphasis on the indeterminacy of language.

Ethical Concerns:

Ethical Blindness: Critics argue that de Man’s focus on textual analysis leads to a neglect of ethical considerations and the potential for language to be used for harmful purposes.

Representative Quotations from “The Resistance To Theory” By Paul De Man with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Literary theory comes into being when the approach to literary texts is no longer based on non-linguistic, that is to say historical and aesthetic, considerations.”	This quotation highlights the shift in focus that defines literary theory: moving away from traditional approaches grounded in history and aesthetics to an emphasis on language itself. It underscores the autonomy of literary theory as a discipline concerned with the production and reception of meaning.
“The resistance to theory is a resistance to the use of language about language.”	De Man argues that opposition to literary theory often stems from an aversion to the meta-linguistic focus of theory. This resistance is, at its core, a reluctance to engage with the complexities and ambiguities inherent in language itself.
“Literature involves the voiding, rather than the affirmation, of aesthetic categories.”	This statement challenges the traditional association of literature with aesthetic value. De Man suggests that literature, by revealing the instability of language, actually undermines conventional aesthetic categories, making it more about the rhetorical function than about beauty or artistic merit.
“It is therefore not a priori certain that literature is a reliable source of information about anything but its own language.”	De Man posits that literature should not be seen as a straightforward reflection of reality. Instead, it primarily serves to demonstrate the workings of language itself, challenging the assumption that literature reliably communicates external truths.
“Reading will be a negative process in which the grammatical cognition is undone by its rhetorical displacement.”	Here, De Man explains that reading, under the scrutiny of literary theory, involves a process where established grammatical structures are disrupted by rhetorical elements. This idea reflects the deconstructive approach, where meaning is seen as fluid and unstable.
“The most familiar and general of all linguistic models, the classical trivium, is in fact a set of unresolved tensions.”	This quotation points to the inherent contradictions within traditional linguistic frameworks (grammar, rhetoric, logic). De Man uses this to argue that literary theory reveals and engages with these tensions, disrupting the assumed coherence of linguistic and logical systems.

“Reading And Identity: A Psychoanalytic Revolution” By Norman N. Holland: Summary and Critique

“Reading and Identity: A Psychoanalytic Revolution” by Norman N. Holland was first published in 1979 in the collection Twentieth-Century Literary Theory: A Reader.

Introduction: “Reading And Identity: A Psychoanalytic Revolution” By Norman N. Holland

“Reading and Identity: A Psychoanalytic Revolution” by Norman N. Holland was first published in 1979 in the collection Twentieth-Century Literary Theory: A Reader. This groundbreaking article marked a pivotal moment in literary and literary theory by introducing the concept that a reader’s interpretation of a text is deeply intertwined with their personal identity. Holland’s work challenged the traditional notion of a fixed, objective meaning within a text, instead proposing a dynamic and subjective relationship between the reader and the literary work. This revolutionary perspective has had a profound and enduring impact on the field, shaping subsequent discussions about reader-response criticism and the psychology of interpretation.

Summary of “Reading And Identity: A Psychoanalytic Revolution” By Norman N. Holland

Introduction of Psychoanalytic Revolution: In “Reading And Identity: A Psychoanalytic Revolution,” Norman N. Holland presents a transformative shift in understanding literary interpretation. Previously, literary theorists believed that stories and poems elicited a universally shared or ‘correct’ response from readers. Holland challenges this notion, emphasizing that individual responses to texts are shaped by personal identity rather than a collective standard. He reflects on this change, stating, “We theorists of literature used to think that a given story or poem evoked some ‘correct’ or at least widely shared response.”
Development of Identity Theory: Holland introduces Heinz Lichtenstein’s concept of identity as a crucial development in psychoanalytic theory. This concept marks a departure from earlier diagnostic and libidinal frameworks, which focused on static categories of personality. Lichtenstein’s theory, which Holland highlights, offers a more nuanced understanding of identity. He notes, “The key concept is identity (as developed by Heinz Lichtenstein).” This approach integrates the complexity of personal identity into psychoanalysis, surpassing previous models.

Identity as Theme and Variations: Holland conceptualizes identity as a dynamic process, akin to a musical theme with variations. According to this model, identity comprises a core theme of sameness interspersed with variations that reflect personal adaptations and changes. Holland explains, “Think of the sameness as a theme, an ‘identity theme’. Think of the difference as variations on that identity theme.” This metaphor captures how personal identity maintains a consistent core while evolving through different experiences and interpretations.
Application to Literary Analysis: The practical application of this identity concept is illustrated through examples of individual readers, such as Sandra, Saul, and Sebastian. Each reader interprets texts differently based on their unique identity themes. For instance, Holland describes Sandra’s identity theme as seeking sources of nurture and strength, which influences her reading. He provides an example: “For example, I phrased an identity theme for a subject I’ll call Sandra: ‘she sought to avoid depriving situations and to find sources of nurture and strength with which she could exchange and fuse.'” This demonstrates how personal identity affects literary interpretation.
DEFT Framework: Holland further refines his analysis with the DEFT framework, which stands for Defense, Expectation, Fantasy, and Transformation. This framework helps to understand how readers engage with texts through their personal identity processes. Holland asserts, “These four terms: defense, expectation, fantasy, and transformation (DEFT, for short) connect to more than clinical experience.” The DEFT framework highlights the active role of personal identity in shaping literary experiences.

Implications for Psychoanalysis: The introduction of identity theory into psychoanalysis has profound implications, expanding traditional theories by integrating how identity re-creation influences perception, cognition, and memory. Holland argues that identity theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding mental processes, stating, “I believe identity theory provides the necessary top-level theory. That is, we can conceptualize sensing, knowing or remembering – indeed, the whole human mind – as a hierarchy of feedback networks…” This perspective enriches psychoanalytic theory by emphasizing the role of identity in shaping mental functions.
Teaching and Methodology: Holland discusses how identity theory transforms teaching methods in psychoanalysis and psychology, particularly through the Delphi seminar approach. This method encourages students to explore their personal styles and identities in relation to texts and learning. He notes, “More and more we use the Delphi (‘know thyself) seminar to help students discover how they each bring a personal style (identity) to reading, writing, learning, and teaching.” This approach fosters a deeper understanding of how personal identity influences academic and practical applications.
Conclusion: Identity as Relationship: Holland concludes that identity is not a static concept but a relational process where self and other continuously shape and redefine each other. This view challenges traditional dualistic perspectives by focusing on the interaction between personal identity and external influences. He observes, “Instead of simple dualism, we try for a detailed inquiry into the potential space of that DEFT feedback in which self and other mutually constitute each other.” This relational perspective underscores the fluid and dynamic nature of identity in both psychoanalysis and broader contexts.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Reading And Identity: A Psychoanalytic Revolution” By Norman N. Holland

Term	Definition
Identity Theme	A recurring pattern in someone’s life that defines their personality.
Variations	Divergences from the identity theme, representing individual differences and responses.
DEFT	An acronym representing Defense, Expectation, Fantasy, and Transformation; the four key elements influencing how individuals interact with texts.
Identity Principle	The fundamental human motivation to maintain one’s identity, overriding other drives like pleasure or aggression.
Delphi Seminar	A group discussion method where participants share personal associations with texts to understand how identity shapes interpretation.

Contribution of “Reading And Identity: A Psychoanalytic Revolution” By Norman N. Holland to Literary Theory/Theories

· Contribution to Psychoanalytic Literary Theory: Norman N. Holland’s “Reading And Identity: A Psychoanalytic Revolution” contributes significantly to psychoanalytic literary theory by shifting the focus from static diagnostic categories to a dynamic understanding of identity. Holland introduces Heinz Lichtenstein’s concept of identity, which redefines psychoanalytic approaches by emphasizing how personal identity shapes literary interpretation. Rather than relying solely on traditional diagnostic labels like hysteric or oral, Holland argues for a more nuanced perspective. He states, “The key concept is identity (as developed by Heinz Lichtenstein).” This contribution enriches psychoanalytic literary theory by integrating a more fluid and individualized understanding of how readers interact with texts.

· Contribution to Reader-Response Theory: Holland’s work also advances reader-response theory by highlighting the role of personal identity in shaping literary interpretation. By conceptualizing identity as a theme with variations, Holland provides a framework for understanding how individual differences influence the reading process. He describes this interplay as, “Think of the sameness as a theme, an ‘identity theme’. Think of the difference as variations on that identity theme.” This approach underscores that literary responses are not universal but are deeply influenced by each reader’s unique identity, thereby enhancing reader-response theory’s focus on the subjective nature of reading.

· Contribution to Psychoanalytic Criticism: In psychoanalytic criticism, Holland’s DEFT framework—comprising Defense, Expectation, Fantasy, and Transformation—offers a comprehensive method for analyzing how personal identity affects engagement with texts. This framework provides tools for examining the ways in which readers’ psychological processes shape their interpretations. Holland explains, “These four terms: defense, expectation, fantasy, and transformation (DEFT, for short) connect to more than clinical experience.” This contribution extends psychoanalytic criticism by providing a structured approach to understanding the psychological dynamics at play in literary interpretation.

· Contribution to Identity Theory in Psychoanalysis: Holland’s integration of identity theory into psychoanalytic thought marks a significant advancement by proposing that identity re-creation is central to understanding perception, cognition, and memory. He argues for a hierarchical model where identity influences mental processes, stating, “I believe identity theory provides the necessary top-level theory. That is, we can conceptualize sensing, knowing or remembering – indeed, the whole human mind – as a hierarchy of feedback networks…” This contribution expands traditional psychoanalytic theories by emphasizing the role of identity in shaping cognitive and perceptual experiences

· Contribution to Teaching Methods in Psychoanalysis: Holland’s application of identity theory to teaching methods, particularly through the Delphi seminar, reflects an innovative approach to psychoanalytic education. This method encourages students to explore how personal identity affects their reading, writing, and learning processes. Holland notes, “More and more we use the Delphi (‘know thyself) seminar to help students discover how they each bring a personal style (identity) to reading, writing, learning, and teaching.” This contribution underscores the importance of incorporating identity theory into educational practices, providing a more personalized and reflective approach to teaching psychoanalysis and psychology.

· Contribution to the Understanding of Identity as Relational: Finally, Holland’s view of identity as a relational process, where self and other mutually constitute each other, offers a transformative perspective on identity theory. He challenges traditional dualistic views by emphasizing the interplay between self and other, stating, “Instead of simple dualism, we try for a detailed inquiry into the potential space of that DEFT feedback in which self and other mutually constitute each other.” This contribution advances literary and psychoanalytic theory by promoting a more nuanced understanding of identity as a dynamic, relational construct.

Examples of Critiques Through “Reading And Identity: A Psychoanalytic Revolution” By Norman N. Holland

Literary Work	Hypothetical Reader Identity Theme	Potential Reader Responses (DEFT)	Social and Cultural Context
Hamlet	Desire for Control	Defense against overwhelming emotions, expectation of tragic outcomes, fantasy of power, transformation of grief	Elizabethan England, themes of revenge and mortality
Pride and Prejudice	Need for Connection	Defense against social isolation, expectation of romantic fulfillment, fantasy of ideal love, transformation of personal growth	Regency England, focus on marriage and social class
The Great Gatsby	Pursuit of the American Dream	Defense against disillusionment, expectation of wealth and happiness, fantasy of unattainable love, transformation of disillusionment	Jazz Age America, themes of wealth, class, and the American Dream
One Hundred Years of Solitude	Search for Identity	Defense against isolation, expectation of magical realism, fantasy of family legacy, transformation of understanding of time and history	Colombian context, magical realism, themes of family and history

Criticism Against “Reading And Identity: A Psychoanalytic Revolution” By Norman N. Holland

Overemphasis on the Individual:
Prioritizes the subjective reader experience at the expense of the text’s inherent meaning and cultural context.
Neglects the shared aspects of literary interpretation.

Subjectivity and Lack of Rigor:
Critics argue that Holland’s approach is too subjective and lacks the rigor necessary for objective literary analysis.
Questions the reliability and validity of basing literary interpretation solely on personal psychology.

Limited Scope of Application:
Some critics contend that Holland’s theory is primarily applicable to personal narratives and subjective texts, rather than complex literary works.
Argues that the theory may not adequately account for the nuances of literary language and structure.

Neglect of Social and Cultural Factors:
Critics point out that Holland’s focus on individual psychology overlooks the significant impact of social and cultural factors on reading and interpretation.
Argues that the theory fails to account for the shared meanings and values embedded in literary texts.

Reductionism of Literary Experience:
Some critics contend that Holland’s approach reduces the complex and multifaceted experience of reading to a purely psychological phenomenon.
Argues that it neglects the aesthetic, emotional, and cognitive dimensions of literary engagement.

Representative Quotations from “Reading And Identity: A Psychoanalytic Revolution” By Norman N. Holland with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“We theorists of literature used to think that a given story or poem evoked some ‘correct’ or at least widely shared response.”	This quotation highlights the traditional belief in a universal or normative response to literature, which Holland challenges by emphasizing individual variation in interpretation.
“The key concept is identity (as developed by Heinz Lichtenstein).”	Holland introduces Heinz Lichtenstein’s concept of identity as a central advancement in psychoanalytic theory, which he believes offers a more nuanced understanding of how personal identity influences literary interpretation.
“Think of the sameness as a theme, an ‘identity theme’. Think of the difference as variations on that identity theme.”	Here, Holland uses a musical metaphor to explain how identity functions as a consistent theme with variations, reflecting the dynamic interplay between personal consistency and change in interpreting texts.
“For example, I phrased an identity theme for a subject I’ll call Sandra: ‘she sought to avoid depriving situations and to find sources of nurture and strength with which she could exchange and fuse.'”	This quotation provides a concrete example of how Holland applies the concept of identity to individual readers, illustrating how personal identity themes influence specific interpretations of texts.
“These four terms: defense, expectation, fantasy, and transformation (DEFT, for short) connect to more than clinical experience.”	Holland introduces the DEFT framework, which encompasses how defense mechanisms, expectations, fantasies, and transformations affect readers’ interactions with texts, extending beyond clinical settings to literary analysis.
“Instead of simple dualism, we try for a detailed inquiry into the potential space of that DEFT feedback in which self and other mutually constitute each other.”	This quotation emphasizes Holland’s approach to understanding identity as a relational process, where self and other interact and shape each other, challenging simplistic dualistic perspectives and focusing on the complex interplay of identity in literary analysis.

“The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens: A Critical Analysis

“The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens first appeared in 1937 within his collection, The Man with the Blue Guitar.

Introduction: “The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens

“The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens first appeared in 1937 within his collection, The Man with the Blue Guitar. This complex and philosophical poem is a series of interconnected meditations on the nature of reality, art, and perception. Stevens employs the metaphor of a blue guitar to explore the transformative power of the imagination, suggesting that the artist, like the musician, does not merely reflect the world but re-creates it. The poem’s intricate structure, rich imagery, and philosophical depth make it a cornerstone of modernist poetry, inviting readers to engage in a profound exploration of the human condition.

Text: “The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens

The man bent over his guitar,

A shearsman of sorts. The day was green.

They said, “You have a blue guitar,

You do not play things as they are.”

The man replied, “Things as they are

Are changed upon the blue guitar.”

And they said then, “But play, you must,

A tune beyond us, yet ourselves,

A tune upon the blue guitar

Of things exactly as they are.”

I cannot bring a world quite round,

Although I patch it as I can.

I sing a hero’s head, large eye

And bearded bronze, but not a man,

Although I patch him as I can

And reach through him almost to man.

If to serenade almost to man

Is to miss, by that, things as they are,

Say it is the serenade

Of a man that plays a blue guitar.

III

Ah, but to play man number one,

To drive the dagger in his heart,

To lay his brain upon the board

And pick the acrid colors out,

To nail his thought across the door,

Its wings spread wide to rain and snow,

To strike his living hi and ho,

To tick it, tock it, turn it true,

To bang from it a savage blue,

Jangling the metal of the strings�

So that’s life, then: things as they are?

It picks its way on the blue guitar.

A million people on one string?

And all their manner in the thing,

And all their manner, right and wrong,

And all their manner, weak and strong?

The feelings crazily, craftily call,

Like a buzzing of flies in autumn air,

And that’s life, then: things as they are,

This buzzing of the blue guitar.

Do not speak to us of the greatness of poetry,

Of the torches wisping in the underground,

Of the structure of vaults upon a point of light.

There are no shadows in our sun,

Day is desire and night is sleep.

There are no shadows anywhere.

The earth, for us, is flat and bare.

There are no shadows. Poetry

Exceeding music must take the place

Of empty heaven and its hymns,

Ourselves in poetry must take their place,

Even in the chattering of your guitar.

A tune beyond us as we are,

Yet nothing changed by the blue guitar;

Ourselves in the tune as if in space,

Yet nothing changed, except the place

Of things as they are and only the place

As you play them, on the blue guitar,

Placed, so, beyond the compass of change,

Perceived in a final atmosphere;

For a moment final, in the way

The thinking of art seems final when

The thinking of god is smoky dew.

The tune is space. The blue guitar

Becomes the place of things as they are,

A composing of senses of the guitar.

VII

It is the sun that shares our works.

The moon shares nothing. It is a sea.

When shall I come to say of the sun,

It is a sea; it shares nothing;

The sun no longer shares our works

And the earth is alive with creeping men,

Mechanical beetles never quite warm?

And shall I then stand in the sun, as now

I stand in the moon, and call it good,

The immaculate, the merciful good,

Detached from us, from things as they are?

Not to be part of the sun? To stand

Remote and call it merciful?

The strings are cold on the blue guitar.

VIII

The vivid, florid, turgid sky,

The drenching thunder rolling by,

The morning deluged still by night,

The clouds tumultuously bright

And the feeling heavy in cold chords

Struggling toward impassioned choirs,

Crying among the clouds, enraged

By gold antagonists in air–

I know my lazy, leaden twang

Is like the reason in a storm;

And yet it brings the storm to bear.

I twang it out and leave it there.

And the color, the overcast blue

Of the air, in which the blue guitar

Is a form, described but difficult,

And I am merely a shadow hunched

Above the arrowy, still strings,

The maker of a thing yet to be made;

The color like a thought that grows

Out of a mood, the tragic robe

Of the actor, half his gesture, half

His speech, the dress of his meaning, silk

Sodden with his melancholy words,

The weather of his stage, himself.

Raise reddest columns. Toll a bell

And clap the hollows full of tin.

Throw papers in the streets, the wills

Of the dead, majestic in their seals.

And the beautiful trombones-behold

The approach of him whom none believes,

Whom all believe that all believe,

A pagan in a varnished care.

Roll a drum upon the blue guitar.

Lean from the steeple. Cry aloud,

“Here am I, my adversary, that

Confront you, hoo-ing the slick trombones,

Yet with a petty misery

At heart, a petty misery,

Ever the prelude to your end,

The touch that topples men and rock.”

Is this picture of Picasso’s, this “hoard

Of destructions”, a picture of ourselves,

Now, an image of our society?

Do I sit, deformed, a naked egg,

Catching at Good-bye, harvest moon,

Without seeing the harvest or the moon?

Things as they are have been destroyed.

Have I? Am I a man that is dead

At a table on which the food is cold?

Is my thought a memory, not alive?

Is the spot on the floor, there, wine or blood

And whichever it may be, is it mine?

XXIII

A few final solutions, like a duet

With the undertaker: a voice in the clouds,

Another on earth, the one a voice

Of ether, the other smelling of drink,

The voice of ether prevailing, the swell

Of the undertaker’s song in the snow

Apostrophizing wreaths, the voice

In the clouds serene and final, next

The grunted breath scene and final,

The imagined and the real, thought

And the truth, Dichtung und Wahrheit, all

Confusion solved, as in a refrain

One keeps on playing year by year,

Concerning the nature of things as they are.

XXX

From this I shall evolve a man.

This is his essence: the old fantoche

Hanging his shawl upon the wind,

Like something on the stage, puffed out,

His strutting studied through centuries.

At last, in spite of his manner, his eye

A-cock at the cross-piece on a pole

Supporting heavy cables, slung

Through Oxidia, banal suburb,

One-half of all its installments paid.

Dew-dapper clapper-traps, blazing

From crusty stacks above machines.

Ecce, Oxidia is the seed

Dropped out of this amber-ember pod,

Oxidia is the soot of fire,

Oxidia is Olympia.

XXXI

How long and late the pheasant sleeps

The employer and employee contend,

Combat, compose their droll affair.

The bubbling sun will bubble up,

Spring sparkle and the cock-bird shriek.

The employer and employee will hear

And continue their affair. The shriek

Will rack the thickets. There is no place,

Here, for the lark fixed in the mind,

In the museum of the sky. The cock

Will claw sleep. Morning is not sun,

It is this posture of the nerves,

As if a blunted player clutched

The nuances of the blue guitar.

It must be this rhapsody or none,

The rhapsody of things as they are.

XXXII

Throw away the lights, the definitions,

And say of what you see in the dark

That it is this or that it is that,

But do not use the rotted names.

How should you walk in that space and know

Nothing of the madness of space,

Nothing of its jocular procreations?

Throw the lights away. Nothing must stand

Between you and the shapes you take

When the crust of shape has been destroyed.

You as you are? You are yourself.

The blue guitar surprises you.

XXXIII

That generation’s dream, aviled

In the mud, in Monday’s dirty light,

That’s it, the only dream they knew,

Time in its final block, not time

To come, a wrangling of two dreams.

Here is the bread of time to come,

Here is its actual stone. The bread

Will be our bread, the stone will be

Our bed and we shall sleep by night.

We shall forget by day, except

The moments when we choose to play

The imagined pine, the imagined jay.

Annotations: “The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens

Stanza	Annotation
I	The speaker reflects on the nature of reality and perception, as a man plays a blue guitar that changes reality into art. The discrepancy between the real and the artistic interpretation is emphasized.
II	Here, the difficulty of capturing the entirety of the world or a person through art is explored. The poet suggests that art is an approximation, a “patched” version of reality.
III	This stanza delves into the transformative power of art, portraying how it can evoke deeper truths or realities beyond mere physical existence.
IV	Art’s relationship to life is examined; how art interprets, abstracts, and sometimes distorts life to reveal underlying truths or emotions.
V	The poet criticizes the limitations of conventional poetry and celebrates the unique capabilities of music (or the blue guitar) to encapsulate deeper emotional truths.
VI	The continuity of self and perception through art is discussed, emphasizing how art changes the place but not the essence of things.
VII	Here, the speaker reflects on the separation between humanity and the divine, or the existential, using the imagery of the sun and the moon to contrast shared experiences with isolation.
VIII	This stanza captures the struggle between human emotions and the overwhelming nature of external realities, highlighting the conflict inherent in artistic expression.
IX	The focus is on the process of artistic creation, the difficulty of defining art, and the ephemeral nature of artistic ‘truth.’
X	The poet explores the public’s reaction to art, how art intersects with societal events, and the dramatic portrayal of life through artistic expressions.
XV	Stevens invokes Picasso, questioning whether art reflects society accurately, or if it is a distorted ‘hoard of destructions,’ reflecting on how people perceive and engage with art.
XXIII	An exploration of philosophical themes, contrasting reality with artistic interpretation, touching on themes of finality and the cyclical nature of understanding.
XXX	The creation of a character as a metaphor for art’s ability to distill complex human traits into simplified forms, examining the banality and ubiquity of suburban life.
XXXI	A depiction of the mundane everyday interactions between employer and employee, suggesting that even in routine there is a place for the poetic or the artistic.
XXXII	A call to abandon conventional definitions and to embrace a more intrinsic, intuitive understanding of art and reality, challenging the boundaries of perception.
XXXIII	Reflects on the generational shift in dreams and aspirations, using bread and stone as metaphors for the essential and the eternal, juxtaposed against the fleeting nature of time.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens

Literary Device	Definition	Example	Explanation
1. Metaphor	Comparison between two unlike things	“A shearsman of sorts”	Compares the man to a shearsman
2. Personification	Attributing human qualities to non-human entities	“The day was green”	Gives the day a color, like a living thing
3. Allusion	Reference to a person, place, event, or work of art	“Torch es wisping in the underground”	Possibly alludes to Greek mythology’s underworld
4. Symbolism	Using an object to represent an abstract idea	“The blue guitar”	Represents creativity, art, or imagination
5. Enjambment	Continuation of a sentence or phrase into the next line	“Things as they are / Are changed upon the blue guitar”	Creates a sense of flow
6. Imagery	Language that appeals to the senses	“Vivid, florid, turgid sky”	Evokes a sensory experience
7. Simile	Comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as”	“Like a buzzing of flies in autumn air”	Compares two unlike things
8. Hyperbole	Exaggeration used for emphasis	“A million people on one string”	Emphasizes the idea
9. Alliteration	Repetition of initial consonant sounds	“Crying among the clouds, enraged”	Creates a musical quality
10. Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds	“Feeling heavy in cold chords”	Creates a musical quality
11. Onomatopoeia	Words that imitate sounds	“Twang it out and leave it there”	Imitates the sound of the guitar
12. Irony	Contrast between what is expected and what happens	“Serenade / Of a man that plays a blue guitar”	Unexpected twist on a traditional serenade
13. Juxtaposition	Placing two elements side by side for comparison	“Sun shares our works. / Moon shares nothing”	Compares two ideas
14. Repetition	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis	“Things as they are”	Emphasizes the idea
15. Anaphora	Repeating a word or phrase at the beginning of clauses	“And the color… / And I am merely”	Creates emphasis
16. Epistrophe	Repeating a word or phrase at the end of clauses	“The blue guitar / The blue guitar”	Creates emphasis
17. Apostrophe	Addressing a person or entity not present	“Ourselves in poetry must take their place”	Addresses an absent entity
18. Oxymoron	Combination of two words with opposite meanings	(Not found in the poem)	Example: “bitter sweetness”
19. Paradox	Statement that contradicts itself	“Things as they are have been destroyed. / Have I?”	Contradictory statements
20. Stream-of-consciousness	Writing style that mimics natural thought patterns	(Entire poem)	Mimics natural thought patterns

Themes: “The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens

Art as Transformation: Throughout the poem, Stevens examines the idea that art transforms reality, a notion encapsulated in the refrain, “Things as they are / Are changed upon the blue guitar” (Stanza I). This theme is woven into the fabric of the poem, suggesting that art does not merely replicate the world but rather interprets and alters it according to the artist’s vision. The speaker acknowledges that his artistic representations, like the “hero’s head, large eye / And bearded bronze” (Stanza II), do not completely capture the essence of their subjects but instead offer a revised version that might reach “almost to man.” This transformative power is central to the poem’s meditation on the role of art in human life.
Perception vs. Reality: Stevens plays with the dichotomy between perception and reality, challenging the notion of objective truth. He proposes that our understanding of the world is inevitably colored by our perceptions, which are themselves influenced by personal experiences and emotions. In Stanza VI, he suggests that the tune played on the blue guitar alters not the things themselves but “only the place / Of things as they are,” indicating that art shifts our perspective rather than the inherent nature of the objects it depicts. This theme underscores the subjectivity of all human experience, particularly the artistic endeavor.
Artistic Isolation and Communication: The poet reflects on the isolation of the artist and the communicative power of art. In Stanza VII, the separation of the artist from the broader community is palpable when the speaker feels detached from “the sun,” a metaphor for common human experience. Yet, despite this isolation, the poem itself is an act of communication, an attempt to connect with others through the shared language of art. The notion that the blue guitar can express “a tune beyond us, yet ourselves” (Stanza I) highlights art’s role in bridging individual and collective experiences.
The Ephemeral and the Eternal in Art: Stevens contemplates the interplay between the transient and the permanent in art and life. In Stanza XXXIII, he discusses “that generation’s dream,” reflecting on how art captures specific moments in time while also touching on timeless themes. The contrast between “the bread of time to come” and “its actual stone” symbolizes the tension between the ephemeral nature of human life and the enduring nature of artistic creation. This theme is revisited in the closing sections of the poem, particularly in the evocation of “the nature of things as they are” (Stanza XXXII), where art is seen as both a product of its time and a perennial reflection of universal truths.

Literary Theories and “The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens

Literary Theory	Description	Application to “The Man with the Blue Guitar”
Formalism	Focuses on the form and structure of the text itself, examining elements like language, rhythm, and imagery.	Formalism would concentrate on the intricate structure and use of imagery in Stevens’ poem, particularly the repeated motif of the blue guitar. Analysis might explore how the rhythm and word choice contribute to the thematic exploration of art’s transformation of reality and perception.
Phenomenology	Studies the subjective experience of readers as they engage with the text, emphasizing personal interpretation and consciousness.	Applying phenomenology to this poem would involve an exploration of how individual readers perceive the abstract concepts presented, such as the transformation of reality through art. It would consider how different readers emotionally connect with the themes based on their own experiences.
Post-Structuralism	Questions the stability of language and meaning, suggesting that meanings are not fixed but can vary based on context and the play of language.	Post-structuralism would analyze the poem’s questioning of objective reality versus perception, highlighting how language shapes our understanding of art and reality. The theory would emphasize the instability of the “things as they are” concept and how it is altered through the blue guitar.

Critical Questions about “The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens

Question 1: What is the relationship between reality and art?
In “The Man with the Blue Guitar,” Stevens explores the relationship between reality and art, suggesting that art can shape our understanding of reality. The poem states, “Things as they are / Are changed upon the blue guitar” (Stevens 1-2). This implies that the artist’s perception of reality is filtered through their creative medium, in this case, the blue guitar. The poem raises questions about the nature of reality and how it is influenced by artistic expression.
Question 2: How does the poem’s use of imagery and symbolism contribute to its meaning?
The poem’s rich imagery and symbolism are crucial to its meaning. The “blue guitar” itself is a symbol of artistic expression, while the “vivid, florid, turgid sky” (Stevens 13) creates a sense of dynamic energy. The image of the “man bent over his guitar” (Stevens 1) suggests a sense of dedication and craftsmanship. These images and symbols work together to create a complex web of meaning that invites the reader to interpret and reflect.
Question 3: What is the significance of the poem’s use of paradox and contradiction?
The poem’s use of paradox and contradiction highlights the tensions between different perspectives and ways of understanding the world. For example, the lines “Things as they are have been destroyed. / Have I?” (Stevens 23-24) present a paradoxical statement that challenges the reader to consider the relationship between reality and identity. Similarly, the poem’s juxtaposition of “sun” and “moon” (Stevens 17-18) creates a sense of contrast and highlights the complexities of human experience.
Question 4: How does the poem’s structure and form contribute to its overall effect?
The poem’s structure and form are carefully crafted to create a sense of flow and continuity. The use of enjambment, such as in the lines “Things as they are / Are changed upon the blue guitar” (Stevens 1-2), creates a sense of urgency and momentum. The poem’s divisions into sections and stanzas also contribute to its musical quality, echoing the sound of the blue guitar. The overall effect is a sense of dynamic energy and creative expression, mirroring the poem’s themes of art and reality.

Literary Works Similar to “The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens

“The Idea of Order at Key West” by Wallace Stevens: Similar in its exploration of art’s ability to impose order and meaning on chaotic reality, this poem also delves into the transformative power of artistic creation.
“Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats: This poem shares a thematic concern with the transcendence of the physical to the realm of the eternal and ideal, much like Stevens’s meditation on art transcending everyday reality.
“Birches” by Robert Frost: Like Stevens, Frost uses nature as a backdrop to explore deeper philosophical issues, particularly the interplay between reality and the imaginative whims of the human mind.
“Musee des Beaux Arts” by W.H. Auden: Auden’s poem reflects on how art captures human suffering in a way that can be more impactful than real life, echoing Stevens’s theme of art transforming and reinterpreting reality.
“Ash Wednesday” by T.S. Eliot: Both poems wrestle with the limitations and possibilities of language and art in expressing and shaping human experience, particularly through the lens of spiritual and existential inquiry.

Representative Quotations of “The Man with the Blue Guitar” by Wallace Stevens

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Things as they are / Are changed upon the blue guitar”	Opening lines, introducing the poem’s central theme	Postmodernism: Highlights the subjective nature of reality and the power of art to shape our understanding.
“The man bent over his guitar, / A shearsman of sorts”	Introduces the poet/musician, emphasizing their creative role	Romanticism: Emphasizes the importance of the individual artist’s vision and skill.
“They said, ‘You have a blue guitar, / You do not play things as they are'”	Others challenge the poet’s unique perspective	Social Constructivism: Suggests that reality is shaped by social and cultural forces, and that art can challenge these norms.
“I cannot bring a world quite round, / Although I patch it as I can”	Poet acknowledges limitations of art to fully capture reality	Modernism: Recognizes the fragmentation and provisional nature of human knowledge and art.
“A tune beyond us, yet ourselves, / A tune upon the blue guitar”	Poet seeks to create a new, transcendent reality	Symbolism: Uses the blue guitar as a symbol of artistic expression and the pursuit of the ideal.
“The earth, for us, is flat and bare. / There are no shadows”	Poet describes a world without depth or nuance	Existentialism: Suggests that human existence is characterized by uncertainty and the absence of inherent meaning.
“Ourselves in poetry must take their place, / Even in the chattering of your guitar”	Poet emphasizes the importance of art in shaping our understanding	Poststructuralism: Highlights the role of language and art in constructing our reality and identity.
“The blue guitar surprises you”	Final line, emphasizing the power of art to transform	Phenomenology: Suggests that art can reveal new aspects of reality and challenge our assumptions.

Day: August 20, 2024