Day: August 22, 2024

Introduction: “Towards A Science Ofthe Text” by Terry Eagleton

“Towards A Science Ofthe Text” by Terry Eagleton was first published in 1981 as part of the collection “Walter Benjamin: Towards a Revolutionary Criticism.” This essay holds significant importance in literature and literary theory as it challenges traditional notions of literary analysis and proposes a Marxist framework for understanding the text as a product of ideology and social history. Eagleton argues that the text is not merely a reflection of reality but rather a production of it, shaped by the dominant ideologies and power structures of its time.

Summary of “Towards A Science Ofthe Text” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Towards A Science Ofthe Text” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Concept	Explanation
Ideology	A system of beliefs, values, and assumptions that shape social and cultural practices. Eagleton argues that the literary text is a production of ideology, rather than a reflection of it.
Historical Materialism	A Marxist approach that emphasizes the role of material conditions (e.g., economic factors) in shaping history and society. Eagleton uses this framework to analyze the relationship between the text and its historical context.
Signifier and Signified	The signifier is the word or symbol, while the signified is the concept or object it represents. Eagleton argues that the literary text is a system of signifiers that produce a “pseudo-real” signified, which is related to but not identical to the historical real.
Pseudo-Real	The imaginary situations or objects depicted in a literary text. Eagleton emphasizes that the pseudo-real is not a direct representation of the historical real but rather a product of ideological signification.
Textual Structure	The arrangement and organization of elements within a literary text. Eagleton argues that the structure of the text is not simply a reflection of ideology but rather a complex interplay between the text and its ideological context.
Overdetermination	The idea that a literary text is influenced by multiple factors, including historical, ideological, and aesthetic elements. Eagleton emphasizes the overdetermined nature of the text and its relationship to ideology.
Aesthetic Modes	The various ways in which a literary text is produced and presented, such as narrative technique, style, and genre. Eagleton argues that aesthetic modes can both reinforce and challenge ideology.

Contribution of “Towards A Science Ofthe Text” by Terry Eagleton to Literary Theory/Theories

Theory	Contribution
Marxism	Eagleton’s essay provides a significant contribution to Marxist literary theory by emphasizing the role of ideology and social history in shaping literary texts. He argues that the text is a production of ideology, rather than a reflection of it, and that it can be analyzed as a product of historical materialism.
New Criticism	While Eagleton’s approach is fundamentally different from New Criticism, his essay can be seen as a response to its formalism. By focusing on the relationship between the text and its historical context, Eagleton challenges the New Critical emphasis on the text as an autonomous work of art.
Structuralism	Eagleton’s concept of the “pseudo-real” aligns with Structuralist approaches that emphasize the underlying structures and systems that shape meaning in texts. However, Eagleton’s focus on ideology and history distinguishes his approach from purely formalist Structuralism.
Post-Structuralism	Eagleton’s essay can be seen as a precursor to Post-Structuralist theories, which also challenge the notion of a fixed and stable meaning in texts. His emphasis on the overdetermined nature of the text and its relationship to ideology aligns with Post-Structuralist ideas about the instability of meaning.
Cultural Studies	Eagleton’s essay contributes to Cultural Studies by emphasizing the importance of studying texts within their broader cultural and historical contexts. His focus on ideology and power relations aligns with the central concerns of Cultural Studies.

Examples of Critiques Through “Towards A Science Ofthe Text” by Terry Eagleton

Literary Work	Critique Through Eagleton’s Framework	Explanation
Charles Dickens’ Bleak House	Ideological Production of the ‘Textual Real’	Eagleton would argue that Bleak House does not simply reflect Victorian London but produces an “imaginary London” through specific modes of ideological signification. The novel represents not just reality but the ways Victorian England signified itself.
William Shakespeare’s Hamlet	Text as a Site of Ideological Struggle	In Hamlet, the play is not just a dramatic text but a production of ideological conflicts, particularly around themes of power, authority, and the legitimacy of rule. Eagleton might argue that the play produces and reveals the ideological tensions of the Elizabethan era.
George Orwell’s 1984	Textual Real as Ideologically Determined Reality	According to Eagleton, 1984 could be seen as producing an ideological representation of a dystopian society rather than simply depicting a possible future. The text creates a ‘pseudo-real’ world shaped by the totalitarian ideologies it critiques, demonstrating the text’s active role in producing its own reality.
Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice	Text’s Illusion of Freedom and Ideological Structure	Eagleton might critique Pride and Prejudice for its creation of an “illusion of freedom” in the social and romantic choices of its characters, which are ultimately constrained by the ideological structures of class and gender. The novel produces a social reality that seems to offer choice, yet this choice is largely illusory, governed by the prevailing ideologies of its time.

Criticism Against “Towards A Science Ofthe Text” by Terry Eagleton

• Oversimplification of ideology: Some critics argue that Eagleton’s conception of ideology is overly simplistic, failing to account for the complexity and diversity of ideological formations.
• Reductionism of the text: Eagleton’s emphasis on the relationship between the text and its historical context can be seen as reductive, neglecting the text’s own internal dynamics and aesthetic qualities.
• Determinism: Some critics argue that Eagleton’s approach is overly deterministic, suggesting that the text is merely a product of its ideological and historical context, rather than a site of creative agency.
• Neglect of other factors: Eagleton’s focus on ideology and history may neglect other important factors that shape literary texts, such as authorial intention, aesthetic conventions, and reader response.
• Circular reasoning: Some critics argue that Eagleton’s analysis is circular, in that he uses ideology to explain the text and then uses the text to explain ideology, creating a self-perpetuating cycle.
• Limited scope: Eagleton’s essay primarily focuses on Western literature and may not be applicable to other cultural contexts.

Suggested Readings: “Towards A Science Ofthe Text” by Terry Eagleton

1. Eagleton, Terry. “Towards a Science of the Text.” Walter Benjamin: Towards a Revolutionary Criticism. Blackwell, 1981.
2. McHale, Brian. Postmodernism: A History. Routledge, 2011.
3. Eagleton, Terry. “Two Approaches in the Sociology of Literature.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 14, no. 3, 1988, pp. 469–76. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343699. Accessed 21 Aug. 2024.
4. Guerriero, Stefano. “TERRY EAGLETON.” Belfagor, vol. 61, no. 6, 2006, pp. 659–70. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/26150506. Accessed 21 Aug. 2024.
5. Kavanagh, James H., et al. “Interview: Terry Eagleton.” Diacritics, vol. 12, no. 1, 1982, pp. 52–64. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/464791. Accessed 21 Aug. 2024.
6. Eagleton, Terry. “Ideology, Fiction, Narrative.” Social Text, no. 2, 1979, pp. 62–80. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/466398. Accessed 21 Aug. 2024.

Representative Quotations from “Towards A Science Ofthe Text” by Terry Eagleton

Quotation	Explanation
“The text, rather, is a certain production of ideology, for which the analogy of a dramatic production is in some ways appropriate.”	Eagleton emphasizes that a literary text is not a mere reflection of ideology but an active production, similar to a play’s transformation of a script into a unique performance.
“The relation between text and production is a relation of labour.”	This highlights the idea that the creation of a literary text involves an active process of labor, shaping ideology within its narrative.
“History, then, certainly ‘enters’ the text, not least the ‘historical’ text; but it enters it precisely as ideology.”	Eagleton argues that history is mediated by ideology in literary texts, not presented directly but refracted through ideological lenses.
“The ‘truth’ of the text is not an essence but a practice.”	This statement reflects Eagleton’s view that the meaning of a text is not inherent or fixed but is produced through its interaction with ideology and history.
“The text works, now with, now against the variable pressure of these valencies, finding itself able to admit one ideological element in relatively unprocessed form but finding therefore the need to displace or recast another.”	Eagleton describes the dynamic process by which a text negotiates and transforms different ideological elements within its structure.
“The ‘textual real’ is related to the historical real, not as an imaginary transposition of it, but as the product of certain signifying practices whose source and referent is, in the last instance, history itself.”	This quotation explains Eagleton’s concept of the ‘textual real,’ which is a product of ideological signification rather than a direct depiction of historical reality.
“The structure of the text is then the product of this process, not the reflection of its ideological environs.”	Eagleton argues that a text’s structure results from the interaction between text and ideology, rather than being a mere reflection of surrounding ideological structures.
“Ideology pre-exists the text; but the ideology of the text defines, operates and constitutes that ideology in ways unpremeditated, so to speak, by ideology itself.”	This highlights the idea that while ideology exists before the text, the text redefines and reshapes it through its unique production.
“The text’s illusion of freedom is part of its very nature – an effect of its peculiarly overdetermined relation to historical reality.”	Eagleton discusses how texts create an illusion of freedom, which is actually determined by their relationship to historical reality and ideology.
“Criticism is a specific element of the theory of superstructures, which studies the particular laws of its proper object; its task is not to study the laws of ideological formations, but the laws of the production of ideological discourses as literature.”	Eagleton outlines the role of criticism as a distinct study within Marxist theory, focused on understanding how literary texts produce ideological discourses.

Introduction: “The Madness Of Interpretation: Literature And Psychoanalysis” by Shoshana Felman

“The Madness of Interpretation: Literature and Psychoanalysis” by Shoshana Felman was first published in 1982 as part of the collection Writing and Madness. This groundbreaking work has had a profound impact on the fields of literature and literary theory, exploring the complex relationship between psychoanalysis and the interpretation of literary texts. Felman argues that the process of literary interpretation itself can be seen as a form of madness, as it involves delving into the unconscious depths of both the text and the reader. Her analysis of literary works, particularly those dealing with themes of madness and trauma, has significantly influenced the ways in which scholars have approached the study of literature and its relationship to human psychology.

Summary of “The Madness Of Interpretation: Literature And Psychoanalysis” by Shoshana Felman

• Psychoanalysis as a Temptation in Literary Interpretation:
  • Felman critiques the prevalent tendency in psychoanalytic interpretation to provide an “explanation” or “explication” of a literary text, often seen in Wilson’s reading of The Turn of the Screw. She notes that psychoanalysis attempts to “uncover and avoid the very traps of the unconscious” in literature, which are embedded within the text itself (p. 154).
• Universal Dupery and Self-Deception:
  • Wilson’s interpretation of The Turn of the Screw exemplifies a cycle of deception where characters, authors, and readers are all “dupes” of their own unconscious, with Wilson himself falling into the same trap by believing he can outsmart the text. “One is led to conclude that, in The Turn of the Screw, not merely is the governess self-deceived, but that James is self-deceived about her” (p. 143).
• Suspicion as the Root of Interpretation:
  • Both the governess and Wilson approach the text with suspicion, leading them to misinterpret it. This suspicion is what drives their readings, and ironically, it is also what traps them. Felman suggests that The Turn of the Screw is a “trap set for suspicion,” turning the act of interpretation into a self-fulfilling prophecy where suspicion breeds error (p. 154).
• Psychoanalysis as a School of Suspicion:
  • Felman identifies psychoanalysis as a “school of suspicion” that thrives on the gap between signifier and signified, leading to interpretations that are themselves traps. This suspicion-driven reading process makes the reader “caught, not in spite of but by virtue of his intelligence and his sophistication” (p. 154).
• The Double Trap of Reading and Interpretation:
  • The text of The Turn of the Screw deconstructs both of its possible readings, leaving the reader trapped in a labyrinth of mirrors. The act of demystifying the governess’s position only results in repeating her gesture, making it impossible to escape the interpretive trap. Felman argues that this is “the simplest and the most sophisticated trap in the world: the trap is but a text” (p. 155).
• Blind Spots and the Illusion of Mastery:
  • Psychoanalysis, in its attempt to master literature, often becomes blind to its own limitations. Felman warns that psychoanalysis, like Wilson, can become blind to its “own blindness,” failing to recognize its own involvement in the text’s rhetorical structures and falling into the “masterly position” of the text’s blind spot (p. 157).
• The Self-Subversion of Psychoanalysis:
  • Felman highlights the irony in psychoanalysis’ attempts to avoid being duped by literature, noting that it often ends up “repressing the unconscious” it seeks to explain. In trying to master the text, psychoanalysis blinds itself to the “unmastery, of the impotence, and of the unavoidable castration which inhere in language” (p. 156).
• The Inescapable Participation in Literature’s Traps:
  • Felman concludes that psychoanalysis cannot avoid participating in the errors and traps of literature. The act of trying to escape these traps is itself proof of being caught in them. She echoes Lacan’s sentiment, “Les non-dupes errent” (non-dupes err), suggesting that the very attempt to avoid being a dupe leads to error (p. 157).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Madness Of Interpretation: Literature And Psychoanalysis” by Shoshana Felman

Literary Concept/Device	Description	Significance in Felman’s Analysis
Intertextuality	The relationship between texts, where one text references or incorporates elements of another.	Felman explores how literary texts are embedded in a larger cultural and historical context, influencing their interpretation and meaning.
Unconscious	The part of the mind that is inaccessible to conscious thought but influences behavior and emotions.	Felman argues that the unconscious plays a crucial role in both the creation and interpretation of literary texts, often revealing hidden meanings and desires.
Trauma	A deeply distressing event or experience that can cause lasting psychological damage.	Felman analyzes how traumatic events are represented and processed within literary texts, exploring the relationship between trauma and language.
Madness	A state of mental illness or derangement.	Felman examines the ways in which madness is portrayed in literature, often as a metaphor for the complexities of human experience and the limitations of language.
Reading	The act of interpreting and understanding a text.	Felman challenges traditional notions of reading, arguing that the process of interpretation is inherently subjective and can be influenced by personal biases and experiences.
Interpretation	The process of explaining or assigning meaning to something.	Felman explores the limitations and dangers of interpretation, emphasizing the potential for misreading and misunderstanding texts.
Psychoanalysis	A therapeutic method that investigates the unconscious mind through techniques such as free association and dream analysis.	Felman applies psychoanalytic concepts to the analysis of literary texts, revealing hidden meanings and underlying psychological dynamics.
Sublimation	The process of redirecting unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable behaviors.	Felman examines how literary texts can function as a form of sublimation, allowing individuals to explore and express their desires and anxieties in a safe and controlled environment.
Repression	The unconscious process of excluding disturbing thoughts and feelings from conscious awareness.	Felman analyzes how repression can manifest in literary texts, leading to hidden meanings and symbolic representations.
Ambiguity	The presence of multiple possible meanings or interpretations in a text.	Felman argues that ambiguity is a fundamental characteristic of literary texts, allowing for a multiplicity of readings and interpretations.

Contribution of “The Madness Of Interpretation: Literature And Psychoanalysis” by Shoshana Felman to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution	Quotes from the Article
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Felman critiques the limitations and paradoxes of psychoanalytic criticism, showing how it can fall into the very traps it seeks to expose in literature. She argues that psychoanalytic readings often repress the unconscious they aim to reveal.	“To master…is, here as elsewhere, to refuse to read the letters; here as elsewhere, to ‘see it all’ is in effect to ‘shut one’s eyes…'” (p. 156).
Deconstruction	The article engages with deconstructive ideas by revealing how texts like The Turn of the Screw deconstruct their own readings, making it impossible to fully master or control the meaning.	“James’s trap is then the simplest and the most sophisticated in the world: the trap is but a text, that is, an invitation to the reader…” (p. 155).
Reader-Response Theory	Felman highlights how the reader is implicated in the process of interpretation, often becoming a “dupe” of the text. The text itself manipulates the reader’s response, leading them into interpretive traps.	“The reader…is caught, not in spite of but by virtue of his intelligence and his sophistication” (p. 154).
Rhetorical Criticism	The article explores how rhetoric functions within literary texts to trap and mislead both characters and readers. It suggests that the power of rhetoric can undermine attempts at rational, systematic interpretation.	“The very act of trying to escape the trap is the proof that one is caught in it” (p. 157).
Hermeneutics	Felman’s work contributes to hermeneutics by questioning the possibility of a definitive interpretation. She argues that literature, especially in complex texts like The Turn of the Screw, resists conclusive interpretation by design.	“To demystify the governess is only possible on one condition: the condition of repeating the governess’s very gesture” (p. 155).
Structuralism	Felman discusses the structural relationship between signifier and signified in psychoanalytic readings, emphasizing the inherent instability and fluidity of meaning within literary texts.	“Suspicion…feeds on the discrepancy and distance which separates the signifier from its signified” (p. 154).
Post-Structuralism	The article aligns with post-structuralist thought by illustrating the inherent contradictions and ambiguities within texts that defy stable interpretation, showcasing the limitations of traditional critical approaches.	“The unconscious is most effectively misleading when it is caught in the act” (p. 157).

Examples of Critiques Through “The Madness Of Interpretation: Literature And Psychoanalysis” by Shoshana Felman

• Critique of The Turn of the Screw by Henry James:
• Felman’s analysis of Wilson’s reading of The Turn of the Screw illustrates how psychoanalytic criticism can fall into the very traps it seeks to avoid. She argues that Wilson’s attempt to uncover the “truth” behind the governess’s hallucinations only leads him to replicate her own self-deception. Felman critiques this approach by showing that Wilson, like the governess, becomes a “dupe” of the text, failing to recognize the rhetorical traps James sets for both characters and readers. This critique emphasizes the inherent impossibility of mastering the text, as any interpretation ultimately repeats the text’s internal contradictions.
• Critique of Hamlet by William Shakespeare:
• Applying Felman’s insights to Hamlet, one could critique traditional psychoanalytic readings that focus on Hamlet’s Oedipal complex or his supposed madness. Felman would suggest that such readings fall into the same trap of trying to “explain away” the text’s ambiguities, reducing its complexity to a singular psychological interpretation. Just as in The Turn of the Screw, Felman would argue that Hamlet resists such reduction, with its layers of rhetorical and narrative complexity rendering any psychoanalytic “mastery” over the text inherently flawed and self-subversive.
• Critique of Wuthering Heights by Emily Brontë:
• Felman’s ideas can critique psychoanalytic readings of Wuthering Heights that focus on the subconscious drives of characters like Heathcliff and Catherine. Such interpretations might attempt to diagnose their behaviors as manifestations of repressed desires or unresolved childhood traumas. Felman would argue that this approach overlooks the ways in which the novel itself constructs a narrative that entraps both characters and readers in cycles of obsession and self-destruction. Any attempt to “explain” the characters psychoanalytically only replicates the novel’s own labyrinthine structure, where interpretation becomes an endless process of misreading and reinterpretation.
• Critique of The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde:
• Using Felman’s framework, one could critique psychoanalytic readings of The Picture of Dorian Gray that focus on Dorian’s narcissism or the repressed homoerotic desires depicted in the novel. Felman would suggest that such readings miss the point by trying to pin down a singular meaning or psychological “truth” behind the text. Instead, the novel should be seen as a rhetorical trap that plays with the reader’s own desires and anxieties, mirroring Dorian’s own entrapment in his portrait. Any psychoanalytic interpretation that attempts to master the text’s meaning would, according to Felman, be blind to the novel’s subversive critique of the very act of interpretation itself.

Criticism Against “The Madness Of Interpretation: Literature And Psychoanalysis” by Shoshana Felman

• Overemphasis on Psychoanalytic Criticism’s Limitations:
  • Critics may argue that Felman places too much focus on the limitations and pitfalls of psychoanalytic criticism, potentially dismissing the valuable insights and contributions that psychoanalysis can offer to literary interpretation. This overemphasis might be seen as undermining the legitimacy of psychoanalytic methods rather than acknowledging their nuanced applications.
• Complexity and Accessibility of the Argument:
  • Felman’s argument is highly theoretical and complex, which could be criticized for being inaccessible to a broader audience. The intricate layers of her critique, particularly the interplay between deconstruction and psychoanalysis, may alienate readers who are not deeply familiar with these theoretical frameworks.
• Potential Circular Reasoning:
  • Some may argue that Felman’s critique risks falling into circular reasoning, where the assertion that all interpretation is trapped within the text’s rhetoric is itself a form of interpretive entrapment. This could lead to a paradox where any attempt to critique or analyze a text is inherently flawed, making it difficult to propose any meaningful interpretation at all.
• Neglect of Alternative Interpretive Approaches:
  • Felman’s focus on the flaws of psychoanalytic criticism may be seen as neglecting other interpretive approaches that could provide different insights into the text. By concentrating primarily on psychoanalysis, Felman might be criticized for not engaging with or acknowledging the validity of other critical perspectives, such as historical, feminist, or Marxist approaches.
• Undermining the Role of the Reader:
  • Felman’s argument that readers are inevitably trapped by the text’s rhetoric could be criticized for undermining the role of the reader in constructing meaning. This perspective might be seen as disempowering readers, suggesting that they are merely passive participants in the text’s manipulations rather than active agents capable of critical interpretation.

Suggested Readings: “The Madness Of Interpretation: Literature And Psychoanalysis” by Shoshana Felman

1. Felman, Shoshana. Literature and Psychoanalysis: The Question of Reading: Otherwise. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982.
2. Felman, Shoshana. What Does a Woman Want?: Reading and Sexual Difference. The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993.
3. Felman, Shoshana, and Dori Laub. Testimony: Crises of Witnessing in Literature, Psychoanalysis, and History. Routledge, 1992.
4. Rabaté, Jean-Michel. The Future of Theory. Blackwell Publishing, 2002.
5. Brooks, Peter. Psychoanalysis and Storytelling. Blackwell Publishing, 1994.
6. Lacan, Jacques. Écrits: A Selection. Translated by Alan Sheridan, W.W. Norton & Company, 1977.

Representative Quotations from “The Madness Of Interpretation: Literature And Psychoanalysis” by Shoshana Felman with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The desire to be non-dupe, to interpret, i.e., at once uncover and avoid, the very traps of the unconscious.”	This quotation encapsulates the fundamental tension in psychoanalytic criticism, where the critic attempts to uncover hidden meanings in the text while simultaneously trying to avoid being misled by the text’s own rhetoric and unconscious elements.
“James’s text, however, is made of traps and dupery.”	Felman highlights how The Turn of the Screw is deliberately constructed to deceive both its characters and its readers, making it a challenging text for psychoanalytic interpretation, which often underestimates the complexity of such literary traps.
“Suspicion…feeds on the discrepancy and distance which separates the signifier from its signified.”	Here, Felman discusses the role of suspicion in psychoanalytic interpretation, where the critic becomes fixated on the gap between what is said (signifier) and what is meant (signified), often leading to over-interpretation or misreading of the text.
“The trap is but a text, that is, an invitation to the reader, a simple invitation to undertake its reading.”	This quotation underscores Felman’s argument that literary texts like The Turn of the Screw are designed to lure readers into interpretive traps, making the act of reading itself a form of entrapment within the text’s complex rhetorical structure.
“To demystify the governess is only possible on one condition: the condition of repeating the governess’s very gesture.”	Felman points out the paradox in interpreting the governess’s actions in The Turn of the Screw: to critique or demystify her is to fall into the same trap of misreading that she herself falls into, highlighting the cyclical nature of interpretation in complex texts.
“In their attempt to elaborate a speech of mastery…what Wilson and the governess both exclude is nothing other than the threatening power of rhetoric itself.”	Felman critiques the attempts of both Wilson and the governess to control or “master” the text’s meaning, arguing that their efforts overlook the inherent power of rhetoric, which can undermine any attempt at definitive interpretation or mastery.
“In seeking to ‘explain’ and master literature…the psychoanalytic reading, ironically enough, turns out to be a reading which represses the unconscious.”	Felman highlights the irony in psychoanalytic criticism: while it seeks to uncover the unconscious, it often ends up repressing or overlooking the unconscious elements within the text by trying to impose a rigid, explanatory framework.
“To occupy a blind spot is not only to be blind, but in particular, to be blind to one’s own blindness.”	This quotation emphasizes the self-deceptive nature of certain critical positions, where critics may be unaware of their own limitations or biases, particularly when they assume a position of mastery or authority over the text.
“The very act of trying to escape the trap is the proof that one is caught in it.”	Felman illustrates the inescapable nature of interpretive traps within complex texts like The Turn of the Screw, where the reader’s attempts to avoid misinterpretation only further entangle them within the text’s rhetorical structure.
“Les non-dupes errent [non-dupes err], says Lacan.”	Felman invokes Lacan to reinforce her argument that those who believe they can fully understand or master a text without being misled are ultimately mistaken. This quotation highlights the idea that complete mastery of a text is impossible, and attempting to achieve it often leads to error.

Introduction: “The Author As Producer” by Walter Benjamin

“The Author as Producer” by Walter Benjamin was first published in 1934 as part of the collection Understanding a Work of Art. This groundbreaking piece significantly impacted the fields of literature and literary theory by challenging traditional notions of authorship and the relationship between art and society. Benjamin argued that authors should not be passive creators but active participants in the production of culture, aligning themselves with progressive political movements and using their work as a tool for social change. His essay has had a lasting influence on critical theory and continues to be a vital text for understanding the intersection of art, politics, and society.

Summary of “The Author As Producer” by Walter Benjamin

• The Role of Writers in Society: Benjamin begins by referencing Plato’s view on writers, emphasizing that “Plato had a high opinion of the power of literature” but considered it harmful in a perfect society. He relates this to the modern debate on a writer’s autonomy, where writers must decide “in whose service he wishes to place his activity,” reflecting on the socio-political obligations of writers.
• Political and Literary Tendency: Benjamin argues that a work’s political correctness is tied to its literary quality, asserting that “the tendency of a work of literature can be politically correct only if it is also correct in the literary sense.” He critiques the superficial notion of ‘commitment’ in literature, suggesting that political commitment must be integrated with literary innovation.
• Literary Technique as a Means of Analysis: Benjamin shifts focus to the importance of literary technique, stating that it provides a “dialectical starting-point from which the sterile dichotomy of form and content can be surmounted.” He contends that the literary tendencies in a work, whether progressive or regressive, are crucial in evaluating its political and social relevance.
• The Intellectual’s Position in the Class Struggle: Benjamin emphasizes that the intellectual’s role in the class struggle is determined by their position within the production process. He highlights the difference between “merely supplying a production apparatus and changing it,” criticizing those who, even with revolutionary content, fail to challenge the existing bourgeois apparatus.
• Critique of New Objectivity and Reportage: Benjamin critiques the New Objectivity movement, particularly its use of reportage, noting that it has turned “the struggle against misery into an object of consumption.” He argues that this literary approach dilutes the political struggle into mere entertainment, thus failing to incite real change.
• The Need for an Educational Approach in Literature: Benjamin asserts that for a writer to have an organizing function, they must adopt “a teacher’s attitude.” He stresses the importance of producing work that can instruct other writers and involve the audience as collaborators, citing Brecht’s epic theatre as an example of how to transform the production apparatus into a more inclusive and revolutionary tool.
• Epic Theatre and Its Revolutionary Potential: Discussing Brecht’s epic theatre, Benjamin praises its ability to “disclose conditions” by interrupting dramatic processes, thereby forcing the audience to reflect critically. He contrasts this with the modish techniques of the time, emphasizing that the epic theatre “exposes the present,” turning it into an opportunity for social change.
• Conclusion: Reflective Solidarity with the Proletariat: In concluding, Benjamin insists that the only demand on writers is “to think, to reflect upon his position in the production process.” He argues that this reflection will naturally lead the best writers to “confirm very soberly their solidarity with the proletariat,” aligning their work with the broader goals of social transformation.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Author As Producer” by Walter Benjamin

Literary Device or Concept	Explanation	Example from the Text
Dialectical Materialism	A philosophical approach that emphasizes the material basis of society and the role of class struggle in shaping history.	“Social relations, as we know, are determined by production relations.”
Class Struggle	The conflict between different social classes, particularly the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, over the distribution of resources and power.	“He places himself on the side of the proletariat.”
Literary Technique	The methods and tools used by authors to create their works, including narrative structure, characterization, and language.	“This question concerns the function of a work within the literary production relations of its time.”
Montage	A technique used in film and other media to juxtapose different shots or scenes to create a new meaning or effect.	“Brecht, in his selection and treatment of gestures, simply uses the method of montage.”
New Objectivity	A literary and artistic movement that sought to depict the world in a realistic and objective manner, often focusing on the everyday life of ordinary people.	“It launched the fashion for reportage.”
Epic Theater	A form of theater developed by Bertolt Brecht that aims to alienate the audience from the characters and events on stage, encouraging them to think critically about the issues being presented.	“Epic theater does not reproduce conditions; rather, it discloses, it uncovers them.”
Author as Producer	A concept that suggests that authors should not be passive creators but active participants in the production of culture, aligning themselves with progressive political movements and using their work as a tool for social change.	“The Author as Producer” is the title of the essay.
Commitment	A political stance that involves actively working towards a particular goal, often in support of a social or political cause.	“The concept of commitment…is a totally inadequate instrument of political literary criticism.”

Contribution of “The Author As Producer” by Walter Benjamin to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “The Author As Producer” by Walter Benjamin

Literary Work	Critique Based on “The Author as Producer”
Gone Girl by Gillian Flynn	Flynn’s novel, while exploring themes of gender and societal expectations, could be criticized for its portrayal of violence against women and its ultimately ambiguous ending, which some might argue reinforces harmful stereotypes. Benjamin might suggest that the novel could have been more politically effective if it had offered a clearer condemnation of violence and a more empowering ending for the female protagonist.
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Fitzgerald’s classic novel, often praised for its exploration of the American Dream and the excesses of the Jazz Age, could be criticized for its romanticization of wealth and its ultimately tragic portrayal of the protagonist, Jay Gatsby. Benjamin might argue that the novel could have been more politically relevant if it had focused on the social and economic inequalities that contributed to Gatsby’s downfall, rather than simply presenting him as a tragic figure.
1984 by George Orwell	Orwell’s dystopian novel is often praised for its prescient warnings about totalitarianism and surveillance. However, Benjamin might criticize the novel for its pessimistic worldview and its lack of a clear vision for a better future. He might suggest that the novel could have been more politically effective if it had offered a more hopeful message about the possibility of resistance and change.
The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret Atwood	Atwood’s dystopian novel is often praised for its powerful portrayal of gender inequality and the dangers of authoritarian regimes. However, Benjamin might criticize the novel for its focus on individual suffering and its lack of a clear political program for resistance. He might suggest that the novel could have been more politically effective if it had offered a more concrete vision for overthrowing the oppressive regime and creating a more just society.

Criticism Against “The Author As Producer” by Walter Benjamin

Suggested Readings: “The Author As Producer” by Walter Benjamin

Representative Quotations from “The Author As Producer” by Walter Benjamin with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The tendency of a work of literature can be politically correct only if it is also correct in the literary sense.”	Benjamin argues that for literature to be politically effective, it must also be artistically sound. He emphasizes that political and literary tendencies are intertwined, challenging the notion that political content alone can validate a literary work.
“The place of the intellectual in the class struggle can only be determined, or better still chosen, on the basis of his position within the production process.”	This quotation emphasizes the need for intellectuals to understand their role within the broader social and economic structures of production. Benjamin asserts that an intellectual’s position in the class struggle is defined by their relationship to the means of production.
“To supply a production apparatus without trying, within the limits of the possible, to change it, is a highly disputable activity.”	Benjamin criticizes writers who contribute to existing production systems without challenging or attempting to change them. He argues that revolutionary content is insufficient if it does not also aim to transform the apparatus that produces and disseminates literature.
“The correct political tendency of a work extends also to its literary quality: because a political tendency which is correct comprises a literary tendency which is correct.”	This reinforces Benjamin’s thesis that political and literary correctness are inseparable. He insists that a work’s political effectiveness is contingent upon its artistic integrity, highlighting the importance of literary form and technique in achieving political objectives.
“Epic theatre does not reproduce conditions; rather, it discloses, it uncovers them.”	Benjamin praises Brecht’s epic theatre for its ability to reveal underlying social conditions rather than simply depicting them. This approach compels the audience to engage critically with the content, disrupting passive consumption and fostering active reflection.
“A writer who does not teach other writers teaches nobody.”	This quotation underscores the educational role of writers. Benjamin suggests that for a writer to be truly impactful, they must influence and instruct other writers, thereby contributing to the broader literary and political discourse.
“New Objectivity has turned the struggle against misery into an object of consumption.”	Benjamin criticizes the New Objectivity movement for commodifying political struggle, transforming it into a spectacle rather than a catalyst for change. He argues that this approach neutralizes the revolutionary potential of art by making it a subject of passive consumption.
“What we must demand from the photographer is the ability to put such a caption beneath his picture as will rescue it from the ravages of modishness and confer upon it a revolutionary use value.”	Here, Benjamin highlights the importance of contextualizing artistic works to preserve their revolutionary potential. He argues that without proper context, even radical images can be stripped of their meaning and turned into mere objects of fashion or consumption.
“Commitment is a necessary, but never a sufficient, condition for a writer’s work acquiring an organizing function.”	Benjamin acknowledges that while political commitment is essential for a writer, it alone does not suffice. A writer must also possess the skills to organize and mobilize their audience effectively, turning passive readers into active participants in the social struggle.
“The crucial point, therefore, is that a writer’s production must have the character of a model: it must be able to instruct other writers in their production.”	This quotation encapsulates Benjamin’s belief that literature should serve as a model for others. A writer’s work should not only convey ideas but also demonstrate new methods and techniques that other writers can adopt and adapt, thereby advancing the overall literary and political project.

Introduction: “Poetry, Revisionism, And Repression” by Harold Bloom

“Poetry, Revisionism, and Repression” by Harold Bloom, first published in 1973 as a standalone work, stands as a cornerstone of contemporary literary theory. Bloom’s provocative exploration of the psychological dynamics of poetic influence introduced the concept of the “anxiety of influence,” arguing that poets inevitably grapple with the shadow of their predecessors. This seminal work challenged traditional notions of literary history and originality, redefining the creative process as a complex interplay of affirmation and subversion. Bloom’s psychoanalytic lens, combined with his deep engagement with canonical poets, has generated both fervent admiration and critical scrutiny, solidifying his position as a highly influential and controversial figure in literary studies.

Summary of “Poetry, Revisionism, And Repression” by Harold Bloom

Concept/Device	Explanation
Anxiety of Influence	The psychological struggle of a poet to establish their own identity and originality in relation to their poetic predecessors.
Revisionism	The process of reworking or reinterpreting previous poetic traditions to create new and original works.
Repression	A psychological defense mechanism that involves excluding painful or unacceptable thoughts and impulses from consciousness, which Bloom applies to the poet’s relationship with precursors.
Intertextuality	The concept that texts are interconnected and influence each other, shaping their meaning.
Misprision	A creative misreading or misunderstanding of a precursor’s work, leading to the creation of a new poetic interpretation.
Sublime	A quality of greatness or vastness that transcends ordinary human experience, often associated with poetic inspiration.
Counter-Sublime	A concept introduced by Bloom to describe the poet’s struggle against the overwhelming power of the Sublime, through the use of repression and revision.
Poetic Strength	The ability of a poet to overcome the influence of precursors and create a unique and powerful poetic voice.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Poetry, Revisionism, And Repression” by Harold Bloom

1. Central Inquiry into the Text and Psyche: Bloom initiates the discussion by positing a fundamental question about the relationship between the psyche and textual representations, inspired by Jacques Derrida’s inquiries. He asks, “What is a psyche, and what must a text be if it can be represented by a psyche?” suggesting a mutual representational relationship between psyche and text, exploring the meanings of ‘psyche’, ‘text’, and ‘represented’【Quote】.
2. Etymological Foundations: Bloom delves into the origins of the terms ‘psyche’, ‘text’, and ‘represent’, linking them to ancient meanings related to breath, weaving, and being, respectively. He rephrases his question to: “What is a breath, and what must a weaving or a fabrication be so as to come into being again as a breath?” This highlights the existential and creative processes involved in poetry and representation【Quote】.
3. Poetry as a Representation of Psyche: In the context of post-Enlightenment poetry, Bloom argues that a poem functions as a representation of individual stance and word, effectively a “breath”. The text of the poem acts as a rhetorical device, facilitating this representational process through a system of tropes, where the only intention of rhetoric is more rhetoric【Quote】.
4. Poetic and Rhetorical Strength: Bloom explores the concept of the ‘strong poet’, who perceives reality and tradition as texts open to unique interpretations. This stance, influenced by Nietzsche, suggests that strong poets are driven more by pleasure derived from their beliefs in their truths than by the truths themselves. This confronts the ‘commonsensical’ notion of poems having ascertainable meanings independent of other texts【Quote】.
5. Inter-textuality and Literary Dependence: Emphasizing the inter-dependence of texts, Bloom states that every poem is essentially an ‘inter-poem’ that relies on a dense network of literary language, challenging the notion of poems as isolated entities with distinct meanings. He argues that poetic strength and authenticity come from this interconnectedness and the ongoing revision of prior texts【Quote】.
6. Vico’s Influence and Poetic Origins: Bloom credits Vico with the insight that poetic language is always a revision of prior language, asserting that all poets are belated and their creativity involves a process of ‘retroactive meaningfulness’. He discusses the poet’s necessary repression of precursor influences to create something new, which aligns with Vico’s views on poetic and rhetorical origins as defensive mechanisms【Quote】.
7. The Role of Repression in Poetic Creation: Contrary to Freudian perspectives that see good poems as sublimations, Bloom argues that stronger poems manifest through their counterintended effects that continuously contest their overt intentions. He emphasizes the role of imagination in poetic creation, viewing it as a faculty of self-preservation rather than a Freudian unconscious mechanism【Quote】.
8. Poetic Process as Defensive Mechanism: Finally, Bloom characterizes poems not as static texts but as dynamic defensive processes that engage in constant reinterpretation and revision. Each poem is seen as an act of reading itself, engaged in a dialogic process with its precursors and successors. This process involves a ‘dance of substitutions’, where each representation is continuously challenged and reconstituted, highlighting the perpetual interpretative nature of poetry【Quote】.

Contribution of “Poetry, Revisionism, And Repression” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution
Freudian Psychoanalysis	Bloom applies psychoanalytic concepts like repression and the anxiety of influence to understand the poet’s relationship with their predecessors.
Intertextuality	Bloom emphasizes the concept of intertextuality, arguing that poems are always in dialogue with prior poems and literary traditions.
Romanticism	Bloom challenges the Romantic notion of the poet as a solitary genius and instead emphasizes the poet’s struggle with and reworking of past influences.

Examples of Critiques Through “Poetry, Revisionism, And Repression” by Harold Bloom

Criticism Against “Poetry, Revisionism, And Repression” by Harold Bloom

• Overemphasis on Male Poets and Western Canon
• Bloom’s work prioritizes male poets and the Western literary tradition, neglecting the rich contributions of female and marginalized voices. This limited scope excludes diverse poetic traditions and perspectives, hindering a more comprehensive understanding of literary history.
• Psychoanalytic Overdetermination
• Bloom’s excessive reliance on psychoanalytic concepts like repression can oversimplify complex literary phenomena. This focus potentially neglects other critical perspectives and methodologies that can offer valuable insights into poetic creation and interpretation.
• Essentialism of Poetic Genius
• Bloom’s work reinforces the myth of the solitary, male poetic genius. This view ignores the collaborative and communal aspects of poetry creation, as well as the influence of social and cultural factors on the development of poetic voices.
• Neglect of Contextual Factors
• Bloom’s overemphasis on the individual poet can downplay the impact of historical, social, and cultural contexts on poetic creation. A more nuanced understanding acknowledges how power structures, ideologies, and broader historical forces shape the production and reception of poetry.
• Reductionist View of Influence
• Bloom’s concept of the anxiety of influence can oversimplify the complex relationship between poets and their predecessors. It can reduce influence to a power struggle, neglecting the possibility of mutual influence, inspiration, and collaborative dialogue across generations.

Suggested Readings: “Poetry, Revisionism, And Repression” by Harold Bloom

1. Bloom, Harold. The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry. Oxford University Press, 1973.
2. de Man, Paul. “The Resistance to Theory.” Yale French Studies, no. 63, 1982, pp. 3-20.
3. Fite, David. Harold Bloom: The Rhetoric of Romantic Vision. University of Massachusetts Press, 1985.
4. Gallop, Jane. “The Historicization of Literary Studies and the Fate of Psychoanalysis.” PMLA, vol. 102, no. 3, 1987, pp. 307-319.
5. Hamilton, Paul. Metaromanticism: Aesthetics, Literature, Theory. University of Chicago Press, 2003.
6. Moi, Toril. “Appropriating Bourdieu: Feminist Theory and Pierre Bourdieu’s Sociology of Culture.” New Literary History, vol. 22, no. 4, 1991, pp. 1017-1049.
7. Vendler, Helen. Poets Thinking: Pope, Whitman, Dickinson, Yeats. Harvard University Press, 2004.

Representative Quotations from “Poetry, Revisionism, And Repression” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“What is a text, and what must the psyche be if it can be represented by a text?”	Bloom introduces the central theme of his essay, reflecting on the intricate relationship between text and psyche, suggesting that understanding one can lead to insights about the other.
“Psyche’ is ultimately from the Indo-European root bhes, meaning ‘to breathe’, and possibly was imitative in its origins.”	This etymological exploration helps Bloom delve into the inherent liveliness of the psyche, likening it to breath—an essential life force, suggesting that texts may also embody such vital characteristics.
“A breath is at once a word, and a stance for uttering that word, a word and a stance of one’s own.”	Here, Bloom aligns the act of breathing (and thus living) with the creation and expression of poetry, emphasizing poetry as an extension of the self.
“Rhetoric can be seconded only by rhetoric, for all that rhetoric can intend is more rhetoric.”	Bloom critiques the nature of rhetoric in poetry, suggesting that it perpetuates itself and that poetic expression is fundamentally intertextual, reliant on previous texts.
“The strong word and stance issue only from a strict will, a will that dares the error of reading all of reality as a text…”	Bloom discusses the ‘strong poet’s’ audacious approach to interpreting reality as text, reflecting a desire to create meaning where there may be none.
“A poetic ‘text’, as I interpret it, is not a gathering of signs on a page, but is a psychic battlefield…”	This metaphor emphasizes the conflict and struggle within poetry, viewing poems as arenas where various interpretations and meanings clash.
“Every poet is belated, that every poem is an instance of what Freud called Nachträglichkeit or ‘retroactive meaningfulness’.”	Bloom explores the idea that all poets work in the shadow of their predecessors, each text being a reaction to what came before, reinterpreting past ideas and forms.
“A strong poem does not formulate poetic facts any more than strong reading or criticism formulates them…”	He argues that poetry doesn’t convey fixed truths but rather engages readers in an ongoing dialogue that reshapes their understanding continuously.
“Poetic strength ensues when such lying persuades the reader that his own origin has been reimagined by the poem.”	Bloom views the deception in poetry as a strength if it can deeply affect the reader’s perception of their own identity and reality.
“Poems are not psyches, nor things, nor are they renewable archetypes in a verbal universe, nor are they architectonic units of balanced stresses. They are defensive processes in constant change…”	This highlights the dynamic, ever-evolving nature of poems, which are not static but are constantly interpreted and reinterpreted through reading and critical engagement.