September 12, 2024 - English Studies

“On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O: Summary and Critique

“On David Cook” Ngugi wa Thiong’o, first appeared in the prestigious journal Research in African Literatures (Vol. 35, No. 1, Spring 2004).

Introduction: “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

“On David Cook” Ngugi wa Thiong’o, first appeared in the prestigious journal Research in African Literatures (Vol. 35, No. 1, Spring 2004). This brief tribute holds significance in the field of literature and literary theory for several reasons. Firstly, it offers a glimpse into the intellectual relationship between Ngugi, a towering figure in African literature, and David Cook, a scholar who played a role in Ngugi’s early academic development. Secondly, it potentially sheds light on Ngugi’s own evolving perspectives on literature, as the tribute appeared around the time he was solidifying his commitment to writing in African languages.

Summary of “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

Introduction to David Cook at Makerere University
David Cook arrived at Makerere University around 1962, initially on a visiting basis, before later becoming a full-time lecturer and ultimately the Professor of the English Department. Ngugi Wa Thiong’o recalls studying under Cook for two years, particularly noting his lectures on Matthew Arnold and Joseph Conrad. Ngugi emphasizes that Cook’s meticulous attention to the formal side of literary texts was in line with the Makerere tradition of close reading.

“He was attracted to the more formal side of a literary text, how it was put together, how it read, and in this he was very meticulous.”
Cook’s Formalistic Approach and its Limitations
While Cook excelled in formal textual analysis, he was less adept at drawing broader social and political connections from literary works. His formalistic methods often lacked the broader imagination to engage students fully. This was evident in his critical writings, such as his analysis of Ngugi’s novels in The Writing of Ngugi wa Thiong’o, where he was brilliant in sentence structure analysis but less confident in interpreting the works’ larger social significance.
“He was brilliant in the formal analysis of the sentence and the underlying structures, but often not as sure-footed in the larger significance of the works under study.”

Belief in Students’ Potential
Despite his formalistic tendencies, Cook was committed to nurturing student talent. He believed in his students and took an active role in promoting their creative efforts. Cook played a key role in editing Origin: East Africa, a collection of student writings published by Heinemann in the African Writers Series. Ngugi, who was the editor of the journal PENPOINT, worked with Cook on selecting materials for the collection, although his name was left out as a joint editor due to internal departmental politics.
“He more than made it up with his belief in the abilities of his students.”
Contribution to East African Theatre
One of Cook’s most significant contributions was in the field of East African theater. Ngugi acknowledges that Cook was instrumental in supporting The Black Hermit, the first East African play written in English, by serving as an advisor during its production. Additionally, Cook played a crucial role in the Makerere Free Traveling Theatre, which toured East Africa during university vacations. His efforts helped shape key dramatists like Robert Serumaga and Byron Kawadwa.

“He was the driving force behind the project, no doubt inspired by similar efforts in Britain.”
Legacy and Final Years
Although Ngugi lost touch with Cook after his time at Makerere, he reflects on Cook’s enduring impact, particularly his revised edition of The Writings of Ngugi wa Thiong’o, co-authored before his untimely death. Cook also taught in other African universities, but Makerere remains the place most associated with his work and his efforts to support emerging talent in East African literature and theater.
“Makerere was probably the place he will be most identified with.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Context in the Text
Formalism	A method of literary analysis that focuses on the structure, form, and language of a text rather than its broader social or political contexts.	David Cook emphasized close reading and the formal aspects of literature, paying attention to how a text is constructed.
Close Reading	A careful, detailed interpretation of a brief passage of text, emphasizing its structure and language.	Cook’s teaching focused on close reading, particularly how literary works were put together, as mentioned by Ngugi.
Leavisite Criticism	A form of literary criticism associated with F.R. Leavis, focusing on the moral seriousness and formal qualities of literature.	Ngugi notes that Cook’s approach was influenced by Leavisite criticism, focusing on the moral significance of texts.
Creative Writing	The act of producing original written works, often involving artistic expression.	Cook supported student writing, particularly in the journal PENPOINT and later the Origin: East Africa anthology.
African Writers Series	A series of publications by Heinemann focusing on African literature and writers.	Origin: East Africa, edited by Cook, was published as part of this series, showcasing emerging East African writers.
Drama	A genre of literature intended for performance, often involving dialogue and action.	Cook was involved in the production of The Black Hermit, one of the first East African plays written in English.
Theatre	The art of writing and producing plays.	Cook’s contribution to the Makerere Free Traveling Theatre helped to develop a space for East African dramatists.
Textual Analysis	The process of closely examining a text to understand its meaning, structure, and themes.	Cook’s work in analyzing the sentence structures of Ngugi’s novels is a key example of his focus on textual analysis.
Literary Criticism	The study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature.	Cook co-authored The Writing of Ngugi wa Thiong’o, offering a critical analysis of Ngugi’s works.

Contribution of “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O to Literary Theory/Theories

Emphasis on Formalism and Structural Analysis
Ngugi highlights David Cook’s formalistic approach to literature, focusing on the structure and composition of texts. This approach aligns with formalist theories, which emphasize close reading and the internal workings of the text over its social or political context.
“He was brilliant in the formal analysis of the sentence and the underlying structures, but often not as sure-footed in the larger significance of the works under study.”
Limitations of Formalist Criticism
Ngugi critiques Cook’s formalism for its inability to engage with broader social and political realities, pointing to a limitation in literary theory that focuses solely on textual structure. This critique aligns with the broader debate in literary theory about the need to incorporate historical, political, and cultural contexts into literary criticism.

“He was not very good at drawing the broad social and political world of the author beyond the Leavisite emphasis on the moral significance of the written text.”
Contribution to African Literary Criticism
By working with East African writers and supporting local talent, David Cook’s engagement, particularly through the African Writers Series, helped shape an emerging African literary canon. This reflects a contribution to postcolonial theory, which seeks to promote and validate the voices of writers from formerly colonized regions.
“He was the driving force behind the project… the Makerere Free Traveling Theatre had a character all its own and was the space of some key dramatists in Uganda and East Africa.”

Interplay Between Creative Writing and Criticism
Cook’s role in editing and supporting student writing in journals such as PENPOINT and projects like Origin: East Africa reveals his belief in the interconnectedness of literary creation and criticism. This engagement emphasizes a practical application of literary theory, where criticism fosters and interacts with the creative process.
“He became interested in the student writings in PENPOINT, the Department’s journal of creative writing… [and] came up with the idea of an edited collection of the student contribution.”
Support for Theatrical Theory and Practice
Cook’s work with East African theater, particularly his involvement in The Black Hermit and the Makerere Free Traveling Theatre, reflects his contribution to theatrical theory. His encouragement of theater as a space for cultural expression links literary criticism with performance studies, offering a practical extension of textual analysis into the realm of drama and live performance.

“He was not, even for a moment, seeing the writing of The Black Hermit as an undergraduate exercise in drama.”

Examples of Critiques Through “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

1. Matthew Arnold’s “Culture and Anarchy”

David Cook’s Approach: Cook’s teaching on Arnold focused heavily on the formal aspects of the text, particularly how it was constructed. He paid close attention to the meticulous analysis of the text, consistent with the formalist approach.

“I remember him for his classes on Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy mostly… He was attracted to the more formal side of a literary text, how it was put together, how it read.”

Critique: Ngugi notes that while Cook was thorough in his analysis of the text’s structure, he did not engage deeply with the broader social and political implications of Arnold’s work, limiting the depth of his critique.

2. Joseph Conrad’s Works

David Cook’s Approach: Similar to his analysis of Arnold, Cook’s teaching of Conrad emphasized the formalistic elements of Conrad’s writing. Cook focused on how Conrad structured his works and the underlying sentence patterns, without diving into the political and social themes present in Conrad’s novels.

“He was attracted to the more formal side of a literary text… and in this, he was very meticulous.”

Critique: Ngugi critiques this narrow focus, suggesting that while Cook’s formal analysis was insightful, it lacked engagement with the larger socio-political context of Conrad’s works, which is crucial for fully understanding the author’s intent.

3. Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s “The River Between”

David Cook’s Approach: Cook was known for his formal analysis of Ngugi’s novels, particularly focusing on sentence structures and underlying literary frameworks. He provided insightful critiques about how Ngugi constructed his narratives, paying close attention to the formal elements of the text.

“He was brilliant in the formal analysis of the sentence and the underlying structures.”

Critique: Ngugi acknowledges Cook’s strength in formal analysis but points out that his critique lacked depth when it came to engaging with the broader themes of identity, colonialism, and African society present in The River Between.

4. Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s “Weep Not, Child”

David Cook’s Approach: In his critique of Weep Not, Child, Cook again employed a formalist approach, focusing on the technical and structural aspects of the novel. His critical writings on Ngugi’s works were noted for their attention to how sentences and paragraphs were constructed, offering a close textual reading of the narrative.

“[Cook’s] work on my novels… was brilliant in the formal analysis of the sentence and the underlying structures.”

Critique: While Cook’s analysis of the formal structure of Weep Not, Child was highly regarded, Ngugi suggests that his critique did not fully explore the novel’s deeper themes of colonialism, education, and family dynamics in the broader Kenyan context.

Criticism Against “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O

Overemphasis on Formalism
A major criticism is that David Cook’s approach, as described by Ngugi, places too much focus on the formal aspects of literary texts, such as sentence structure and composition, rather than engaging with their social, political, and historical contexts.

“He was brilliant in the formal analysis of the sentence and the underlying structures, but often not as sure-footed in the larger significance of the works under study.”
Neglect of Broader Themes
Ngugi suggests that Cook’s formalistic approach limited his ability to explore the broader themes of literature, particularly in postcolonial African contexts where issues such as identity, colonialism, and social change are critical. This limitation is seen as a missed opportunity in engaging with the full complexity of the works he analyzed.
“He was not very good at drawing the broad social and political world of the author beyond the Leavisite emphasis on the moral significance of the written text.”

Limited Engagement with African Literature’s Socio-Political Context
Ngugi points out that Cook’s formalist criticism didn’t fully capture the socio-political importance of African literature in the postcolonial context. This critique underscores that Cook’s analyses, while insightful in form, often failed to recognize the political and cultural significance of East African works.
“There was always a formalistic approach, which did not always ignite the imagination of his students.”
Failure to Broaden Students’ Imagination
Cook’s teaching style, which focused heavily on formal textual analysis, was perceived as not inspiring students’ imagination or encouraging them to explore literature’s role in reflecting and shaping society. This suggests a lack of dynamism in his critical methods, particularly in an academic environment like Makerere.

“There was always a formalistic approach, which did not always ignite the imagination of his students.”

Representative Quotations from “On David Cook” by Ngugi Wa Thiong’O with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“He was attracted to the more formal side of a literary text, how it was put together, how it read…”	This highlights Cook’s formalist approach, focusing on the structure and technical elements of literature.
“He was brilliant in the formal analysis of the sentence and the underlying structures…”	Ngugi praises Cook’s strength in close reading and sentence-level analysis, a hallmark of his formalist criticism.
“He was not very good at drawing the broad social and political world of the author…”	Ngugi critiques Cook’s inability to connect literature with its broader social, political, and historical context.
“There was always a formalistic approach, which did not always ignite the imagination of his students.”	This reflects Ngugi’s concern that Cook’s formalism was limited in inspiring creativity or critical thinking in students.
“He more than made it up with his belief in the abilities of his students.”	Despite Cook’s limitations, Ngugi acknowledges his deep commitment to nurturing student potential.
“On joining Makerere, he became interested in the student writings in PENPOINT…”	This quotation illustrates Cook’s active role in supporting student creativity through engagement with their writing.
“He was the driving force behind the project… Makerere Free Traveling Theatre…”	Ngugi credits Cook with being instrumental in promoting theater in East Africa, showing his contribution beyond formalism.
“He also worked closely with Miles Lee… as an ‘editor’ in the Uganda Radio drama series.”	This highlights Cook’s involvement in radio drama, expanding his influence in East African cultural production.
“The fact that my name was not there as joint-editor was not his fault but more to do with the internal politics…”	Ngugi notes the politics behind publishing decisions, indicating Cook’s good intentions in supporting student projects.
“Makerere was probably the place he will be most identified with, the place where he spent considerable energies…”	This affirms Cook’s lasting legacy at Makerere University, where his contributions to literature and theater are remembered.

“Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi: Summary and Critique

“Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi first appeared in 1989, a significant year for postcolonial discourse.

Introduction: “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi

“Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi first appeared in 1989, a significant year for postcolonial discourse. This interview explores the complexities of Ngũgĩ’s novel Matigari, its unique blend of myth and historical reality. By examining how the protagonist embodies both revolutionary spirit and folkloric hero, the discussion sheds light on the role of literature in critiquing neocolonialism and fostering cultural identity. The article holds importance for scholars of literature and literary theory as it offers valuable insights into the intersection of narrative, history, and the fight for social justice.

Summary of “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi

Matigari as a Symbol of Collective History
- Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o views the character Matigari as a symbolic representation of the collective worker and producer throughout African history. He emphasizes that Matigari is not an individual but a mythic figure embodying resistance across various historical periods in Africa, including the Portuguese, Arab, British, and neo-colonial eras.
- Matigari’s quest for truth and justice reflects the larger question of why those who produce are not the ones in control, a fundamental paradox of history. “He is asking what is the truth of history, since history as we know it does not contain the fact of this inherent injustice.”
Historical and Political Context
- The novel has strong allusions to the African armed struggles for independence, particularly the Mau Mau movement in Kenya. Ngũgĩ asserts that the spirit of Mau Mau is still relevant in contemporary Kenyan society. “The spirit of Mau Mau is still very much alive in Kenyan society.”
- He critiques the continuity of colonial structures in the neo-colonial period, citing examples such as President Moi’s involvement in the colonial government and the persistence of anti-people practices in institutions like the Kenyan army. Ngũgĩ identifies a stark contrast between forces of resistance and those who align with colonial and neo-colonial oppression.
Resistance and Re-Arming
- A central theme of the novel is the need for resistance and re-arming, not only in the physical sense but also politically, mentally, and spiritually. Ngũgĩ stresses that true liberation for Africa cannot be achieved while neo-colonialism persists, and democratic repression continues to alienate the population.
- The novel poses the critical question of whether there can be solutions without violence, reflecting a broader debate on the role of democratic participation in social change. “Matigari asks: ‘Is there a solution to our problems, without violence? There must be another way.'”
The Role of Literature in Exposing Neo-Colonialism
- Ngũgĩ emphasizes the ongoing role of literature in challenging neo-colonial structures and enlightening people about their conditions. He notes that progressive literature serves as a tool to combat the bombardment of images and narratives that justify inequality and domination.
- He believes that the struggle for the mind is crucial, and literature must draw from the perspective of the majority to challenge the prevailing ideologies of the elite. “The object of the struggle is the mind of the people.”
Oral Tradition and Symbolism in Matigari
- Matigari is deeply rooted in African oral narrative traditions, using symbolic motifs and negating linear time to explore multiple references and meanings. The novel’s structure allows it to travel through time and space in ways that reflect the workings of the mind and oral storytelling practices.
- Ngũgĩ highlights the use of motifs, such as Matigari’s search for truth among the nests of birds, as essential symbolic devices that offer multiple interpretations. “Matigari, for example, says at one point that he has been looking for truth among the nests of birds in the trees.”
Banning and Reception of Matigari in Kenya
- The novel was banned in Kenya shortly after its release in 1986, as the government feared the character Matigari was inspiring public unrest. Ngũgĩ was saddened by the ban, as he was more interested in the public’s literary reception of the novel.
- Despite the ban, the novel was widely read in public spaces, and people began to speak of Matigari as though he were a real person. “People started talking about Matigari as though he were a living person.”
The Future of African Languages and Literature
- Ngũgĩ argues for the importance of promoting African languages in literature, critiquing the dominance of colonial languages in the discourse around African literature. He insists that African writers should focus on developing their native languages in literary forms.
- He emphasizes the need for direct translations from African languages rather than through English or other colonial languages to maintain the original spirit and meaning of the works. “What becomes important is that authors, writers and academics must start responding to African languages.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference/Usage in the Interview
Myth	A traditional or legendary story that conveys deeper truths about culture, society, or human nature.	Matigari is described as a mythic figure representing the collective struggle of African workers and oppressed people across history.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities, giving deeper meanings beyond the literal sense.	Matigari himself is a symbol of collective resistance, and various motifs in the novel, such as the search for truth, are repeated to reflect symbolic layers.
Oral Tradition	Cultural material and traditions transmitted orally from one generation to another, often emphasizing narrative forms and folklore.	Ngũgĩ highlights the oral narrative style of Matigari, where events transcend linear time, and the story resonates with African oral storytelling conventions.
Neo-Colonialism	A concept referring to the continued influence and control of former colonial powers in the political, economic, and cultural affairs of former colonies.	Ngũgĩ critiques neo-colonialism throughout the interview, stating that Matigari represents a challenge to the persistence of colonial structures in post-independence Kenya and Africa.
Collective Character	A literary figure that embodies the experiences and struggles of a group rather than an individual.	Matigari is described as a collective character, representing the history of African workers and the oppressed from different periods of history, rather than a single, individualized hero.
Resistance Literature	A genre of literature that focuses on themes of resistance against oppression, often advocating for political and social change.	Ngũgĩ emphasizes that Matigari is a work of resistance literature, challenging neo-colonial repression and calling for mass action and intervention in history.
Revolutionary Struggle	The concept of collective action aimed at overthrowing oppressive systems or governments to achieve social, economic, and political justice.	The novel is linked to revolutionary struggles like the Mau Mau rebellion in Kenya, and it discusses the need for resistance, including armed struggle, in the face of continued oppression.
Democratic Participation	The active involvement of citizens in the political process and decision-making to ensure fair governance and representation.	Ngũgĩ relates Matigari’s quest for Truth and Justice to the broader theme of democracy and the challenges of achieving true democratic participation under neo-colonial regimes.
Non-linear Narrative	A narrative technique that does not follow a chronological order but instead moves freely through time and space, often blurring past, present, and future.	Ngũgĩ uses non-linear narrative techniques in Matigari, influenced by oral traditions, allowing events to unfold outside the constraints of time and space, reflecting the mind’s workings.
Allegory	A narrative that operates on multiple levels of meaning, often representing abstract ideas or conveying political or moral messages through symbolic characters or events.	Matigari functions as an allegory of post-colonial African societies, critiquing political elites and the continued oppression of the masses despite formal independence from colonialism.

Contribution of “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution from the Interview	References from the Interview
Postcolonial Theory	The interview underscores the role of literature in critiquing and resisting neo-colonialism. Ngũgĩ emphasizes how Matigari challenges post-independence oppression and the continued dominance of colonial structures in Kenyan society. This contribution aligns with postcolonial theory’s focus on decolonization and cultural resistance.	Ngũgĩ critiques the persistence of colonial structures, even in post-colonial Kenya, stating: “The continuity between the colonial period and the neo-colonial period is very stark.” He highlights how Matigari addresses neo-colonial exploitation, portraying Matigari as a symbol of African resistance.
Marxist Literary Criticism	Ngũgĩ’s focus on class struggle, the exploitation of the producer, and the control of wealth by the elite ties directly to Marxist literary criticism. The novel critiques the capitalist systems that impoverish workers and empowers elites, reflecting Marxist concerns with class, labor, and ownership of means of production.	Ngũgĩ discusses how Matigari asks, “Why are the producers seldom the ones who control their own wares?” and explores the themes of wealth inequality and the exploitation of the working class. He connects these themes to a broader critique of capitalism and the global division between labor and capital.
Resistance Literature	The interview contributes to the theory of resistance literature, which examines how literature can serve as a tool for political and social liberation. Ngũgĩ positions Matigari as a work that critiques oppressive regimes and calls for the masses to intervene in their own history through political and social action.	Ngũgĩ states that “Matigari is saying that people have to intervene in their own history one way or another,” emphasizing that the novel is a call for mass intervention and resistance against undemocratic structures, echoing the goals of resistance literature theory.
Oral Tradition and Myth in Literature	Ngũgĩ highlights the importance of oral tradition in African literature, which often uses myth and non-linear storytelling to convey complex truths. He describes Matigari as a novel that draws on the oral narrative form, connecting it to African cultural traditions and emphasizing its symbolic and mythic qualities.	Ngũgĩ explains that Matigari uses “the conventions of the oral narrative” to solve problems of time and space, and the character is not “a highly individualized character inhabiting a specific historical period,” but a mythic figure representing broader social forces and collective experiences.
Myth Criticism	The novel’s use of myth and symbolic characters contributes to myth criticism, a theory that explores how myths function within literature to express universal human experiences or cultural values. Matigari is a mythic hero whose journey reflects collective struggles and timeless questions of justice and truth.	Ngũgĩ describes Matigari as a mythic figure: “Matigari can be seen… as representing the collective worker in history,” and explains that the character “was there at the time of the Portuguese, back in the fifteenth century,” representing a timeless struggle against oppression.
Postmodernism	By negating linear time and space, Matigari contributes to postmodern literary theory, particularly through its rejection of traditional narrative structures and its blending of reality and myth. The novel’s non-linear structure and symbolic narrative break down the boundaries between past, present, and future.	Ngũgĩ states that Matigari “negates the linear sequence of events,” allowing characters to travel through time and space in a non-linear fashion. This postmodern approach is further reinforced by his emphasis on the symbolic treatment of time and space in the novel.
Feminist Literary Criticism	Although not a central focus of the interview, Ngũgĩ does touch on feminist concerns through the depiction of Guthera, a prostitute who aids Matigari. The novel critiques the exploitation of women within the broader system of oppression and aligns with feminist literary criticism’s focus on gender dynamics and power.	Ngũgĩ includes women as part of the collective struggle, noting that Guthera, a prostitute, plays a key role in Matigari’s quest. Her involvement highlights the role of women in resistance and critiques their marginalized position in society, which is a theme aligned with feminist literary criticism.
Cultural Nationalism	Ngũgĩ’s emphasis on the use of African languages in literature contributes to cultural nationalism, a theory advocating for the promotion of indigenous languages and cultural expressions as a form of resistance to colonial dominance. He calls for more literature to be written and translated directly from African languages.	Ngũgĩ criticizes the dominance of English and other colonial languages in African literature and argues that “African writers must start responding to African languages” to reclaim cultural identity and resist the cultural hegemony imposed by colonialism. He insists on translations from the original Gikuyu.
Translation Theory	Ngũgĩ discusses the challenges of translating works from African languages into English and other colonial languages. He advocates for direct translations from Gikuyu to other languages to preserve the spirit and meaning of the original text, contributing to translation theory, particularly regarding fidelity in translation.	Ngũgĩ emphasizes that “Matigari must be translated directly from the Gikuyu,” expressing concerns about the way translation can dilute the meaning of a text when done through a colonial language like English. He sees translation as both an interpretation and a way to preserve cultural integrity.

Examples of Critiques Through “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi

Literary Work	Critique Through “Matigari as Myth and History”	Reference from the Interview
*Things Fall Apart* by Chinua Achebe	Achebe’s novel critiques the cultural and social impact of colonialism on African society, much like Matigari challenges neo-colonialism. Both works highlight the destruction of indigenous systems and the rise of oppressive foreign structures.	Ngũgĩ emphasizes how Matigari critiques the continuity of colonial oppression in the neo-colonial era: “The continuity between the colonial period and the neo-colonial period is very stark.”
*The Wretched of the Earth* by Frantz Fanon	Fanon’s work on decolonization and the role of violence in the liberation of the oppressed mirrors the theme in Matigari, where Ngũgĩ suggests that justice for the oppressed may require armed struggle.	Ngũgĩ highlights Matigari’s realization that “Justice for the oppressed comes from a sharpened spear,” reflecting Fanon’s assertion that colonial powers cannot be overthrown without the use of force.
*The Tempest* by William Shakespeare	The Tempest has been critiqued through postcolonial lenses, focusing on the themes of colonization and power dynamics between Prospero and Caliban. Ngũgĩ’s ideas in Matigari parallel the power struggles between the colonizers and the colonized.	Ngũgĩ discusses the lingering effects of colonialism, stating, “Mau Mau is one of the highest aspirations of that theme of resistance,” emphasizing the persistent power struggle between colonial forces and the oppressed.
*One Hundred Years of Solitude* by Gabriel García Márquez	García Márquez’s use of magical realism to depict the cyclical nature of history and oppression resonates with the mythic qualities of Matigari, where oral traditions and symbolic characters convey deeper truths about societal struggles.	Ngũgĩ speaks of Matigari’s mythic narrative and how it “negates the linear sequence of events,” similar to how García Márquez blurs time and space in his narrative, reflecting cyclical patterns of history.

Criticism Against “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi

Over-Reliance on Myth and Symbolism: Some critics may argue that Matigari relies too heavily on myth and symbolism, which can obscure the practical political solutions needed for real-world struggles. This focus on the symbolic might detract from more direct engagement with current political realities.
Idealization of Armed Struggle: The novel’s conclusion, where Matigari realizes that justice requires armed resistance, could be viewed as idealizing violence. Critics may question whether this message promotes violent solutions over nonviolent forms of resistance and democratic participation.

Romanticization of the Past: By drawing connections between Matigari and historical periods of resistance, including the Mau Mau movement, the interview could be criticized for romanticizing the past and implying a return to previous modes of resistance without fully considering the complexities of modern-day socio-political contexts.
Simplistic Treatment of Neo-Colonialism: Some may argue that Ngũgĩ’s critique of neo-colonialism is too simplistic, reducing complex socio-economic and political issues to a binary struggle between good and evil, oppressors and oppressed, without sufficient attention to the nuances and intricacies of contemporary global capitalism.
Lack of Gender Focus: While the interview touches on the involvement of female characters like Guthera, it could be criticized for not giving enough attention to the specific role of women in post-colonial and resistance narratives. Feminist critics may see the work as sidelining gender issues in favor of broader class-based or anti-colonial themes.

Dismissal of Realism: Critics may argue that Ngũgĩ’s dismissal of realism in favor of a mythic, symbolic narrative overlooks the importance of realism in depicting the concrete struggles of ordinary people. The non-linear, mythic structure might alienate readers who expect a more straightforward, realistic portrayal of post-colonial struggles.
Limited Accessibility Due to Language Choices: Ngũgĩ’s insistence on African languages and rejection of English for his work might be criticized for limiting the accessibility of his message. While he promotes African languages as a means of cultural resistance, some may argue that using widely spoken colonial languages like English could broaden the impact of his work across global audiences.

Representative Quotations from “Matigari as Myth and History: An Interview” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o and Maya Jaggi with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Matigari can be seen first in a general sense as representing the collective worker in history.”	This emphasizes Matigari as a symbolic figure, embodying the collective struggles of oppressed workers across different historical periods. The character represents the universal experience of exploitation, not just a single individual’s story.
“Justice for the oppressed comes from a sharpened spear.”	Ngũgĩ suggests that armed resistance might be necessary for achieving justice in the face of oppression. This reflects his belief in the potential need for revolutionary violence when peaceful means are ineffective against neo-colonial and capitalist structures.
“The continuity between the colonial period and the neo-colonial period is very stark.”	This highlights Ngũgĩ’s critique of how colonial structures of power and oppression continue to persist in post-colonial Kenya, illustrating the failure of independence to bring true social and economic justice.
“Mau Mau is one of the highest aspirations of that theme of resistance.”	Ngũgĩ praises the Mau Mau movement as a symbol of resistance against colonialism, underscoring its significance in Kenya’s history and its continued relevance as a model for current struggles against neo-colonialism.
“People have to intervene in their own history one way or another.”	Ngũgĩ argues that oppressed people must actively participate in shaping their own history, whether through mass movements or other forms of resistance. This reinforces the theme of self-determination and the necessity of people taking control of their own destinies.
“The novel is not set in any particular country, though it is clearly set in Africa.”	This reflects the universal nature of Matigari, which, though rooted in African history, transcends specific national boundaries. Ngũgĩ uses the character and setting as metaphors for the broader experience of post-colonial struggles across the continent.
“Without a real commitment to social change… people will inevitably become increasingly alienated.”	Ngũgĩ critiques regimes that fail to bring about genuine social, political, and economic reform, stating that repression only leads to greater alienation and resistance from the oppressed. This quote underscores the necessity for governments to address the needs and voices of their citizens.
“The object of the struggle is the mind of the people.”	This statement reflects Ngũgĩ’s belief in the importance of ideological battles in resisting oppression. He emphasizes that controlling narratives and shaping people’s consciousness are central to maintaining power, making literature and education crucial tools in the fight against neo-colonialism.
“I address a particular theme in all my works: the liberation of the people.”	Ngũgĩ defines the overarching theme of his literary works as the pursuit of freedom—economically, politically, culturally, and psychologically. This encapsulates his lifelong commitment to writing as a tool for resistance and social change.
“Matigari is a symbolic poem with multiple references.”	This highlights the symbolic and poetic nature of Matigari, a novel that uses myth and symbolism to layer multiple meanings within its narrative. Ngũgĩ rejects a purely realist interpretation, instead embracing a more symbolic, open-ended reading of the novel’s themes and characters.

“Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o: Summary and Critique

“Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in TDR: The Drama Review in 1997.

Introduction: “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

“Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in TDR: The Drama Review in 1997. This seminal work delves into the intricate relationship between performance, space, and power dynamics, particularly within the context of post-colonial societies. Thiong’o emphasizes how performance spaces are not neutral venues but are inherently tied to the socio-political conditions of their time. The essay is crucial in both literature and literary theory as it extends the analysis of power from textual narratives to performance, exploring how space and theatrical acts become sites of resistance and control. By doing so, Thiong’o bridges the gap between post-colonial critique and performance studies, highlighting the cultural and political implications of storytelling and public expression.

Summary of “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

The Power Struggle between Art and the State: Ngũgĩ begins by discussing the inherent rivalry between artists and the state, noting that both are involved in a struggle over the control of values and laws represented in performance. He explains, “the war between art and the state is really a struggle between the power of performance in the arts and the performance of power by the state” (p. 11). This conflict becomes even sharper in situations like colonialism, where external forces impose state power.
Performance Space as a Site of Conflict: Thiong’o illustrates how performance spaces become sites of political contention, especially in colonial settings. He shares the example of the Itulka ceremony, which the British colonial government banned because they saw it as a threat to their authority. He emphasizes that “the performance of Itulka was taken as a challenge to colonial state power” (p. 12).

The Role of the Audience and Spatial Dynamics: Ngũgĩ emphasizes that performance spaces are never neutral or “empty,” as they are always filled with physical, social, and psychic forces. He writes, “I can take any empty space and call it a bare stage,” but adds, “a performance site is never empty” because of the dynamics between the actors, audience, and space (p. 13). The space itself becomes a site of power struggles and transformation.
Colonial and Postcolonial Manipulation of Cultural Spaces: Thiong’o discusses how colonial powers, such as the British in Kenya, controlled performance spaces to manipulate cultural narratives. The Kenya National Theatre, built by the colonial government, was primarily used for European performances. Thiong’o recalls the management’s refusal to allow The Trial of Dedan Kimathi to be performed, instead prioritizing Western shows like A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum (p. 15).
The Performance of Resistance: Thiong’o’s work at Kamĩrĩĩthũ Community Education and Cultural Centre is cited as an example of reclaiming performance spaces for African voices. He writes about how villagers participated in the play Ngaahika Ndeenda (I Will Marry When I Want), transforming their experiences of colonial and postcolonial exploitation into performance (p. 20). This act of reclaiming space was an expression of resistance and a challenge to state power.

State Repression of Performance Spaces: In contrast to the openness of artistic spaces, the state seeks to confine and control space. Ngũgĩ notes that “the performance space of the artist stands for openness; that of the state, for confinement” (p. 29). The state’s control over public gatherings and performances, particularly in the open air, is a way of limiting potential threats to its authority, as seen in the destruction of the Kamĩrĩĩthũ Open Theatre in 1982 (p. 28).
Art as a Tool for Liberation: Ngũgĩ concludes that art has the potential to break down barriers and challenge oppressive structures. The politics of performance space are deeply tied to issues of democracy, social justice, and national identity. He suggests that the ultimate struggle over performance space reflects a broader class struggle, where those in power seek to control the narrative and limit the participation of marginalized groups (p. 29).
Key Quotations from the Article:

“The war between art and the state is really a struggle between the power of performance in the arts and the performance of power by the state” (p. 11).
“The performance of Itulka was taken as a challenge to colonial state power” (p. 12).
“A performance site is never empty” (p. 13).

“The performance space of the artist stands for openness; that of the state, for confinement” (p. 29).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Concept/Literary Device	Explanation
Performance Space	A symbolic and contested site where cultural, political, and artistic performances occur, embodying the dynamics of power.
Enactment of Power	The struggle between artistic expression and state control, particularly in public spaces, highlighting power structures.
Colonialism and Performance	The influence of colonialism on suppressing indigenous performances and controlling cultural expressions.
Censorship	The state’s intervention in restricting artistic performances, as a means to control cultural narratives.
Hegemony	The dominance of colonial or postcolonial elites in dictating cultural practices, often using performance as a tool of power.
Ritual and Ceremony	Cultural practices, such as the Itulka ceremony, used by communities to assert their identity and resist state authority.
Cultural Resistance	The use of performance and theater as tools to challenge colonial and postcolonial repression, expressing societal struggles.
Space as a Political Arena	Performance spaces, whether public or confined, are seen as arenas of struggle between the artist and the state.
Audience as Participants	The relationship between performers and audience, where audiences become active participants in shaping performance outcomes.
Symbolism	The use of symbolic spaces, such as the Kenya National Theatre and Norfolk Hotel, to represent the historical and cultural conflicts.
Conflict of Narratives	The tension between colonial narratives and indigenous cultural representations in performance spaces.
Time and Historical Memory	The interplay of historical context and the use of performance to reflect on the past and envision future societal change.
National Identity	The role of performance in defining and asserting a postcolonial national identity, often in opposition to colonial legacies.
Prison as a Performance Space	The prison is metaphorically portrayed as a performance space where the state enacts its control over individuals.
Exile as a Spatial Metaphor	Exile is depicted as a form of exclusion from the performance space, representing displacement from cultural and national identity.
Resistance through Art	Artistic resistance is portrayed as a means of survival and defiance against the state’s efforts to confine cultural expression.

Contribution of “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Performance as a Site of Power and Resistance
- Ngũgĩ presents performance spaces as battlegrounds where the power of the state and the artist collide, suggesting that performance is an enactment of power. This adds to performance theory by highlighting the political dynamics involved in artistic performances.
  - “The war between art and the state is really a struggle between the power of performance in the arts and the performance of power by the state—in short, enactments of power.”
The Politics of Space in Performance Theory
- The article emphasizes that space in performance is not neutral but deeply political, influencing who controls cultural narratives. This contributes to spatial theory by exploring how physical locations affect power dynamics in cultural performances.
  - “The main arena of struggle is the performance space: its definition, delimitation, and regulation.”
Performance and National Identity in Postcolonial Contexts
- Ngũgĩ argues that in postcolonial societies, performance becomes a tool for shaping and contesting national identity. This aligns with postcolonial theory by showing how art reflects and resists colonial legacies.
  - “The conflict over the performance space was also a struggle over which cultural symbols and activities would represent the new Kenya.”
The Role of History and Memory in Performance
- Ngũgĩ integrates history into performance theory, arguing that performances are imbued with historical memory and anticipation of future change. This contributes to understanding the temporal dimension of performances.
  - “What memories does the space carry, and what longings might it generate?”
Censorship and the Politics of Artistic Expression
- The article explores how states intervene in artistic expression to control public narratives, contributing to discussions on censorship and the repression of free expression, especially in authoritarian or colonial regimes.
  - “The state’s intervention in the content of the artist’s work—what goes by the name of censorship—but the main arena of struggle is the performance space.”
Performance as Cultural and Political Subversion
- Ngũgĩ portrays performances as acts of subversion in postcolonial contexts, contributing to performance studies by showing how they challenge dominant power structures and act as forms of political resistance.
  - “The performance space becomes a magnetic field of tensions and conflicts.”
The State and the Repression of Cultural Spaces
- The article examines how states, particularly colonial and postcolonial, regulate and restrict cultural spaces to maintain control, adding to the theory of cultural hegemony and repression.
  - “In 1952, when the colonial regime once again acted against the nationwide upsurge of anti-colonial dances and songs, it banned all open-air performances in any part of the country.”
Artistic Performance as a Reflection of Class Struggles
- Ngũgĩ highlights performance spaces as sites where class conflicts are played out, aligning with Marxist literary theory by focusing on how cultural production reflects social inequalities and struggles for control.
  - “Ultimately, the politics of the performance space and its location is a class question.”
Prison as a Metaphor for State Control Over Artistic Expression
- Ngũgĩ extends the concept of performance spaces to prisons, arguing that the state enacts its power by controlling bodies and minds, expanding on Foucauldian theories of surveillance and discipline.
  - “The prison is the enclosure in which the state organizes the use of space and time in such a way as to achieve what Foucault calls docile bodies and hence docile minds.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique through Ngũgĩ’s Theory	Key Ideas from “Enactments of Power”
William Shakespeare’s “The Tempest”	“The Tempest” can be critiqued through the lens of colonial power and resistance. Prospero’s control over the island and its inhabitants reflects the colonial state’s regulation of performance spaces, while Caliban’s rebellion can be seen as a form of artistic and political resistance.	“The war between art and the state is really a struggle between the power of performance in the arts and the performance of power by the state—in short, enactments of power.”
Bertolt Brecht’s “The Caucasian Chalk Circle”	Brecht’s play can be critiqued for its depiction of class struggles and how performance acts as a tool for political expression. The use of theatre as a didactic space aligns with Ngũgĩ’s idea of performance as a site for questioning state power.	“Ultimately, the politics of the performance space and its location is a class question. […] The human hand and mind have the entire limitless space and time for their performance of the struggle for human freedom and self-realization.”
Wole Soyinka’s “Death and the King’s Horseman”	Soyinka’s play can be critiqued for its representation of indigenous African performance spaces as contested by colonial authorities. The tension between tradition and colonial rule mirrors Ngũgĩ’s argument about state intervention in cultural practices.	“The state’s intervention in the content of the artist’s work—what goes by the name of censorship—but the main arena of struggle is the performance space.”
Lorraine Hansberry’s “A Raisin in the Sun”	Hansberry’s portrayal of African American experiences can be critiqued using Ngũgĩ’s concept of space and power. The struggles over housing and space in Chicago reflect the broader political struggle over who controls performance spaces and narratives.	“The politics of the performance space is a complex interplay of the entire field of internal and external relations of these forces in the context of time and history.”

Criticism Against “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

1. Overemphasis on State Power and Suppression

Criticism: Ngũgĩ’s focus on the state’s control over performance spaces may oversimplify the dynamics of artistic production and ignore the nuanced interactions between artists, audiences, and state authorities. It reduces art to a mere tool for political resistance or submission, leaving out other possible motivations for artistic expression, such as personal, aesthetic, or spiritual concerns.

Counterpoint: While state control over artistic spaces is real in many contexts, performance can also flourish in areas where the state is indifferent or even supportive. The relationship between art and power is not always adversarial.

2. Neglect of Non-Political Aspects of Performance

Criticism: Ngũgĩ’s theory, by centering on the political dimensions of performance spaces, may marginalize other important aspects of performance, such as entertainment, artistic innovation, and personal expression. His argument that all performances are acts of resistance or compliance with power structures might not account for performances that are primarily focused on aesthetics or tradition.

Counterpoint: While politics is an important aspect of performance, many performances (such as ritualistic or religious performances) function outside of or beyond political considerations. Ngũgĩ’s framework could be seen as too narrow.

3. Limited Application to Non-Colonial Contexts

Criticism: The focus on colonialism and postcolonial struggles may limit the applicability of Ngũgĩ’s theory to contexts outside of Africa or former colonies. His analysis of performance spaces is deeply rooted in the legacy of colonialism and the fight for cultural autonomy, which might not fully resonate with performance practices in other cultural or political settings, especially in non-colonial states.

Counterpoint: While Ngũgĩ’s insights are highly relevant to postcolonial societies, applying his theories to other cultural contexts might require adaptation or reconsideration of the role of performance space.

4. Binary Framing of State vs. Artist

Criticism: Ngũgĩ’s framing of the struggle between state power and the artist as a binary opposition might overlook the complexity of relationships within artistic spaces. In many cases, the state and artists may collaborate, and not all artists position themselves in opposition to state authority. His argument may leave little room for understanding these nuanced or cooperative dynamics.

Counterpoint: Many artists function within state-supported frameworks, and not all states are oppressive. This binary approach may limit the understanding of the varied roles that governments play in supporting or regulating performance.

5. Lack of Attention to Globalization and Modern Technology

Criticism: Ngũgĩ’s argument is focused on traditional, physical spaces of performance (such as theatres and public squares) and may not fully account for the contemporary realities of digital performance spaces, where art is increasingly disseminated through the internet and social media. His theory could be critiqued for not addressing how globalization and modern technology impact the power dynamics of performance spaces.

Counterpoint: As performance spaces evolve, Ngũgĩ’s ideas may need to be expanded or updated to include the growing influence of digital and global platforms that transcend the geographical limitations he discusses.

Representative Quotations from “Enactments of Power: The Politics of Performance Space” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “The war between art and the state is really a struggle between the power of performance in the arts and the performance of power by the state—in short, enactments of power.”	This quote encapsulates Ngũgĩ’s main argument that performance spaces are battlegrounds where the state exerts control over people, while artists challenge this control through their performances. It sets up the central theme of art as both a political tool and a site of resistance.
2. “The state performs power, the power of the artist is solely in the performance.”	Ngũgĩ emphasizes the distinction between how the state uses its authority to control, and how artists use performance as their primary mode of power. The state controls through formal institutions, while artists mobilize public consciousness through their creative work.
3. “The performance space is never empty. Bare, yes, open, yes, but never empty.”	This statement suggests that every performance space carries with it historical, social, and political meanings. Even an “empty” stage or space holds significance due to the forces of power and resistance that inhabit it.
4. “The struggle may take the form of the state’s intervention in the content of the artist’s work—what goes by the name of censorship—but the main arena of struggle is the performance space.”	Ngũgĩ identifies censorship as a tool used by the state to control artistic expression but argues that the actual space in which performances occur is the central site of conflict. This highlights the importance of physical space in the politics of performance.
5. “In a colonial situation, performance spaces are among the first sites to be contested as they embody not only cultural but also political and social meanings.”	This quote highlights the colonial context, where performance spaces became symbolic of larger cultural and political struggles. In colonial regimes, the control of performance spaces was often a way to enforce dominance and suppress resistance.
6. “Art breaks down barriers between peoples; the state erects them.”	Ngũgĩ emphasizes the role of art in fostering unity and breaking through the divisions that the state imposes. This contrast underscores his belief in the transformative power of art to challenge oppressive political structures.
7. “The performance space, in its entirety of internal and external factors, may be seen in relationship to time; in terms, that is, of what has gone before—history—and what could follow—the future.”	Ngũgĩ connects performance spaces to historical and future implications, suggesting that performances are not just present moments but are embedded in historical contexts and shape future possibilities.
8. “Prison is the enclosure in which the state organizes the use of space and time in such a way as to achieve docile bodies and, hence, docile minds.”	Here, Ngũgĩ discusses the prison as a metaphor for how the state controls space and time to dominate individuals, shaping their thoughts and actions. It reflects his critique of authoritarian control over both physical and mental freedom.
9. “In postcolonial societies, the politics of the performance space is a complex interplay of forces in the context of time and history.”	This quotation captures Ngũgĩ’s central argument that in postcolonial contexts, performance spaces are where different power dynamics, shaped by history and ongoing struggles, come into play.
10. “There is no performance without a goal. The state’s performance of power over the exits and entrances is about control, while the artist’s performance is about freedom.”	Ngũgĩ contrasts the motivations behind state power and artistic performance: the former seeks to regulate and control, while the latter aims to express freedom and challenge that control. This statement reinforces his theme of art as a site of resistance.

“Language in Everything to Declare” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o: Summary and Critique

“Language in Everything to Declare” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o was published in the 2010 issue of Wasafiri (volume 25, number 3).

Introduction: “Language in Everything to Declare” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

“Language in Everything to Declare” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o was published in the 2010 issue of Wasafiri (volume 25, number 3). This influential piece explores the multifaceted role of language in shaping identity, power, and resistance within postcolonial contexts. Thiong’o’s insights have significantly contributed to the fields of literary theory and postcolonial studies, challenging traditional notions of canon formation and advocating for the recognition of marginalized voices.

Summary of “Language in Everything to Declare” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

1. The Significance of Language in Identity and Literature

Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o discusses the importance of language in shaping identity, particularly for writers from Africa, Asia, and Latin America, who navigate their native and European languages.
- “A pilgrim, traversing many lands and cultures, negotiates the way through any number of languages.”

2. Language and Literary Visibility in the Global Context

He emphasizes the growing visibility of non-Western writers in the global literary landscape, especially African writers who confidently incorporate diverse cultural perspectives.
- “It is impossible to talk about the global literary scene without bringing those writers into the equation.”

3. Challenges of Language Among African Writers

Ngũgĩ explores the struggles faced by African writers who often prioritize English over their native languages, feeling pressure from a globalized literary scene.
- “The language issue remains problematic for the new generation, as it was for my generation of the 1960s.”

4. The Cultural Alienation of African Languages

He recounts an experience with young Nigerian writers, highlighting their alienation from their own languages, as they found it easier to write in English than in their mother tongues.
- “English had literally created a wall between them and their own languages.”

5. Linguistic Feudalism and its Global Impact

Ngũgĩ introduces the concept of linguistic feudalism, where languages are ranked hierarchically, with European languages at the top and others regarded as inferior.
- “Linguistic feudalism sees languages arranged in order of the nobility of being.”

6. Language as a Tool for Political and Cultural Unity

He critiques the belief that European languages unite nations, pointing out that they often create social and cultural divisions, particularly in multilingual societies.
- “English held Nigeria together; there was no Nigeria without English.”

7. The Power of Translation in Cultural Exchange

Ngũgĩ argues that translation is a vital tool for bridging linguistic and cultural divides, fostering a deeper exchange of ideas between African and non-African cultures.
- “Translation between and among languages is what makes possible the traffic of ideas.”

8. A Vision for Restoring African Languages

He envisions a restoration of African languages through translations, not just within Africa, but also from other world literatures, creating a global dialogue.
- “I see possible translations between African languages themselves.”

9. The Role of Language and Culture in Human Knowledge

Finally, Ngũgĩ stresses that the survival of languages is essential for the preservation of human knowledge, arguing that the loss of a language diminishes humanity.
- “The death of any language is the death of a piece of humanity.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Language in Everything to Declare” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference/Quotation
Linguistic Feudalism	A hierarchical system where languages are ranked based on perceived nobility or value, with European languages often seen as superior.	“Linguistic feudalism sees languages arranged in order of the nobility of being, the noblest occupying the higher realm and the lesser ones … descending.”
Cultural Alienation	The detachment or estrangement from one’s own culture and language due to the dominance of foreign languages and cultures.	“English had literally created a wall between them and their own languages.”
Translation as Cultural Exchange	The role of translation in facilitating the exchange of ideas and knowledge across cultures and languages, enabling mutual enrichment.	“Translation between and among languages is what makes possible the traffic of ideas.”
Europhone African Literature	Literature written by African writers in European languages, reflecting the dominance of colonial languages over African literary expression.	“What currently goes by the name African Literature is a complete misnomer… I call it Europhone African Literature.”
Linguistic Darwinism	The idea that stronger, dominant languages survive by marginalizing or eliminating weaker languages, similar to natural selection in biology.	“Linguistic feudalism leads to linguistic Darwinism, the survival of the fittest, the strong feeding on the weak.”
Restoration of African Languages	The vision of reviving and empowering African languages through translation and literary engagement, preserving their individuality.	“I see possible translations between African languages themselves.”
Global Literary Dialogue	The concept of fostering a worldwide conversation between literatures of different cultures and languages, enhancing global cultural understanding.	“A global human culture is dependent on the richness of all languages and not on a predatory few.”
Monolingualism vs. Multilingualism	The contrast between the use of a single language as a unifying force in nations versus the use of multiple languages that reflect diverse cultural identities.	“The centripetal character of a single language and centrifugal character of the many is taken as a norm.”
Linguistic and Cultural Hierarchy	The notion that certain languages and cultures are seen as more valuable or civilized, while others are viewed as inferior or barbaric.	“Some cultures are seen as constituting an aristocracy… Others are arranged in a descending order of value down to the tribal and the barbaric.”

Contribution of “Language in Everything to Declare” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory – Decolonizing Language and Identity

Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o addresses postcolonial theory by emphasizing the need to decolonize African languages and reject the dominance of European languages imposed during colonialism. He argues for the reclamation of indigenous languages as an essential part of identity and resistance to colonial power structures.
- “English had literally created a wall between them and their own languages.”

2. Linguistic Relativity in Cultural Theory

Ngũgĩ contributes to cultural theory by supporting the idea of linguistic relativity, which holds that language shapes thought and cultural identity. He emphasizes that losing a language means losing a unique way of understanding and interacting with the world.
- “The death of any language is the death of a piece of humanity.”

3. Translation Studies – Translation as Equal Cultural Exchange

Ngũgĩ critiques traditional views in translation studies, which often treat translation as a means of dominance (usually from European languages to others), and instead promotes translation as a tool for equal cultural exchange and dialogue between languages.
- “Translation between and among languages is what makes possible the traffic of ideas through the network, within a nation, between nations, or even across the globe.”

4. Hegemony in Gramscian Theory

Drawing on Gramsci’s theory of cultural hegemony, Ngũgĩ critiques the dominance of European languages in global and national contexts. He sees language as a site of power struggle, where European languages are imposed as “unifying,” while African languages are marginalized as divisive.
- “European languages were inherently unifying; African languages were inherently divisive.”

5. Linguistic Imperialism – Phillipson’s Theory

Ngũgĩ aligns with Robert Phillipson’s theory of linguistic imperialism, criticizing the way English (and other European languages) is privileged in postcolonial societies, contributing to cultural and linguistic hierarchies.
- “In the globe today, European languages form the linguistic aristocracy… This pattern of language relationships is reproduced also within nations.”

6. Poststructuralism – Challenging Linguistic Hierarchies

In line with poststructuralist theory, Ngũgĩ challenges the fixed, hierarchical relationships between languages, arguing for a deconstruction of the binary opposition between dominant (European) and marginalized (African) languages. He proposes a network model where all languages contribute equally to global cultural production.
- “We need to collapse the hierarchy and instead look at the relationship in terms of a network. In a network, there is no single centre.”

7. Multilingualism and Nation-Building in Nationalism Studies

Ngũgĩ critiques the common nationalist notion that monolingualism promotes national unity, contributing to nationalism studies by advocating for multilingualism as a more inclusive and accurate reflection of the cultural diversity within postcolonial nations.
- “The centripetal character of a single language and centrifugal character of the many is taken as a norm.”

8. Linguistic Human Rights Theory

In line with linguistic human rights theory, Ngũgĩ argues for the right to linguistic diversity, asserting that people have the right to access education, literature, and media in their native languages. He views linguistic suppression as a violation of cultural and human rights.
- “The assumed African language barriers were not okay… A linguistic class wall had been accepted as the norm.”

9. Globalization Theory – Language in a Globalized World

Ngũgĩ’s work contributes to globalization theory, particularly its critique of cultural homogenization. He argues that European languages have been globalized at the expense of local languages, and calls for a rebalancing where African and other marginalized languages play a more prominent role in global cultural exchange.
- “A global human culture is dependent on the richness of all languages and not on a predatory few.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Language in Everything to Declare” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique through Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o’s Concepts	Relevant Concepts from “Language in Everything to Declare”	Quotations from “Language in Everything to Declare”
*Things Fall Apart* by Chinua Achebe	Achebe uses English to reach a global audience but maintains an African worldview. Ngũgĩ might critique the use of English, advocating for Igbo instead.	Linguistic Feudalism and Cultural Alienation	“English had literally created a wall between them and their own languages.”
*Half of a Yellow Sun* by Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie	While Adichie’s work showcases African history, Ngũgĩ may argue that writing in English limits the cultural authenticity and promotes linguistic imperialism.	Postcolonial Theory and Linguistic Imperialism	“Marginalisation and eventual exclusion of a language from economic, political and cultural life leads to its death.”
*One Hundred Years of Solitude* by Gabriel García Márquez	Márquez’s use of Spanish for Latin American narratives fits Ngũgĩ’s vision of resisting linguistic hegemony by writing in one’s native language.	Cultural Resistance and Restoration of Indigenous Languages	“Translation as the way to bridge linguistic and cultural divides among African languages without them losing their individualities.”
*Beloved* by Toni Morrison	Morrison’s depiction of African American history in English might be critiqued by Ngũgĩ for reinforcing the dominance of European languages over African narratives.	Linguistic Darwinism and Linguistic Human Rights Theory	“The death of any language is the death of a piece of humanity.”

Criticism Against “Language in Everything to Declare” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

1. Overemphasis on Language as the Sole Medium of Cultural Identity

Critics might argue that Ngũgĩ places too much importance on language as the key to cultural identity, neglecting other forms of cultural expression (e.g., music, art, customs) that are equally significant in preserving a people’s heritage.

2. Idealization of Indigenous Languages

Ngũgĩ’s emphasis on writing in African languages may be seen as idealistic, given the practical challenges of literacy rates, publishing infrastructure, and the global market for literature, which are heavily dominated by European languages.

3. Underestimation of English’s Global Role in Communication

Critics may contend that Ngũgĩ underestimates the unifying role that English (and other colonial languages) play as a global lingua franca, especially in multicultural nations where multiple indigenous languages coexist.

4. Lack of Focus on Bilingual or Multilingual Solutions

The article largely advocates for prioritizing indigenous languages over colonial ones but could be criticized for not offering more nuanced solutions, such as bilingual or multilingual approaches, that could preserve both indigenous and global linguistic engagement.

5. Romanticization of Pre-Colonial Linguistic Purity

Some may criticize Ngũgĩ for romanticizing pre-colonial linguistic situations, overlooking the fact that language evolution, borrowing, and exchange are natural processes, and even indigenous languages are influenced by other cultures and languages.

6. Oversimplification of Translation as a Solution

While Ngũgĩ champions translation as a tool for bridging linguistic divides, critics might argue that translation alone cannot fully capture the nuances of original texts, and relying on it may not solve deeper issues of linguistic hierarchy and cultural dominance.

7. Limited Consideration of Global Literary Networks

The focus on African languages in Ngũgĩ’s vision might be seen as too narrow in the context of global literature. Critics may argue that his framework does not fully engage with the realities of international publishing, where writers seek global readership and recognition.

Representative Quotations from “Language in Everything to Declare” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “English had literally created a wall between them and their own languages.”	Ngũgĩ illustrates how the dominance of English alienates African writers from their native languages, reinforcing linguistic and cultural separation.
2. “Linguistic feudalism sees languages arranged in order of the nobility of being, the noblest occupying the higher realm.”	He critiques the hierarchical valuation of languages, where European languages are seen as superior and indigenous languages as inferior, rooted in colonial history.
3. “The death of any language is the death of a piece of humanity.”	This statement emphasizes that when a language dies, it takes with it a unique worldview, history, and knowledge, thus diminishing human cultural diversity.
4. “Translation between and among languages is what makes possible the traffic of ideas through the network, within a nation, between nations.”	Ngũgĩ highlights the importance of translation as a means of cultural and intellectual exchange, allowing languages to mutually enrich each other across borders.
5. “Marginalisation and eventual exclusion of a language from economic, political and cultural life leads to its death.”	He stresses that when a language is excluded from essential sectors of society, it faces extinction, as it loses its functionality and relevance in everyday life.
6. “European languages were inherently unifying; African languages were inherently divisive.”	Ngũgĩ critiques the colonial-era narrative that promoted European languages as unifying forces while portraying African languages as sources of division, which further marginalized indigenous tongues.
7. “I see possible translations between African languages themselves.”	This expresses Ngũgĩ’s vision for cross-cultural exchange within Africa, where African languages interact and grow through translation, fostering a pan-African literary and cultural dialogue.
8. “A global human culture is dependent on the richness of all languages and not on a predatory few.”	He advocates for a global culture that values all languages equally, rather than being dominated by a few powerful languages, which he sees as detrimental to cultural diversity.
9. “Linguistic feudalism leads to linguistic Darwinism, the survival of the fittest, the strong feeding on the weak.”	Ngũgĩ extends his concept of linguistic feudalism into linguistic Darwinism, where dominant languages thrive by suppressing weaker ones, drawing parallels to survival of the fittest in evolution.
10. “Monolingualism is seen as constituting a cohesive nation state, with smaller regional languages pulling it apart.”	He challenges the assumption that monolingualism unifies nations, arguing instead for the acceptance of multilingualism as a true reflection of national and cultural diversity.

Suggested Readings: “Language in Everything to Declare” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Books

Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. Anchor Books, 1994.
https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/55515/things-fall-apart-by-chinua-achebe/
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. Half of a Yellow Sun. Alfred A. Knopf, 2006.
https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/2021/half-of-a-yellow-sun-by-chimamanda-ngozi-adichie/

Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. Heinemann, 1986.
https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/601669/decolonising-the-mind-by-ngugi-wa-thiongo/
Said, Edward. Culture and Imperialism. Alfred A. Knopf, 1993.
https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/156178/culture-and-imperialism-by-edward-w-said/
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. Can the Subaltern Speak? Reflections on the History of an Idea. Columbia University Press, 1988.
https://cup.columbia.edu/book/can-the-subaltern-speak/9780231143853

Academic Articles

Ashcroft, Bill, et al. “The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post-Colonial Literatures.” Routledge, 2002.
https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780203426081/empire-writes-back-bill-ashcroft-gareth-griffiths-helen-tiffin
Mignolo, Walter D. “The Geopolitics of Knowledge and the Colonial Difference.” The South Atlantic Quarterly, vol. 101, no. 1, Winter 2002, pp. 57–96.
https://read.dukeupress.edu/south-atlantic-quarterly/article/101/1/57/3411/The-Geopolitics-of-Knowledge-and-the-Colonial
Makoni, Sinfree, and Alastair Pennycook. “Disinventing and Reconstituting Languages.” Critical Inquiry in Language Studies, vol. 2, no. 3, 2005, pp. 137-156.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1207/s15427587clis0203_1

Websites

Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o – Official Website http://www.ngugiwathiongo.com/
Postcolonial Studies @ Emory University http://postcolonialstudies.emory.edu/
Wasafiri – The Magazine for International Contemporary Writing https://www.wasafiri.org/

Day: September 12, 2024