August 28, 2024 - English Studies

“The Mother” by Gwendolyn Brooks: A Critical Analysis

“The Mother” by Gwendolyn Brooks first appeared in 1945 within her groundbreaking collection, A Street in Bronzeville.

Introduction: “The Mother” by Gwendolyn Brooks

“The Mother” by Gwendolyn Brooks first appeared in 1945 within her groundbreaking collection, A Street in Bronzeville. This powerful poem delves into the profound and complex emotions of a woman grappling with the aftermath of abortion. Brooks employs stark imagery and a raw, confessional tone to explore themes of loss, guilt, and the enduring impact of such a decision. The poem’s strength lies in its unflinching honesty, offering a poignant and unfeared examination of a taboo subject, ultimately elevating it to a universal exploration of motherhood and regret.

Text: “The Mother” by Gwendolyn Brooks

Abortions will not let you forget.

You remember the children you got that you did not get,

The damp small pulps with a little or with no hair,

The singers and workers that never handled the air.

You will never neglect or beat

Them, or silence or buy with a sweet.

You will never wind up the sucking-thumb

Or scuttle off ghosts that come.

You will never leave them, controlling your luscious sigh,

Return for a snack of them, with gobbling mother-eye.

I have heard in the voices of the wind the voices of my dim killed children.

I have contracted. I have eased

My dim dears at the breasts they could never suck.

I have said, Sweets, if I sinned, if I seized

Your luck

And your lives from your unfinished reach,

If I stole your births and your names,

Your straight baby tears and your games,

Your stilted or lovely loves, your tumults, your marriages, aches, and your deaths,

If I poisoned the beginnings of your breaths,

Believe that even in my deliberateness I was not deliberate.

Though why should I whine,

Whine that the crime was other than mine?—

Since anyhow you are dead.

Or rather, or instead,

You were never made.

But that too, I am afraid,

Is faulty: oh, what shall I say, how is the truth to be said?

You were born, you had body, you died.

It is just that you never giggled or planned or cried.

Believe me, I loved you all.

Believe me, I knew you, though faintly, and I loved, I loved you

All.

Annotations: “The Mother” by Gwendolyn Brooks

Line	Annotation
Abortions will not let you forget.	The speaker acknowledges the haunting nature of abortions.
You remember the children you got	The speaker refers to the children she carried to term.
that you did not get,	The speaker emphasizes the loss of the aborted children.
The damp small pulps with a little or with no hair,	The speaker describes the aborted fetuses in visceral terms.
The singers and workers that never handled the air.	The speaker imagines the potential lives the aborted children could have lived.
You will never neglect or beat	The speaker contrasts the care she could have given the aborted children with the neglect they might have faced.
Them, or silence or buy with a sweet.	The speaker continues to explore the hypothetical care she could have provided.
You will never wind up the sucking-thumb	The speaker imagines comforting gestures she could have made.
Or scuttle off ghosts that come.	The speaker references the haunting presence of the lost children.
You will never leave them,	The speaker suggests the guilt she feels for not being there for the aborted children.
controlling your luscious sigh,	The speaker hints at the emotional turmoil she experiences.
Return for a snack of them, with gobbling mother-eye.	The speaker uses a morbid image to convey her deep longing for the lost children.
I have heard in the voices of the wind the voices of my dim killed children.	The speaker suggests a supernatural connection to the aborted children.
I have contracted. I have eased	The speaker describes her emotional response to the loss.
My dim dears at the breasts they could never suck.	The speaker imagines nurturing the aborted children.
I have said, Sweets, if I sinned, if I seized	The speaker questions her own actions and morality.
Your luck And your lives from your unfinished reach,	The speaker acknowledges the impact of her choices on the aborted children.
If I stole your births and your names,	The speaker continues to explore the consequences of her actions.
Your straight baby tears and your games,	The speaker imagines the joys and challenges the aborted children could have experienced.
Your stilted or lovely loves, your tumults, your marriages, aches, and your deaths,	The speaker contemplates the full spectrum of life experiences the aborted children could have had.
If I poisoned the beginnings of your breaths,	The speaker emphasizes the irreversible nature of her choices.
Believe that even in my deliberateness I was not deliberate.	The speaker suggests that her decision was not made with malice.
Though why should I whine, Whine that the crime was other than mine?—	The speaker questions the value of self-pity.
Since anyhow you are dead.	The speaker acknowledges the finality of the abortions.
Or rather, or instead,	The speaker offers an alternative perspective on the situation.
You were never made.	The speaker suggests that the aborted children may not have existed at all.
But that too, I am afraid,	The speaker expresses uncertainty about the nature of reality.
Is faulty: oh, what shall I say, how is the truth to be said?	The speaker struggles to find words to express the complexities of her experience.
You were born, you had body, you died.	The speaker asserts the reality of the aborted children’s existence, even if it was brief.
It is just that you never giggled or planned or cried.	The speaker emphasizes the missed opportunities of the aborted children’s lives.
Believe me, I loved you all.	The speaker reaffirms her love for the aborted children.
Believe me, I knew you, though faintly, and I loved, I loved you All.	The speaker expresses her deep affection for the children she lost.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Mother” by Gwendolyn Brooks

Device	Definition	Explanation	Example from Poem
Alliteration	Repetition of initial consonant sounds in close proximity.	Used to create rhythm and a sense of unity in the phrases.	“Sweets, if I sinned, if I seized”
Anaphora	Repetition of the same word or phrase at the beginning of successive lines.	Emphasizes the relentless memories and the weight of the decisions made.	“You will never neglect or beat / You will never wind up the sucking-thumb”
Apostrophe	Addressing someone absent or a personified abstraction.	Brooks addresses her unborn children, a poignant personification of her thoughts and feelings of loss.	“Believe me, I loved you all.”
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within words in close proximity.	Contributes to the musical quality of the poem and enhances mood.	“The singers and workers that never handled the air.”
Caesura	A natural pause or break in a line of poetry, usually near the middle.	Creates a pause for emphasis, reflecting the mother’s contemplation and inner conflict.	“I have eased / My dim dears at the breasts they could never suck.”
Consonance	Repetition of consonant sounds, typically at the end of words.	Adds a lyrical sound and emphasizes the harsh realities and the repetitive thoughts of the mother.	“Your straight baby tears and your games,”
Enjambment	Continuing a line after the line break without a major pause.	Conveys the ongoing nature of the mother’s thoughts and emotions, reflecting her inability to separate her feelings from her everyday reality.	“You were born, you had body, you died. / It is just that you never giggled or planned or cried.”
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for emphasis or rhetorical effect.	Illustrates the depth of the mother’s emotional pain and guilt.	“You will never wind up the sucking-thumb / Or scuttle off ghosts that come.”
Imagery	Visually descriptive or figurative language.	Provides vivid images to evoke feelings that mirror the mother’s emotional state regarding her abortions.	“The damp small pulps with a little or with no hair,”
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality.	The title “The Mother” itself is ironic considering the theme of abortion; it challenges the conventional definition of motherhood.	The whole poem is an example of situational irony.
Metaphor	A direct comparison between two unrelated subjects without using “like” or “as.”	Used to make a comparison that highlights the intensity of the emotions involved.	“I have heard in the voices of the wind the voices of my dim killed children.”
Paradox	A statement that contradicts itself but still seems true.	Reflects the complex feelings of guilt and justification the mother experiences.	“Believe that even in my deliberateness I was not deliberate.”
Personification	Attributing human characteristics to non-human things.	Personifies the unborn children, giving them qualities and actions they never had the chance to manifest, deepening the emotional impact of their absence.	“The singers and workers that never handled the air.”
Repetition	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis and effect.	Used throughout the poem to emphasize the mother’s ongoing struggle with her memories and guilt.	“You will never” repeated multiple times.
Rhyme	Correspondence of sound between words or the endings of words.	Sparse in the poem, which may reflect the disjointed and fragmented thoughts of the mother.	“forget” and “get” in the first two lines.
Simile	A comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as.”	Rare in this poem, but would typically be used to make explicit comparisons to help readers visualize concepts or emotions.	Not explicitly used in this poem.
Symbolism	Use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities by giving them symbolic meanings.	Various elements in the poem symbolize broader themes of loss, regret, and the unfulfilled potential of the unborn.	“The damp small pulps” symbolizing unrealized lives.
Synecdoche	A figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole.	Utilizes a part of something to refer to the whole, often to emphasize a specific aspect of a larger theme.	“My dim dears at the breasts they could never suck” uses “breasts” to represent motherly nurturing.
Tone	The attitude or approach that the author takes toward the work’s theme.	The tone is mournful and reflective, characterized by a profound sense of loss and regret.	The overall contemplative and sorrowful expression throughout the poem.
Zeugma	Use of a word in a way that modifies or governs two or more other words.	Typically used for stylistic effect to create a dramatic contrast or to enhance the emotional expression in the poem.	“I have eased / My dim dears at the breasts they could never suck.” The word “eased” governs multiple actions.

Themes: “The Mother” by Gwendolyn Brooks

1. The Haunting Presence of Loss: Brooks’ poem delves deeply into the profound and enduring impact of abortion on a mother. The speaker is haunted by the children she lost, imagining their potential lives and the experiences they could have had. This loss is not merely a fleeting memory but a constant presence that shapes her thoughts, emotions, and identity. Phrases like “Abortions will not let you forget” and “The singers and workers that never handled the air” highlight the persistent grief and longing that the speaker experiences.

2. Guilt and Regret: The speaker is burdened by a complex interplay of guilt and regret over her decision to terminate her pregnancies. She questions her own morality, wondering if she could have made different choices or if her circumstances were beyond her control. The poem explores the internal conflict and self-blame that can arise from such a decision. Lines such as “I have said, Sweets, if I sinned” and “If I poisoned the beginnings of your breaths” reveal the speaker’s deep-seated remorse and the weight of her choices.

3. The Ambiguity of Existence: Brooks’ poem raises profound philosophical questions about the nature of existence and the meaning of life. The speaker contemplates whether the aborted children ever truly existed or if they were merely potential lives. The poem delves into the complexities of these questions, exploring the boundaries between life and non-life, and the impact of human choices on the trajectory of existence. Lines like “You were born, you had body, you died” and “Or rather, or instead, You were never made” challenge the reader to consider the profound implications of abortion and the fragility of human life.

4. The Power of Love and Imagination: Despite the pain and loss she experiences, the speaker’s love for her children remains unwavering. She imagines their lives, their personalities, and the experiences they could have had. This imaginative capacity allows her to connect with her lost children on a deep emotional level, even in the absence of physical presence. Lines like “Believe me, I loved you all” and “Believe me, I knew you, though faintly, and I loved, I loved you All” demonstrate the enduring power of love and the human capacity for imagination, even in the face of tragedy.

Literary Theories and “The Mother” by Gwendolyn Brooks

Literary Theory	Application to “The Mother”	References
Psychoanalysis	The poem can be analyzed through a psychoanalytic lens, focusing on the speaker’s unconscious desires, fears, and guilt related to abortion. The speaker’s internal conflict, guilt, and longing can be interpreted as manifestations of unresolved emotional trauma.	“Abortions will not let you forget,” “I have said, Sweets, if I sinned,” “I have eased My dim dears at the breasts they could never suck”
Feminist Criticism	A feminist reading of the poem can explore the ways in which the speaker’s experience of abortion is shaped by societal expectations and gender roles. The poem can be seen as a critique of patriarchal norms that often place the burden of reproductive choices on women.	“The damp small pulps with a little or with no hair,” “You will never neglect or beat Them, or silence or buy with a sweet,” “I have contracted. I have eased My dim dears at the breasts they could never suck”
Existentialism	An existentialist interpretation of the poem can focus on the speaker’s search for meaning and purpose in the face of loss and uncertainty. The poem can be seen as an exploration of the human condition, the fragility of life, and the existential questions that arise from confronting mortality.	“Or rather, or instead, You were never made,” “But that too, I am afraid, Is faulty: oh, what shall I say, how is the truth to be said?” “It is just that you never giggled or planned or cried”

Critical Questions about “The Mother” by Gwendolyn Brooks

What role does memory play in shaping the speaker’s experience of loss?

In “The Mother,” memory acts as a relentless force that prevents the speaker from escaping the emotional repercussions of her past decisions. Brooks uses repetition and anaphora to underscore the persistence of these memories: “You remember the children you got that you did not get” and the repeated “You will never” phrases highlight how past actions continually shape the speaker’s present emotional landscape. This constant invocation of memory serves as a painful reminder, ensuring that the children she did not have remain a perpetual presence in her life, influencing her identity and emotional state.
How does Brooks utilize imagery to convey the theme of loss and unrealized potential?
Brooks employs visceral and poignant imagery to portray the profound sense of loss and the unrealized potential of the unborn children. Descriptions like “The damp small pulps with a little or with no hair,” evoke a vivid image of what has been lost, emphasizing their underdeveloped state and the naturalness of their existence that was never fully realized. This imagery not only humanizes the unborn but also intensifies the emotional impact of their absence, allowing the reader to feel the tangible void they leave behind, thereby magnifying the mother’s grief and loss.

In what ways does the poem challenge traditional notions of motherhood?
“The Mother” challenges traditional notions of motherhood through its exploration of abortion, a topic that inherently contests societal expectations of maternal instincts and duties. The poem’s title itself is ironic, presenting a paradox between the identity of a mother and the act of abortion. Brooks further complicates this by expressing deep maternal love and grief for the unborn: “Believe me, I loved you all.” Through this, she suggests that maternal feelings are not confined to children who have been born and that motherhood can encompass complex, contradictory emotions and experiences.
What is the significance of the poem’s structure in conveying its message?

The structure of “The Mother,” characterized by enjambment and a lack of consistent rhyme, mirrors the tumultuous and fragmented emotional state of the speaker. The use of enjambment, as seen in lines like “You were born, you had body, you died. / It is just that you never giggled or planned or cried,” allows thoughts to spill over from one line to the next, reflecting the ongoing nature of the speaker’s grief and the continuity of her thought process. This structural choice enhances the raw and unstructured reality of the speaker’s emotional landscape, making the poem’s message more immediate and impactful.

Literary Works Similar to “The Mother” by Gwendolyn Brooks

“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: Both poems explore themes of isolation, alienation, and the fear of aging.
“The Second Coming” by William Butler Yeats: Both poems evoke a sense of impending doom and the breakdown of societal structures.

“Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen: Both poems address the horrors of war and the loss of human life.
“Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe: Both poems explore themes of love, loss, and the supernatural.
“I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” by William Wordsworth: Both poems feature a speaker who reflects on nature and the passage of time.

Representative Quotations of “The Mother” by Gwendolyn Brooks

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Abortions will not let you forget.”	The speaker acknowledges the enduring impact of abortion on her life.	Psychoanalysis: This line reveals the speaker’s unresolved emotional trauma and the haunting presence of her lost children.
“The damp small pulps with a little or with no hair,”	The speaker describes the aborted fetuses in visceral terms.	Feminist Criticism: This image challenges traditional gender roles and highlights the physical and emotional toll of abortion on women.
“I have said, Sweets, if I sinned, if I seized Your luck And your lives from your unfinished reach,”	The speaker questions her own morality and the impact of her choices.	Existentialism: This quotation explores the speaker’s search for meaning and purpose in the face of loss and uncertainty.
“Believe that even in my deliberateness I was not deliberate.”	The speaker suggests that her decision was not made with malice.	Psychoanalysis: This line reveals the speaker’s internal conflict and the ways in which she attempts to justify her actions.
“You were born, you had body, you died.”	The speaker asserts the reality of the aborted children’s existence, even if it was brief.	Existentialism: This statement challenges the traditional understanding of life and death, suggesting that existence can be fleeting and fragile.

“Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats: A Critical Analysis

“Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats, first published in 1928 in the collection “The Tower,” is renowned for its exploration of aging and mortality.

Introduction: “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats

“Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats, first published in 1928 in the collection “The Tower,” is renowned for its exploration of aging and mortality, as well as its yearning for a timeless, spiritual realm. Yeats’ use of intricate imagery and symbolism, particularly his comparison of the human body to a decaying vessel, creates a powerful and haunting atmosphere. The poem’s rhythmic structure and rich language contribute to its enduring appeal.

Text: “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats

That is no country for old men. The young

In one another’s arms, birds in the trees,

—Those dying generations—at their song,

The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas,

Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long

Whatever is begotten, born, and dies.

Caught in that sensual music all neglect

Monuments of unageing intellect.

An aged man is but a paltry thing,

A tattered coat upon a stick, unless

Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing

For every tatter in its mortal dress,

Nor is there singing school but studying

Monuments of its own magnificence;

And therefore I have sailed the seas and come

To the holy city of Byzantium.

III

O sages standing in God’s holy fire

As in the gold mosaic of a wall,

Come from the holy fire, perne in a gyre,

And be the singing-masters of my soul.

Consume my heart away; sick with desire

And fastened to a dying animal

It knows not what it is; and gather me

Into the artifice of eternity.

Once out of nature I shall never take

My bodily form from any natural thing,

But such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make

Of hammered gold and gold enamelling

To keep a drowsy Emperor awake;

Or set upon a golden bough to sing

To lords and ladies of Byzantium

Of what is past, or passing, or to come.

Annotations: “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats

Line Number	Text	Annotation
1	That is no country for old men.	Yeats suggests that the natural world, with its youth and vitality, is not suitable for the elderly.
2	The young	Referring to the younger generation, full of energy and life.
3	In one another’s arms, birds in the trees,	Imagery of youthful love and the natural world’s vitality.
4	—Those dying generations—at their song,	A reference to the passing of time and the inevitability of death.
5	The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas,	Images of natural abundance and vitality.
6	Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long	A celebration of the natural world and its reproductive cycle.
7	Whatever is begotten, born, and dies.	The cycle of life and death.
8	Caught in that sensual music all neglect	The speaker suggests that people are too absorbed in the sensual pleasures of life to appreciate intellectual pursuits.
9	Monuments of unageing intellect.	A metaphor for timeless wisdom and knowledge.
10	An aged man is but a paltry thing,	A description of the physical decline of old age.
11	A tattered coat upon a stick, unless	A metaphor for the physical frailty of the elderly.
12	Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing	A call for spiritual vitality and a refusal to succumb to the limitations of old age.
13	For every tatter in its mortal dress,	A reference to the physical signs of aging.
14	Nor is there singing school but studying	A suggestion that spiritual growth requires intellectual pursuits.
15	Monuments of its own magnificence;	A reference to the timeless works of art and literature.
16	And therefore I have sailed the seas and come	The speaker’s journey to Byzantium, a symbol of a timeless, spiritual realm.
17	To the holy city of Byzantium.	A place associated with eternal beauty and wisdom.
18	O sages standing in God’s holy fire	A reference to the wise and immortal beings of Byzantium.
19	As in the gold mosaic of a wall,	A metaphor for the eternal beauty and wisdom of Byzantium.
20	Come from the holy fire, perne in a gyre,	A request for guidance and wisdom from the immortal beings.
21	And be the singing-masters of my soul.	A desire to be transformed by the wisdom and beauty of Byzantium.
22	Consume my heart away; sick with desire	A passionate longing for spiritual transformation.
23	And fastened to a dying animal	A reference to the speaker’s mortal body.
24	It knows not what it is; and gather me	A plea to be freed from the limitations of mortality.
25	Into the artifice of eternity.	A desire to be transformed into something eternal and artificial.
26	Once out of nature I shall never take	A rejection of the natural world and its limitations.
27	My bodily form from any natural thing,	A desire for an artificial, timeless form.
28	But such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make	A reference to the beauty and craftsmanship of ancient Greek art.
29	Of hammered gold and gold enamelling	A description of a beautiful and enduring object.
30	To keep a drowsy Emperor awake;	A metaphor for the eternal vigilance required for spiritual enlightenment.
31	Or set upon a golden bough to sing	A vision of the speaker as a timeless and beautiful being.
32	To lords and ladies of Byzantium	A reference to the immortal beings of Byzantium.
33	Of what is past, or passing, or to come.	A suggestion that the speaker will possess timeless wisdom and knowledge.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats

Literary/Poetic Device	Definition	Explanation	Function in “Sailing to Byzantium”
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words	Example: “Fish, flesh, or fowl”	Emphasizes the connection between nature’s creations and the transient nature of life.
Allusion	Reference to another work of literature, person, or event	Example: “Byzantium” refers to the ancient city of Byzantium	Creates a symbolic representation of a spiritual and eternal realm, contrasting with the mortal world.
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses	Example: “Nor is there singing school but studying”	Reinforces the idea of the soul’s journey toward eternal wisdom and knowledge.
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within non-rhyming words	Example: “That is no country for old men”	Creates a musical quality and emphasizes the contrast between youth and age.
Caesura	A pause in a line of poetry, often marked by punctuation	Example: “An aged man is but a paltry thing,”	Adds a dramatic pause, emphasizing the insignificance of the aging body without the soul’s vitality.
Consonance	Repetition of consonant sounds within words	Example: “Soul clap its hands and sing”	Enhances the rhythm and musicality of the poem, reinforcing its themes of vitality and eternity.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line	Example: “Caught in that sensual music all neglect / Monuments of unageing intellect.”	Reflects the ongoing nature of life and the soul’s journey, creating a flow between lines.
Epiphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses	Example: “And louder sing / For every tatter in its mortal dress”	Emphasizes the soul’s desire for transcendence and spiritual expression.
Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses	Example: “The salmon-falls, the mackerel-crowded seas”	Vividly depicts the natural world and its temporal beauty, contrasting with the eternal city of Byzantium.
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality	Example: The idea of an “aged man” being “a paltry thing”	Highlights the paradox of aging, where physical decline contrasts with the potential for spiritual growth.
Metaphor	A figure of speech comparing two unlike things without using “like” or “as”	Example: “A tattered coat upon a stick”	Compares an old man to a scarecrow, illustrating the physical decay of aging.
Metonymy	A figure of speech where something is referred to by the name of something closely associated with it	Example: “Monuments of unageing intellect”	Represents cultural and intellectual achievements that transcend time.
Oxymoron	A figure of speech that combines contradictory terms	Example: “Monuments of unageing intellect”	Highlights the contrast between the temporal physical world and the eternal world of intellect and art.
Personification	Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities	Example: “Soul clap its hands and sing”	Gives human qualities to the soul, illustrating its active pursuit of eternal knowledge.
Repetition	Repeating a word or phrase for emphasis	Example: “Sing, and louder sing”	Reinforces the idea of spiritual awakening and the soul’s relentless pursuit of eternal truths.
Simile	A figure of speech comparing two unlike things using “like” or “as”	Example: “As in the gold mosaic of a wall”	Compares the sages to figures in a mosaic, emphasizing their permanence and divine wisdom.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities	Example: “Byzantium” symbolizes a place of eternal art and intellect	Represents the spiritual journey and the quest for immortality through art and intellect.
Synecdoche	A figure of speech where a part is made to represent the whole	Example: “Fish, flesh, or fowl”	Represents all living beings, emphasizing the transient nature of life.
Tone	The attitude or approach that the author takes toward the work’s central theme or subject	Example: Reflective and somber	The tone reflects the speaker’s contemplation of mortality and the desire for spiritual transcendence.
Verse	A single line of poetry or a specific section of a poem	Example: “That is no country for old men. The young / In one another’s arms”	Each verse contributes to the overall structure and thematic development of the poem, with varying line lengths reflecting the complexity of the speaker’s thoughts.

Themes: “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats

Aging and Mortality: “Sailing to Byzantium” grapples with the inevitability of aging and the decline of the human body. In the opening stanza, the speaker laments that “That is no country for old men,” highlighting a world preoccupied with youth, vitality, and the sensual pleasures of life, leaving little space for the elderly. The phrase “An aged man is but a paltry thing, / A tattered coat upon a stick” in the second stanza vividly depicts the physical decay associated with aging, likening the old man to a scarecrow, devoid of vigor unless animated by the soul’s aspirations. This theme reflects Yeats’ meditation on the tension between the ephemeral nature of human life and the desire for something more enduring.
The Quest for Immortality: The poem explores the theme of seeking immortality, particularly through art and intellectual achievements. The speaker desires to escape the cycle of birth, life, and death, expressing this in the lines, “And therefore I have sailed the seas and come / To the holy city of Byzantium.” Byzantium symbolizes a realm of timeless art and intellectual transcendence, where the soul can achieve immortality. The speaker yearns to be gathered “Into the artifice of eternity,” suggesting that through the creation of enduring art, one can achieve a form of immortality, beyond the limitations of the physical body.

The Contrast Between the Physical and the Spiritual: The poem presents a stark contrast between the physical world, characterized by sensuality and decay, and the spiritual realm, which is associated with eternal truth and beauty. In the first stanza, the physical world is depicted as full of life but ultimately transient, as “Whatever is begotten, born, and dies.” In contrast, the spiritual realm of Byzantium, described in the third and fourth stanzas, is eternal, where the sages stand “in God’s holy fire,” representing divine wisdom. The speaker’s desire to leave behind the “dying animal” of the body and be transformed into a form of spiritual art underscores this dichotomy between the fleeting nature of physical existence and the permanence of the spiritual.
The Role of Art and the Artist: “Sailing to Byzantium” also reflects on the role of art and the artist in transcending the limitations of human existence. The speaker imagines becoming a form of art, “such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make / Of hammered gold and gold enamelling,” which would allow him to escape the cycle of life and death. The artifice of eternity mentioned in the poem suggests that art has the power to capture and preserve human experiences, emotions, and intellect long after the artist’s physical death. This theme emphasizes Yeats’ belief in the enduring power of art to convey deeper truths and to offer a pathway to immortality for both the artist and the subject.

Literary Theories and “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats

Literary Theory	Explanation	Application to “Sailing to Byzantium”	References from the Poem
New Criticism	Focuses on close reading of the text, emphasizing the unity of form and content.	New Criticism would analyze the poem’s use of symbolism, imagery, and structure to explore its themes of aging, mortality, and immortality.	The repetition of words like “sing” and “monuments” and symbols like “Byzantium” and “gold” contribute to the poem’s unified exploration of transcending the physical world through art and intellect.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Analyzes the unconscious desires, fears, and motivations of the characters or speaker.	From a psychoanalytic perspective, the poem can be seen as an exploration of the speaker’s unconscious fear of death and aging, and a desire for immortality. The journey to Byzantium can be interpreted as a symbolic attempt to transcend these fears by seeking solace in the eternal.	The speaker’s description of the aging body as a “tattered coat upon a stick” reflects a deep-seated fear of physical decay. The desire to be “gathered into the artifice of eternity” suggests a longing to escape mortality.
Mythological/Archetypal Criticism	Focuses on the use of universal symbols, myths, and archetypes in the text.	Mythological criticism would analyze Byzantium as a symbol of an idealized, eternal world, drawing on archetypes of the journey, transformation, and the pursuit of spiritual wisdom.	Byzantium is portrayed as a mythical city representing an eternal realm of art and intellect. The speaker’s journey symbolizes a quest for spiritual enlightenment, akin to archetypal journeys found in myths and religious texts.

Critical Questions about “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats

How does “Sailing to Byzantium” reflect Yeats’ views on aging and the role of the elderly in society?

The poem opens with the line, “That is no country for old men,” immediately setting the tone for a reflection on the place of the elderly in a world dominated by youth and physical vitality. Yeats contrasts the vibrancy of the young with the perceived insignificance of the old, who are described as “a tattered coat upon a stick.” This imagery suggests that, without intellectual or spiritual engagement, the elderly are reduced to mere shadows of their former selves. The poem raises questions about how society values or devalues its older members and whether there is a place for them in a world focused on the sensual and the immediate. By seeking refuge in Byzantium, a city symbolizing eternal wisdom and artistic achievement, the speaker suggests that true fulfillment for the elderly lies in the realm of the mind and spirit, rather than in the physical world.
What role does the concept of immortality play in “Sailing to Byzantium,” and how does Yeats envision achieving it?
Immortality is a central theme in the poem, with the speaker expressing a deep yearning to transcend the limitations of the mortal body and achieve a state of eternal existence. Byzantium, the “holy city,” represents a place where the soul can escape the cycle of birth and death and attain immortality through art and intellect. The speaker’s desire to be transformed into a golden bird, “set upon a golden bough to sing,” symbolizes a wish to become an eternal artifact, free from the ravages of time. This transformation reflects Yeats’ belief in the power of art to outlast the physical body and preserve the essence of the soul for eternity. The poem prompts readers to consider whether immortality is attainable through creative expression and whether the pursuit of eternal life diminishes the value of the temporal, physical world.

How does Yeats use symbolism in “Sailing to Byzantium” to convey the tension between the physical and spiritual realms?
Symbolism is heavily employed in the poem to explore the dichotomy between the transient, physical world and the eternal, spiritual realm. The “young in one another’s arms, birds in the trees” symbolizes the vitality and sensual pleasures of the physical world, which are fleeting and ultimately unsatisfying in the face of mortality. In contrast, Byzantium represents the spiritual world, a place of “monuments of unageing intellect,” where art and wisdom are eternal. The speaker’s journey from the physical world to Byzantium symbolizes a shift from a focus on the sensual and material to the intellectual and spiritual. This journey reflects the tension between the desire to remain connected to the physical world and the longing to transcend it in pursuit of something more permanent and meaningful.
In what ways does “Sailing to Byzantium” explore the theme of artistic creation and its relationship to the human experience?

The poem delves into the idea that artistic creation is a means of transcending the human experience and achieving a form of immortality. The speaker’s wish to be transformed into a golden artifact, crafted by “Grecian goldsmiths,” symbolizes the desire to become part of an eternal artistic tradition, one that outlasts the physical body. By envisioning himself as a work of art, the speaker seeks to escape the inevitability of aging and death, suggesting that art has the power to preserve the essence of the human spirit beyond the confines of time. The poem raises questions about the role of the artist in society and whether the creation of art can provide a means of overcoming the limitations of the human condition. It also reflects Yeats’ own concerns with the enduring value of his work and the possibility of achieving lasting significance through artistic expression.

Literary Works Similar to “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats

“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: Both poems explore themes of aging, mortality, and the limitations of human existence.
“Ode on a Grecian Urn” by John Keats: Both poems celebrate the beauty and permanence of art, contrasting it with the fleeting nature of human life.

“The Second Coming” by W.B. Yeats: Both poems express a sense of impending doom and a longing for a new order.
“To Autumn” by John Keats: Both poems celebrate the beauty and richness of the natural world, while also acknowledging the inevitability of change.
“Dover Beach” by Matthew Arnold: Both poems explore themes of disillusionment, despair, and the search for meaning in a world devoid of spiritual certainty.

Representative Quotations of “Sailing to Byzantium” by W.B. Yeats

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“That is no country for old men.”	This line opens the poem, setting the stage for the speaker’s reflection on aging and the youthful world that neglects the elderly.	New Criticism: Analyzes the contrast between youth and age, highlighting the poem’s exploration of life’s temporal nature.
“An aged man is but a paltry thing, / A tattered coat upon a stick.”	The speaker laments the physical decay that accompanies aging, using vivid imagery to convey the frailty of the elderly.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Reflects the speaker’s fear of aging and the loss of vitality, suggesting a deep-seated anxiety about mortality.
“Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing / For every tatter in its mortal dress.”	The speaker emphasizes the importance of the soul’s vitality over the body’s decline, seeking spiritual fulfillment.	Spiritual/Metaphysical Criticism: Focuses on the soul’s quest for eternal life, transcending the limitations of the physical body.
“Monuments of unageing intellect.”	The speaker contrasts the fleeting nature of physical life with the eternal legacy of intellectual and artistic achievements.	Archetypal Criticism: Considers the symbolic significance of eternal monuments as representing humanity’s collective quest for immortality through art and knowledge.
“Once out of nature I shall never take / My bodily form from any natural thing.”	The speaker expresses a desire to escape the cycle of birth and death by becoming an eternal artistic creation in Byzantium.	Mythological/Archetypal Criticism: Interprets the speaker’s transformation as part of the archetypal hero’s journey, seeking transcendence in a mythical, eternal realm.

“On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley: A Critical Analysis

“On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley first appeared in 1773 in the collection Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral.

Introduction: “On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley

“On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley first appeared in 1773 in the collection Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral. This groundbreaking work, written by an enslaved African woman, is celebrated for its poetic skill, religious themes, and critique of slavery. The poem explores the complex experiences of the enslaved and questions the morality of the transatlantic slave trade. Wheatley’s powerful message, coupled with her exceptional talent, made her a significant figure in American literature.

Text: “On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley

‘Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land,

Taught my benighted soul to understand

That there’s a God, that there’s a Saviour too:

Once I redemption neither sought nor knew.

Some view our sable race with scornful eye,

“Their colour is a diabolic die.”

Remember, Christians, Negros, black as Cain,

May be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train.

Annotations: “On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley

Line Number	Text	Annotation
1	‘Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land,	The speaker reflects on her journey from Africa to America, viewing it as an act of divine mercy that rescued her from a pagan (non-Christian) life.
2	Taught my benighted soul to understand	“Benighted” refers to being in a state of moral or intellectual darkness. Here, it suggests that the speaker was enlightened about God and religion after arriving in America.
3	That there’s a God, that there’s a Saviour too:	This line affirms the speaker’s newfound Christian faith, recognizing both God and Jesus as her savior.
4	Once I redemption neither sought nor knew.	The speaker admits that before her conversion, she was unaware of and uninterested in Christian redemption.
5	Some view our sable race with scornful eye,	“Sable race” refers to black people, acknowledging that they are often looked upon with contempt and prejudice.
6	“Their colour is a diabolic die.”	This line includes a direct quote that illustrates the racist belief equating black skin with evil or sin (here, “die” probably means “dye,” referring to skin color).
7	Remember, Christians, Negros, black as Cain,	The speaker calls on Christians to remember that black people, though stigmatized like the biblical Cain, are capable of spiritual refinement and salvation.
8	May be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train.	Concludes with a hopeful note that black individuals can be purified and ascend to heaven, joining the angels.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley

Literary Device	Definition	Example	Function
Allusion	A reference to a famous person, place, event, or work of literature	“Remember, Christians, Negros, black as Cain” (referencing the biblical figure Cain)	Connects the poem to a well-known story, reinforcing the theme of redemption and sin.
Apostrophe	Addressing someone or something absent or inanimate as if it were present and capable of understanding	“Some view our sable race with scornful eye”	Directly addresses those who hold prejudiced views about African Americans, heightening the emotional impact.
Contrast	The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas or images	“Once I redemption neither sought nor knew” (contrasts with the current state of understanding)	Emphasizes the transformative power of religion and education.
Diction	The author’s choice of words	“benighted soul” (suggests ignorance and darkness)	Creates a sense of spiritual darkness before conversion.
Imagery	The use of vivid language to create mental images	“sable race” (evokes images of darkness and mystery)	Reinforces the theme of racial prejudice.
Irony	A contrast between what is expected or intended and what actually happens	“Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land” (suggests that slavery was a mercy)	Creates a sense of paradox and highlights the injustice of slavery.
Metaphor	A comparison of two unlike things without using “like” or “as”	“Their colour is a diabolic die” (compares the color of African Americans to a mark of evil)	Reinforces the prejudiced belief that African Americans are inherently sinful.
Parallelism	The use of similar grammatical structures	“Taught my benighted soul to understand / That there’s a God, that there’s a Saviour too”	Creates a rhythmic and memorable quality, emphasizing the importance of faith.
Personification	Giving human qualities to non-human things	“Some view our sable race with scornful eye” (attributes human emotions to a group of people)	Makes the prejudice against African Americans more tangible and relatable.
Repetition	The repeated use of words, phrases, or sounds	“Remember, Christians”	Emphasizes the importance of the message to Christians and reinforces the theme of redemption.
Rhyme	The correspondence of sounds at the end of words	“land” and “understand,” “too” and “knew”	Creates a musical and memorable quality, enhancing the poem’s emotional impact.
Symbolism	The use of objects, characters, or events to represent something else	“sable race” (symbolizes African Americans)	Reinforces the theme of racial prejudice and discrimination.
Syntax	The arrangement of words in a sentence	“Some view our sable race with scornful eye” (places the object of prejudice before the subject)	Highlights the negative perception of African Americans.
Tone	The author’s attitude toward the subject matter	Hopeful and defiant	Creates a sense of resilience and determination in the face of adversity.
Theme	The central idea or message of the poem	The transformative power of religion and the injustice of racial prejudice	Provides a unifying thread throughout the poem.

Themes: “On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley

Theme 1: Gratitude and Spiritual Awakening

Wheatley’s poem is a testament to the transformative power of faith. Brought from her native Africa to the American colonies, she was introduced to Christianity. This encounter marked a profound spiritual awakening, as she transitioned from a life steeped in pagan beliefs to one centered around the Christian faith. Wheatley expresses deep gratitude for this experience, recognizing it as a divine act of mercy that led her to salvation and a deeper understanding of God. Her conversion serves as a powerful reminder of the life-changing potential of faith and the transformative power of divine grace. As she writes, ” ‘Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land, Taught my benighted soul to understand / That there’s a God, that there’s a Saviour too.”

Theme 2: The Pervasiveness of Racism

Wheatley’s poem also sheds light on the pervasive racism of her time. She candidly addresses the prejudice and discrimination faced by Black people, who were often viewed as inferior and dehumanized solely because of their skin color. Wheatley challenges the prevailing stereotypes and stereotypes, asserting that their worth is not determined by their race. Her words serve as a poignant reminder of the historical injustices and systemic racism that have plagued Black communities for centuries. As she writes, “Some view our sable race with scornful eye, ‘Their colour is a diabolic die.'”

Theme 3: The Potential for Equality and Redemption

Despite the challenges and injustices they faced, Wheatley asserts that Black people have the potential for spiritual refinement and equality. She argues that their skin color does not define their worth or their capacity for redemption. Wheatley calls on her fellow Christians to recognize the inherent dignity of all human beings, regardless of their race. Her message is a powerful call to action, urging individuals to challenge their own biases and work towards a more just and equitable society. As she writes, “Remember, Christians, Negros, black as Cain, / May be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train.”

Theme 4: The Transformative Power of Redemption

Wheatley’s poem is a testament to the transformative power of redemption. Her own journey from paganism to Christianity serves as a powerful example of the life-changing potential of faith. By embracing Christianity, Wheatley found a sense of purpose, belonging, and spiritual fulfillment. Her story highlights the transformative power of faith and the possibility of redemption for all individuals, regardless of their background or circumstances. As she writes, “Once I redemption neither sought nor knew.”

Literary Theories and “On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley

Literary Theory	Description	Application to Wheatley’s Poem
Formalism	Focuses on the form and structure of a literary work, analyzing elements like language, imagery, and symbolism.	Examines Wheatley’s use of poetic devices like metaphor, allusion, and rhyme to convey her message and create a powerful emotional impact.
Feminist Criticism	Examines how gender is represented and constructed within literature, often focusing on the experiences of women.	Explores Wheatley’s perspective as an enslaved African American woman, highlighting the challenges and limitations she faced. It also analyzes how she uses language to challenge stereotypes and advocate for equality.
Postcolonial Criticism	Examines the effects of colonization on literature and culture, often focusing on themes of power, identity, and resistance.	Analyzes Wheatley’s poem as a response to the colonial experience, exploring how she negotiates her identity as both an African and an American. It also examines the ways in which she critiques the colonial system and its impact on enslaved people.

Major Themes “On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley

Religious Redemption and Conversion: The primary theme of Phillis Wheatley’s poem “On Being Brought from Africa to America” revolves around the concept of religious redemption and conversion. The speaker reflects on her past ignorance of Christianity and her subsequent enlightenment: “Taught my benighted soul to understand / That there’s a God, that there’s a Saviour too” (lines 2-3). This transformation is presented as a divine intervention or “mercy” that rescued her from her “Pagan land” (line 1). Wheatley uses her personal story to highlight the Christian belief in salvation and redemption, portraying her journey not just as a physical relocation but as a spiritual awakening that brought her closer to God and salvation.

Racism and Prejudice: Wheatley addresses the prevalent racism and prejudice in her new environment directly in the poem. Despite the Christian context that should espouse equality and acceptance, she points out the scorn with which black individuals are often regarded: “Some view our sable race with scornful eye, / ‘Their colour is a diabolic die'” (lines 5-6). These lines criticize the hypocrisy of her contemporaries who profess Christian values while harboring racial prejudices. The mention of “sable race” and the association of their skin color with something “diabolic” confronts the reader with the harsh realities of racial discrimination, even among the faithful.
Equality and Spiritual Universality: Wheatley emphasizes the theme of spiritual equality and universality in Christianity. She urges her audience, presumably those who hold prejudiced views, to remember that black individuals, too, are capable of spiritual purity and redemption: “Remember, Christians, Negros, black as Cain, / May be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train” (lines 7-8). Here, Wheatley uses the biblical allusion to Cain, who is marked by sin, to argue that even those deemed the lowest or the most sinful have the potential for redemption and can attain heavenly grace. This is a powerful assertion of universal salvation and spiritual equality under God, challenging the societal norms of her time.
Identity and Transformation: The poem also explores themes of identity and transformation. Wheatley’s personal transformation from a “pagan” to a Christian mirrors the potential transformation in societal attitudes towards race and spirituality. By describing her own enlightenment and eventual redemption, she presents a narrative of transformation that is both personal and prescriptive. This dual transformation—both of the self and of societal perception—is encapsulated in the journey from Africa to America, symbolizing a move from darkness to enlightenment, from exclusion to inclusion within the Christian faith.

Critical Questions about “On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley

· How does Wheatley’s religious conversion shape her understanding of her enslavement?

Wheatley’s religious conversion provides a framework through which she interprets her experiences as an enslaved person. She views her enslavement as a divine test or trial, a means of spiritual redemption. This perspective allows her to find meaning and purpose in her suffering, suggesting that her captivity is part of a larger divine plan. Lines like “Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land” and “Taught my benighted soul to understand” emphasize the transformative power of religion in her life.

· How does Wheatley use language to challenge racial stereotypes and prejudices?

Wheatley employs language strategically to counter prevailing stereotypes about African Americans. By emphasizing her intelligence and spiritual refinement, she challenges the notion that enslaved people are inherently inferior. Lines like “Remember, Christians, Negros, black as Cain, / May be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train” assert the possibility of racial equality and spiritual redemption.

· What is the significance of the poem’s title, “On Being Brought from Africa to America”?

The title suggests a journey from one cultural context to another, a transition from the familiar to the unfamiliar. This journey is fraught with challenges and uncertainties, but it also offers opportunities for growth and transformation. By emphasizing the physical and cultural displacement of enslaved Africans, Wheatley highlights the profound impact of the transatlantic slave trade on individuals and communities.

· How does Wheatley’s poem contribute to the development of African American literature?

Wheatley’s poem is a significant milestone in the development of African American literature. As one of the first published works by an African American woman, it challenges the prevailing stereotypes about enslaved people and their intellectual capabilities. Her work paved the way for future generations of African American writers, demonstrating the power of literature to give voice to marginalized experiences and to challenge oppressive systems.

Literary Works Similar to “On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley

“The Negro Speaks of Rivers” by Langston Hughes: Similarity: Both poems explore themes of racial identity and profound historical consciousness, connecting the personal with the universal.

“Still I Rise” by Maya Angelou: Similarity: Like Wheatley’s work, Angelou’s poem is a defiant response to the historical and ongoing oppression of African Americans, celebrating resilience and empowerment.
“Middle Passage” by Robert Hayden: Similarity: This poem delves into the horrors of the slave trade journey from Africa to America, echoing Wheatley’s backdrop of being brought from Africa under traumatic circumstances.
“Caged Bird” by Maya Angelou: Similarity: Angelou’s poem metaphorically discusses the struggles for freedom faced by African Americans, resonating with Wheatley’s own transition from physical and spiritual bondage to liberation.

“America” by Claude McKay: Similarity: McKay’s poem critiques America through the lens of an African American, grappling with both love and hate for the country, a tension that Wheatley also subtly navigates as she reflects on her forced migration and subsequent redemption.

Representative Quotations of “On Being Brought from Africa to America” by Phillis Wheatley

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Twas mercy brought me from my Pagan land”	Wheatley’s religious conversion and her belief that her enslavement was a divine test or trial.	Formalism: This line highlights the poem’s theme of religious redemption and its use of religious imagery to convey a spiritual message.
“Taught my benighted soul to understand”	Wheatley’s journey from spiritual ignorance to enlightenment.	Feminist Criticism: This line suggests that Wheatley’s education and conversion empowered her to challenge societal norms and stereotypes.
“Some view our sable race with scornful eye”	The prevalence of racial prejudice and discrimination against African Americans.	Postcolonial Criticism: This line reflects the colonial power dynamics and the dehumanization of enslaved people.
“Remember, Christians, Negros, black as Cain, / May be refin’d, and join th’ angelic train”	Wheatley’s call for racial equality and spiritual redemption.	Formalism: This line demonstrates Wheatley’s use of parallelism and repetition to emphasize her message.
“Their colour is a diabolic die”	The harmful stereotype that African Americans are inherently sinful.	Postcolonial Criticism: This line highlights the ways in which colonial ideology perpetuated racial stereotypes to justify slavery.

Day: August 28, 2024