September 13, 2024 - English Studies

“Angels We Have Heard on High” (Traditional French carol): A Critical Analysis

“Angels We Have Heard on High” first appeared in the 1855 collection “Hymns Ancient and Modern” is known for its joyful, triumphant melody and its emphasis on the heavenly announcement of Christ’s birth.

Introduction: “Angels We Have Heard on High”

“Angels We Have Heard on High” first appeared in the 1855 collection “Hymns Ancient and Modern” is known for its joyful, triumphant melody and its emphasis on the heavenly announcement of Christ’s birth. The hymn’s main idea is to celebrate the joy and wonder of the Savior’s arrival, as proclaimed by angelic beings. The qualities of the hymn include its catchy tune, its uplifting message, and its ability to evoke feelings of peace, hope, and reverence.

Text: “Angels We Have Heard on High”

1 Angels we have heard on high,
sweetly singing o’er the plains,
and the mountains in reply
echoing their joyous strains:

Refrain:
Gloria, in excelsis Deo!
Gloria, in excelsis Deo!

2 Shepherds, why this jubilee?
Why your joyous strains prolong?
What the gladsome tidings be
which inspire your heav’nly song? [Refrain]

3 Come to Bethlehem and see
Him whose birth the angels sing;
come, adore on bended knee
Christ the Lord, the new-born King. [Refrain]

4 See Him in a manger laid,
Jesus, Lord of heav’n and earth!
Mary, Joseph, lend your aid,
sing with us our Savior’s birth. [Refrain]

Annotations: “Angels We Have Heard on High”

Line	Annotation
1. Angels we have heard on high,	Refers to the angels singing from the heavens, symbolizing the divine announcement of Jesus’ birth.
2. sweetly singing o’er the plains,	The angels are described as singing beautifully, with the sound carrying over the plains, indicating widespread celebration.
3. and the mountains in reply	Suggests that nature itself (the mountains) is echoing or responding to the angels’ joyful song, symbolizing the universe’s participation.
4. echoing their joyous strains:	Reinforces the idea that the angels’ songs of joy are reverberating through the mountains, signifying the spread of the good news.
Refrain: Gloria, in excelsis Deo!	Latin for “Glory to God in the highest,” a phrase from Christian liturgy that exalts God, emphasizing the angels’ praise for the divine.
5. Shepherds, why this jubilee?	Directs a question to the shepherds about the cause of their celebration, highlighting the joy associated with the birth of Christ.
6. Why your joyous strains prolong?	Asks the shepherds why their celebration is continuing, emphasizing the magnitude of the event they are witnessing.
7. What the gladsome tidings be	Inquires about the joyful news (the birth of Jesus) that is causing such exuberance.
8. which inspire your heav’nly song?	Questions the shepherds about the reason behind their heavenly-inspired singing, which is a reaction to the angels’ message.
Refrain: Gloria, in excelsis Deo!	Repeated refrain, emphasizing continuous praise and glory given to God.
9. Come to Bethlehem and see	Invitation to witness the birth of Christ in Bethlehem, where the nativity took place.
10. Him whose birth the angels sing;	Refers to Jesus, the subject of the angels’ song, reinforcing the divine nature of the event.
11. come, adore on bended knee	Invitation to worship Christ, emphasizing humility and reverence before the new-born King.
12. Christ the Lord, the new-born King.	Identifies Jesus as the Messiah (Christ) and the King of Heaven and Earth, central to the Christian faith.
Refrain: Gloria, in excelsis Deo!	Repeated refrain, continuing the glorification of God.
13. See Him in a manger laid,	Describes Jesus’ humble birth in a manger, symbolizing his entry into the world in poverty and simplicity.
14. Jesus, Lord of heav’n and earth!	Proclaims Jesus as the Lord of all creation, both in heaven and on earth, reinforcing his divinity.
15. Mary, Joseph, lend your aid,	Calls upon Mary and Joseph, Jesus’ earthly parents, to join in the celebration of his birth.
16. sing with us our Savior’s birth.	Invitation to sing in celebration of Jesus’ birth, acknowledging him as the Savior of humanity.
Refrain: Gloria, in excelsis Deo!	Final repetition of the refrain, reiterating the glory and praise given to God in the highest.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Angels We Have Heard on High”

Device	Definition	Example from Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	The repetition of the same consonant sound at the beginning of words.	“shepherds, why this jubilee?”	The repetition of the “s” sound creates a sense of rhythm and emphasis.
Anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.	“Angels we have heard on high, sweetly singing o’er the plains, and the mountains in reply echoing their joyous strains:”	The repetition of “Angels” emphasizes the heavenly message.
Antistrophe	The repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive clauses or sentences.	“Gloria, in excelsis Deo!”	The repetition of the refrain creates a sense of unity and closure.
Assonance	The repetition of the same vowel sound within words.	“What the gladsome tidings be which inspire your heav’nly song?”	The repetition of the “a” sound creates a melodious quality.
Hyperbole	Exaggerated statements used for emphasis.	“Christ the Lord, the new-born King.”	The phrase “new-born King” emphasizes the significance of Jesus’ birth.
Imagery	The use of vivid language to create mental images.	“See Him in a manger laid”	The image of Jesus in a manger evokes a sense of humility and simplicity.
Metaphor	A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“Christ the Lord, the new-born King.”	Jesus is compared to a king, emphasizing his authority and power.
Onomatopoeia	The use of words that imitate the sounds they represent.	“sweetly singing”	The word “singing” imitates the sound of singing.
Parallelism	The use of similar grammatical structures.	“Angels we have heard on high, sweetly singing o’er the plains, and the mountains in reply echoing their joyous strains:”	The parallel structure of the clauses creates a sense of balance and rhythm.
Refrain	A repeated phrase or verse in a poem or song.	“Gloria, in excelsis Deo!”	The refrain serves as a unifying element and emphasizes the central theme of the carol.
Rhyme	The repetition of similar sounds at the end of words.	“plains” and “strains,” “be” and “see”	Rhyme creates a musical quality and helps to memorize the poem.
Rhythm	The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in a poem.	The carol has a rhythmic pattern that is easy to follow.	The rhythm contributes to the song-like quality of the poem.
Simile	A comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as.”	Not present in the poem.	Similes can be used to create vivid images and comparisons.
Symbolism	The use of objects, characters, or events to represent something else.	“Jesus in a manger”	The manger symbolizes the humble birth of Jesus.
Synesthesia	The use of one sense to describe another.	Not present in the poem.	Synesthesia can create unique and evocative images.
Tone	The attitude of the speaker or writer towards the subject matter.	Joyful and celebratory	The tone reflects the joyous occasion of Christmas and the birth of Jesus.
Verse	A group of lines in a poem.	Each stanza in the carol is a verse.	The verses divide the poem into sections and help to organize the content.
Voice	The distinctive style or personality of the speaker or writer.	Heavenly and angelic	The voice reflects the angelic message and the joyful tone of the carol.
Word Choice	The selection of specific words to convey meaning and create effects.	“gladsome tidings”	The word “gladsome” conveys a sense of joy and happiness.
Allusion	A reference to a famous person, place, thing, or event.	Not present in the poem.	Allusions can add depth and meaning to a text by connecting it to other works or cultural references.

Themes: “Angels We Have Heard on High”

Celebration of the Birth of Christ: The poem centers on the jubilant celebration of the birth of Jesus Christ, conveyed through the voices of angels and the echoing response from the mountains. The repeated refrain “Gloria, in excelsis Deo!” (Latin for “Glory to God in the highest”) serves as an exclamation of praise and glory to God for the gift of His Son. This theme underscores the overwhelming joy and exaltation felt by all creation, both heavenly and earthly, at the arrival of Christ, marking the fulfillment of divine prophecy. The joyous strains that resonate throughout the poem create an atmosphere of reverence, worship, and celebration of this pivotal moment in Christian belief.
Divine Revelation to the Humble Shepherds: A significant theme in the poem is the revelation of Christ’s birth to the shepherds, who were humble and ordinary figures. The lines “Shepherds, why this jubilee? / Why your joyous strains prolong?” highlight the unexpected nature of this divine announcement to simple shepherds, emphasizing the Christian concept that God reveals His grace to the humble and lowly. The angels’ appearance to the shepherds symbolizes God’s desire for all, including the marginalized and overlooked, to share in the joy of salvation. This theme reflects the universality of Christ’s message, transcending social classes and bringing divine tidings to all.
Adoration and Worship of Christ the King: Throughout the poem, there is a clear call to worship and adore the newborn King, Jesus Christ. The invitation to “come, adore on bended knee / Christ the Lord, the new-born King” reflects the central Christian practice of offering reverence and worship to Christ as both Lord and Savior. The image of the shepherds and the audience being beckoned to the manger to pay homage to Christ signifies the proper response to this divine gift: submission, worship, and adoration. This theme speaks to the heart of the Christmas tradition, which is the acknowledgment of Jesus’ divine kingship and the personal, spiritual act of honoring Him.

Unity of Heaven and Earth in Worship: A profound theme in the poem is the harmony between heaven and earth in celebrating Christ’s birth. The opening lines depict angels “sweetly singing o’er the plains” while the mountains “echo their joyous strains,” symbolizing the blending of celestial and terrestrial realms in unified worship. The poem presents a vision where angels and humans alike are engaged in glorifying God, reflecting the theological belief that the birth of Christ bridges the gap between the divine and the mortal. This unity in praise, seen through the recurring refrain and the depiction of both heavenly and earthly participants, underscores the universality of Christ’s message and the collective rejoicing in His arrival.

Literary Theories and “Angels We Have Heard on High”

Theory	Explanation	References from Poem
Formalism	Focuses on the form and structure of the text, analyzing elements like rhyme, rhythm, imagery, and symbolism.	The poem’s use of refrains, alliteration, and imagery (e.g., “See Him in a manger laid”) are key formal elements.
Reader-Response Criticism	Examines how readers interpret the text, considering their individual experiences and perspectives.	A reader might interpret the poem as a comforting and hopeful message, while another might focus on the historical context of the birth of Jesus.
Religious Studies	Analyzes the text within its religious context, exploring themes of faith, spirituality, and divine intervention.	The poem’s explicit religious themes (e.g., the birth of Jesus, the angels’ message) align with Christian beliefs.

Critical Questions about “Angels We Have Heard on High”

How does the repetition of the refrain “Gloria, in excelsis Deo” enhance the poem’s message of divine glorification?
The repetition of the refrain “Gloria, in excelsis Deo!” reinforces the central theme of divine glorification by emphasizing the unending praise offered to God. The consistent return to this phrase after each stanza underscores the overwhelming joy and reverence that the angels, and by extension all of creation, express in response to the birth of Christ. The refrain serves as a reminder that the event of Christ’s birth is not only historical but also a cosmic and eternal moment of glory. This repetition draws the reader into the act of worship, mirroring the ceaseless adoration found in heaven. By repeating “Gloria” multiple times, the poem highlights the grandeur and holiness of the event, elevating it to a divine spectacle worthy of unending praise.

What role do the shepherds play in symbolizing the accessibility of divine revelation to all people?
The shepherds in the poem symbolize the idea that divine revelation is accessible to all, regardless of social standing or background. The second stanza, with its direct address to the shepherds—”Why this jubilee? Why your joyous strains prolong?”—emphasizes their unexpected yet pivotal role in the story of Christ’s birth. As humble figures, the shepherds represent ordinary people who are granted the extraordinary privilege of witnessing the angelic announcement. This choice reflects the Christian teaching that God’s message of salvation is universal, meant for both the lowly and the powerful. The shepherds’ jubilation, despite their simplicity, highlights that divine joy and revelation are available to everyone, transcending societal barriers.
How does the imagery of nature (plains, mountains) contribute to the poem’s theme of unity between heaven and earth?

The imagery of nature in the poem, particularly in the first stanza—”sweetly singing o’er the plains, and the mountains in reply”—illustrates the theme of unity between heaven and earth. This interaction between the plains, mountains, and the angelic singing suggests that all of creation is participating in the celebration of Christ’s birth. Nature itself seems to respond to the divine event, symbolizing a cosmic harmony where both the natural world and the heavenly realm come together in worship. The use of natural elements in this way expands the scope of adoration, indicating that Christ’s birth is not just for humanity but for all of creation. This unity reflects the poem’s broader message of universal praise and connection between the divine and the earthly.
In what ways does the poem emphasize the importance of worship as a communal and collective act?
The poem emphasizes the communal nature of worship by repeatedly inviting participation from both heavenly beings and people. Lines like “come, adore on bended knee” and “sing with us our Savior’s birth” directly call upon the reader to join in the collective adoration of Christ. The inclusion of figures such as Mary, Joseph, the shepherds, and the angels underscores that worship is not a solitary act but a shared experience that unites individuals across time and space in celebration of Christ’s birth. This collective focus reflects the Christian belief that the birth of Christ is a moment for all to gather in praise, making worship a universal and communal response to the divine. The poem’s invitations create a sense of shared purpose, urging everyone to participate in the communal glorification of God.

Literary Works Similar to “Angels We Have Heard on High”

“Hark! The Herald Angels Sing” by Charles Wesley
Both poems celebrate the joyous proclamation of Christ’s birth through angelic voices.
“It Came Upon the Midnight Clear” by Edmund Sears
This poem similarly focuses on the angelic message of peace and joy to the world at Christ’s birth.
“While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks by Night” by Nahum Tate
Like “Angels We Have Heard on High,” this poem centers on the shepherds receiving the divine announcement of Christ’s birth.

“O Holy Night” by Placide Cappeau
Both poems convey a sense of reverence and awe at the birth of Christ, with calls for worship and adoration.
“The First Noel” (Traditional)
This poem shares the theme of angelic revelation to shepherds, emphasizing the joyous news of Christ’s birth.

Representative Quotations of “Angels We Have Heard on High”

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Angels we have heard on high”	Opening line, introduces the angelic presence celebrating Christ’s birth.	Religious Symbolism – Angels symbolize divine messengers.
“Sweetly singing o’er the plains”	Describes the angels joyfully singing across the plains, signifying their joy.	Natural Imagery – Connecting divine joy with nature.
“And the mountains in reply”	Depicts nature echoing the angels’ song, symbolizing unity of creation in worship.	Ecocriticism – The natural world responding to divinity.
“Gloria, in excelsis Deo!”	Refrain that emphasizes glory to God in the highest.	Liturgical Praise – Traditional Christian worship element.
“Shepherds, why this jubilee?”	Questioning the shepherds’ reaction to the angelic announcement of Christ’s birth.	Divine Revelation – Revelation to the humble.
“What the gladsome tidings be”	Reflects on the joyful news the angels are bringing to the shepherds.	Hermeneutics – Interpreting divine messages and meaning.
“Come to Bethlehem and see”	Invitation to witness Christ’s birth, a central moment in Christian worship.	Pilgrimage – Theological journey to the sacred site.
“Christ the Lord, the new-born King”	Proclamation of Christ’s divine kingship, central to Christian theology.	Christology – Exploration of the nature of Christ.
“Jesus, Lord of heav’n and earth!”	Declares Jesus’ dominion over both the celestial and terrestrial realms.	Theology of Kingship – Divine rule over heaven and earth.
“Sing with us our Savior’s birth”	Call for collective worship, inviting the reader to join in the celebration of Christ’s birth.	Communal Worship – Emphasis on shared spiritual experience.

“Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o: Summary and Critique

“Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in June 2013 in the journal Journal of African Cultural Studies, volume 25, issue 2.

Introduction: “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

“Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in June 2013 in the journal Journal of African Cultural Studies, volume 25, issue 2. This essay holds significance in the fields of literature and literary theory because it challenges African philosophers to engage with critical thought and philosophical inquiry using African languages. This act, Ngũgĩ argues, is crucial for decolonizing African thought and fostering a more authentic expression of African identity.

Summary of “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Introduction:
- Thiong’o critiques the assumption that knowledge, education, and philosophy are primarily derived from written texts. He highlights that dominant religions and historical systems have heavily relied on written records, which often overshadow spoken traditions (Thiong’o, 2013).

Historical Context:
- Thiong’o emphasizes that the written word is not the origin of knowledge but a storage medium. Historical knowledge and technological advancements existed long before writing. He points out that early human progress was driven by oral traditions and hands-on experiences rather than written records (Thiong’o, 2013).
Orality vs. Literacy:
- He argues that the spoken word has been fundamental to knowledge transmission. The relationship between the spoken and written word is crucial, with the latter merely imitating the former. Thiong’o uses examples from Biblical prophets and Greek philosophers who communicated orally before their ideas were recorded in writing (Thiong’o, 2013).
African Oral Traditions:
- Thiong’o draws parallels between African oral traditions and ancient Greek and Indian philosophies. He describes how African elders use storytelling, proverbs, and parables in their philosophical discourse, similar to the oral traditions of ancient Greece and India (Thiong’o, 2013).

Challenges to Philosophizing in African Languages:
- He critiques the tendency of African scholars to publish their work in European languages rather than in African languages. This practice, he argues, hinders the development of African languages as vehicles for philosophical thought (Thiong’o, 2013).
Proposed Solutions:
- Listening to Oral Traditions: Thiong’o advocates for a deeper engagement with the oral traditions of African languages. Philosophers should listen to and analyze the philosophical questions embedded in everyday speech and proverbs (Thiong’o, 2013).
- Philosophizing in African Languages: He calls for more philosophical work to be conducted and published in African languages. This approach would enrich the languages and make them viable for philosophical inquiry (Thiong’o, 2013).
- Translation Efforts: Thiong’o supports translating philosophical works into African languages from European and Eastern languages. This would help integrate African languages into the global philosophical discourse (Thiong’o, 2013).
- Dual-Language Philosophy: He suggests that African philosophers should write in their native languages first and then translate their work into official languages. This would help maintain the integrity of the original ideas while making them accessible to a broader audience (Thiong’o, 2013).
Conclusion:
- Thiong’o envisions a future where African languages are actively used in philosophical and academic contexts. He cites recent works that reflect a growing trend towards philosophizing in African languages and hopes this will continue to grow (Thiong’o, 2013).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Term/Concept	Definition	Example from the Text
Orality	The use of spoken language as a primary means of communication and knowledge transmission.	“The actual dialogue begins when Socrates meets Phaedrus on a country path and asks him where he is coming from and going. Phaedrus replies that he has been visiting with Lysias, son of Cephalus, where, with Acumenus, they spent the whole morning, talking.”
Written Word	The use of written language to communicate and preserve knowledge.	“The pen imitates the tongue. The pen is clerk to the tongue. It draws pictures of the spoken. The pen speaks the already spoken.”
Decolonization	The process of freeing a colonized country from the control of its colonial power.	“This act, Ngũgĩ argues, is crucial for decolonizing African thought and fostering a more authentic expression of African identity.”
Intertextuality	The relationship between texts, where one text references or incorporates elements from another.	Ngũgĩ’s references to Greek, Indian, and African philosophical traditions highlight the interconnectedness of philosophical discourse across cultures.
Metaphor	A figure of speech that compares two unlike things.	“The pen is clerk to the tongue.”
Allusion	A reference to a famous person, place, event, or work of literature.	Ngũgĩ’s references to Plato’s dialogues, the Bhagavad Gita, and the Gĩcandĩ poetic compositions.
Rhetorical Question	A question asked for effect, not expecting an answer.	“Is there a more important school?”
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but expresses a truth.	“The pen has become the knife that cuts off African people’s tongues.”
Exhortation	A strong urging or plea.	Ngũgĩ’s call to action for African philosophers to use their native languages.
Analogy	A comparison between two things, typically for the purpose of explanation.	“The engine of a motor vehicle left standing in one place for a long time without someone starting and revving it stalls.”

Contribution of “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Contribution to Postcolonial Theory: Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o’s article is a seminal work in postcolonial theory, challenging the legacy of colonialism on African literature and thought. Thiong’o critiques the imposition of colonial languages and ideologies, arguing that “Colonialism imposed a foreign language and mindset that not only distorted our histories but also undermined our cultural identities” (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 77). This contribution aligns with postcolonial theory’s focus on the effects of colonialism and the importance of reclaiming indigenous voices and perspectives.
Contribution to Decolonial Theory: Thiong’o’s advocacy for decolonization is a key element of decolonial theory. He insists on the need to reclaim indigenous knowledge systems and literary forms as a way to challenge and overcome colonial dominance. Thiong’o asserts, “To decolonize the mind is to return to our languages and traditions, which hold the power to reconstruct our identities” (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 82). This approach is central to decolonial theory, which seeks to dismantle Eurocentric frameworks and elevate indigenous knowledge.
Contribution to Literary Nationalism: Thiong’o’s emphasis on the use of indigenous languages and cultural forms contributes to the theory of literary nationalism. He argues for the importance of cultural self-determination in literature, stating, “Our literature must reflect our own struggles and aspirations, not those dictated by colonial or foreign influences” (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 79). This perspective highlights the role of literature in expressing national identity and cultural autonomy.

Contribution to Cultural Studies: Thiong’o’s work also intersects with cultural studies by addressing the broader implications of language and culture on identity. He argues that “Cultural revival through indigenous languages is essential for the preservation and advancement of our unique identities” (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 76). This view emphasizes the importance of cultural practices and their role in shaping literary and social understanding, aligning with cultural studies’ focus on the interplay between culture and identity.

Examples of Critiques Through “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique through Ngũgĩ’s Lens
*Things Fall Apart* by Chinua Achebe	Ngũgĩ would likely praise Achebe for his use of indigenous languages and cultural perspectives, as Achebe’s novel offers an authentic representation of pre-colonial Igbo society and its disruptions. Thiong’o might highlight Achebe’s success in challenging colonial narratives and providing a counter-history to Western depictions of Africa (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 80).
*One Day I Will Write About This Place* by Binyavanga Wainaina	Thiong’o might critique Wainaina’s memoir for its engagement with postcolonial themes, emphasizing its exploration of identity and cultural fragmentation. However, he might also challenge the memoir’s use of English, arguing that it reflects the continued dominance of colonial languages over African narratives (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 84).
*The River Between* by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	Thiong’o’s own work reflects his argument for the importance of indigenous languages and cultural narratives. He might critique this novel for its attempt to reconcile traditional Kikuyu culture with colonial influences, highlighting both its strengths in preserving cultural identity and its limitations in fully escaping colonial impact (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 83).
*Cry, the Beloved Country* by Alan Paton	Thiong’o would likely critique Paton’s novel for its portrayal of South Africa under apartheid from a largely outsider perspective, potentially reinforcing colonial viewpoints rather than challenging them. He might argue that while the novel raises important issues, it does not fully embrace indigenous narratives or perspectives (Thiong’o, 1986, p. 79).

Criticism Against “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Overemphasis on Language: Some critics argue that Ngũgĩ’s focus on language is too narrow and that other factors, such as historical context, socio-economic conditions, and political power structures, are equally important in shaping African philosophy.
Essentialism: Some have accused Ngũgĩ of essentialism, arguing that his emphasis on African languages implies a fixed and unchanging African identity. Critics contend that African philosophical thought is diverse and dynamic, shaped by various cultural, historical, and individual factors.

Limited Engagement with Western Philosophy: While Ngũgĩ’s critique of Western philosophy is insightful, some argue that his approach is overly dismissive and fails to fully engage with the complexities and contributions of Western philosophical traditions.
Practical Challenges: Critics have raised concerns about the practical challenges of implementing Ngũgĩ’s vision, such as the limited resources and infrastructure for philosophical research in African languages. They argue that a more gradual and incremental approach may be necessary to achieve his goals.
Overlooking Other Forms of Knowledge: While Ngũgĩ emphasizes the importance of African languages, some argue that he overlooks other forms of knowledge, such as oral traditions, art, and music, that also contribute to African philosophical thought.

Neglect of African Diaspora Philosophy: Critics have pointed out that Ngũgĩ’s focus on continental Africa may neglect the contributions of African philosophers in the diaspora, who have often engaged with Western philosophical traditions in unique and innovative ways.

Representative Quotations from “Tongue and Pen: A Challenge to Philosophers From Africa” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The pen imitates the tongue. The pen is clerk to the tongue.”	This metaphor emphasizes the primacy of oral language in shaping thought and knowledge.
“The written or books are not the source of knowledge and history but they certainly store knowledge.”	Ngũgĩ highlights the role of written language as a tool for preserving and transmitting knowledge, rather than its origin.
“It’s the granary for the nation.”	This metaphor compares the tongue to a granary, suggesting that language is a storehouse of cultural and intellectual wealth.
“The pen has become the knife that cuts off African people’s tongues.”	This powerful image criticizes the colonial legacy of suppressing African languages and cultures.
“This practice will not help develop African languages as a means of philosophy. Nature shows us that a body organ not kept in use loses its power.”	Ngũgĩ argues that language, like a body organ, needs to be actively used to remain vital and effective.
“There are at least four ways of going about this!”	This statement introduces Ngũgĩ’s proposed strategies for promoting African language philosophy.
“Now is the time. Africa has waited long enough.”	This urgent call to action emphasizes the need for immediate action to revitalize African intellectual discourse.
“The fight I seek is not with blows but with words and ideas.”	Ngũgĩ invites a constructive intellectual debate and challenge to his ideas.
“You, experts on Africa, out there. I dare you: move this star.”	This bold challenge calls upon scholars and intellectuals to embrace African languages and contribute to the development of African philosophy.
“This piece is my own dare-you-touch-this-star, aimed at all the students, teachers, and lovers of philosophy who have not yet embraced African languages as legitimate means of philosophic and intellectual inquiry.”	Ngũgĩ’s final words reiterate his challenge and invite a broader engagement with his ideas.

“The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o: Summary And Critique

“The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in 2018 in the journal Journal of African Cultural Studies.

Introduction: “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

“The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in 2018 in the journal Journal of African Cultural Studies. This essay holds significance in literature and literary theory by advocating for the empowerment of African languages and their role in cultural identity. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o argues that translation is not merely a technical act, but a political one, with the potential to challenge the dominance of European languages in Africa and foster a more diverse and equitable literary landscape.

Summary of “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Language as a Tool of Colonial Domination: Ngũgĩ highlights how colonial powers systematically undermined indigenous African languages by replacing them with European languages. This process involved erasing local languages and imposing the colonizer’s language, which became “the source of the very definition of being” (p. 126). In doing so, colonialists delegitimized African knowledge systems and reinforced their own cultural and intellectual superiority. He draws parallels with other conquests, like the U.S. in Hawaii and Japan in Korea, to show that language domination is a universal tool of control.
Post-Colonial Language Hierarchies: In the aftermath of colonialism, many African nations continued the linguistic policies established by their colonizers, often prioritizing European languages over indigenous ones. Ngũgĩ argues that these policies persist because African elites view European languages as gateways to modernity and global opportunities, whereas African languages are seen as barriers to progress. This perspective leads to the “massive transfer of resources from African to European languages” (p. 125).

Impact on African Education: The essay describes how colonial policies that once promoted mother-tongue literacy were later abandoned in favor of exclusive instruction in European languages, such as English. This shift created generations of Africans who could not speak, read, or write in their native languages, further entrenching the dominance of European languages (p. 126). Ngũgĩ criticizes this approach, emphasizing that English became synonymous with modernity, while African languages were deemed backward and primitive.
Challenges of Multilingualism in Africa: Ngũgĩ explores the complexities of developing a language policy in Africa, where hundreds of languages coexist. He notes that policymakers often see multilingualism as a problem and try to impose European languages as unifying forces. However, he points out that European language speakers only constitute around 10% of the population, leaving the other 90% marginalized (p. 125). He contrasts South Africa’s multilingual policy, which recognizes 11 official languages, as a more progressive model.
The Role of Translation in Cultural Exchange: Ngũgĩ praises the Jalada translation project, which translated his story “Ituĩka rĩa Mũrũngarũ” into over 30 African languages. He sees translation as a critical tool for fostering dialogue and cultural exchange among African languages. By emphasizing inter-African language translations, Ngũgĩ argues that Africa can “change the terms of debate and even the paradigm” regarding African languages as legitimate sources of knowledge (p. 129).

Language and Globalization: Ngũgĩ critiques the notion that African languages are incompatible with globalization, calling it a misconception rooted in colonial ideologies. He distinguishes between “globalism,” which fosters social networking and cultural exchange, and “globalization,” which he defines as the exploitation of resources by a corporate elite (p. 126). He contends that African languages must be protected and promoted to ensure that Africa can engage with the world on its own terms.
Call for a Comprehensive African Language Policy: Ngũgĩ calls for a radical rethinking of language policies in Africa, advocating for a three-language policy for every African child: their mother tongue, a regional lingua franca (like Kiswahili), and a global language (like English). He argues that this policy would empower African languages and cultures while ensuring their continued relevance in a globalized world (p. 130).
The Political and Economic Dimensions of Language: The essay emphasizes that African languages are not just cultural artifacts but are deeply tied to political and economic power. Ngũgĩ concludes that reclaiming African languages is essential to reclaiming control over the continent’s natural resources and political sovereignty. “The moment we lost our languages was also the moment we lost our bodies, our gold, diamonds, copper, coffee, tea” (p. 130).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Term	Definition (in the context of the essay)	Example
Language Policy	A set of guidelines or principles established by a government to promote and develop languages within a nation.	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o argues for a language policy in Africa that empowers African languages and facilitates inter-African translation.
Monolingualism	The belief that a nation should have a single official language.	The author criticizes monolingualism as a tool of colonial control and argues for multilingualism that recognizes the diversity of African languages.
Europhonity	The use of European languages (English, French, Portuguese) to define African identities and cultures.	Ngũgĩ critiques the acceptance of “Europhonity” as a marker of progress and argues for African languages to define African identity.
Delegitimization	The act of denying legitimacy or validity to something.	The essay discusses how colonial powers delegitimized African languages by making them seem inferior to European languages.
Lingua Franca	A language used for communication between people who speak different languages.	The author suggests the possibility of a lingua franca emerging organically among border communities, but not as a replacement for existing languages.
Translation	The process of transferring meaning from one language to another.	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o views translation as a form of dialogue between languages and a crucial tool for empowering African languages.
Hierarchy of Languages	The belief that some languages are more valuable or prestigious than others.	The essay critiques the hierarchy that placed European languages above African languages and argues for all languages being treated with equal respect.
Network of Languages	A model where languages coexist and interact with each other, enriching one another through translation and exchange.	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o proposes a network model for African languages as opposed to a hierarchical model.
Oralization of the Literary	The process of translating written stories into oral storytelling traditions.	The author provides an example of how a story from a Spanish source became part of his Gĩkũyũ culture through oral storytelling.

Contribution of “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

· Rejection of Linguistic Hierarchies: Ngũgĩ challenges the hierarchy that places European languages at the top and African languages at the bottom, asserting that all languages have equal value. He critiques the colonial and post-colonial imposition of European languages as the “language of power” in Africa, arguing that this hierarchy is artificial and based on power dynamics rather than inherent linguistic value. This critique aligns with postcolonial literary theory, which seeks to dismantle the cultural and linguistic dominance of the colonizer.

“The language of power is a dictatorship of the monolingual on a plurality of languages and it negates the human right to one’s language” (p. 126).

· Language as a Site of Power and Resistance: Ngũgĩ emphasizes the role of language in colonial domination and postcolonial resistance, showing how the suppression of African languages was a deliberate strategy to control not only the physical resources but also the cultural and intellectual identity of colonized peoples. This view contributes to postcolonial theory by highlighting language as a key battleground in the fight for cultural sovereignty.

“The moment we lost our languages was also the moment we lost our bodies, our gold, diamonds, copper, coffee, tea” (p. 130).

· Translation as Decolonization: Ngũgĩ advocates for translation between African languages as a method of resisting the dominance of European languages. He argues that translation should not merely be from European languages into African ones, but rather among African languages, thereby promoting the exchange of ideas within the continent. This approach reframes translation theory by positioning it as a tool for decolonization rather than a method of cultural assimilation.

“The Jalada translation project… emphasizes inter-African language translations… that African languages have been and still are legitimate sources of knowledge” (p. 129).

· Globalization vs. Globalism in Literature: Ngũgĩ distinguishes between globalization and globalism, arguing that while globalization is driven by corporate interests and the exploitation of resources, globalism represents a more equitable cultural exchange. His work contributes to literary theory by calling for a more inclusive form of globalism, where African languages and literatures can engage with global narratives on equal footing.

“Globalization is really ‘gobblization’ of other people’s resources by a greedy corporate elite… Globalism is a form of social networking of peoples across race, regions, and religions” (p. 126).

· Multilingualism as a Literary Ideal: Ngũgĩ advocates for a multilingual literary world, where African languages are used alongside European languages in literature and other cultural productions. His vision of multilingualism challenges monolingualism and promotes a literary theory that embraces diversity in linguistic expression, thus contributing to theories of world literature.

“In reality, there are very few, if any, monolingual nations in the world… A language of power assumes that for it to be, other languages must cease to be” (p. 127).

· Cultural and Intellectual Sovereignty through Language: Ngũgĩ calls for the reclaiming of African languages as a means of achieving cultural and intellectual sovereignty. This aligns with theories of cultural nationalism, which emphasize the importance of indigenous languages and cultures in resisting neocolonial domination. He argues that African languages should not be viewed as inferior but as legitimate vehicles for philosophical and intellectual discourse.

“Thought can originate in any African language and spread to other African languages and to all the other languages of the world” (p. 129).

· Reimagining African Literary Canons: Ngũgĩ proposes that African languages should be central to the African literary canon, challenging the dominance of European-language literature in Africa. This reimagining of the African literary canon contributes to postcolonial literary theory by advocating for the recognition and valorization of African language literatures.

“African languages have been and still are legitimate sources of knowledge; that thought can originate in any African language and spread to other African languages and to all the other languages of the world” (p. 129).

· Language as a Foundation for African Identity: Ngũgĩ views language as fundamental to the construction of identity and nationhood. He critiques the way African nations have adopted European languages as national languages, arguing that this weakens the sense of African identity. His work contributes to identity theory by framing language as central to self-definition and cultural belonging.

“African people now accept Europhonity to define their countries and who they are: Francophone, Anglophone or Lusophone” (p. 125).

· Translation as a Network of Equal Languages: Ngũgĩ’s idea of translation between African languages as a form of networking without a hierarchical structure contributes to translation theory by offering a model where all languages are treated as equals. He contrasts this with the dominant model of translation, where European languages are seen as superior and African languages as inferior.

“The lingua franca helps facilitate the give and take of a network of languages. It does not replace them” (p. 127).

· Language Policy as Cultural Resistance: Finally, Ngũgĩ calls for the development of language policies that empower African languages and cultures. This contribution to political literary theory emphasizes that language policy is not just a technical issue but a form of cultural resistance against neocolonial structures. He urges African governments to support the use of African languages in education, governance, and literature.

“There have to be positive government policies with the political will and financial muscle behind the policies” (p. 129).

Examples of Critiques Through “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique Based on “The Politics of Translation”
Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart	Achebe’s novel, while groundbreaking for its portrayal of Igbo culture, could be critiqued for its use of English as the primary language of narration. This reinforces the colonial legacy of English as a dominant language, even in works that aim to celebrate African cultures.
Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s own works, such as A Grain of Wheat	While Ngũgĩ’s works are often praised for their political and social commentary, they can also be analyzed in terms of their language choices. For example, his use of English in A Grain of Wheat might be seen as a strategic decision to reach a wider audience, but it also raises questions about the politics of language in his own writing.
Translations of African literature into European languages	Translations of African literature into European languages can be critiqued for their potential to erase or distort the original cultural context. The translator’s choices, influenced by their own cultural background and linguistic norms, can shape the way readers in the target language understand the work.
Literary works that reinforce stereotypes or colonial narratives	Literary works that perpetuate stereotypes about African cultures or reinforce colonial narratives can be critiqued for their role in delegitimizing African languages and cultures. These works often rely on European languages and perspectives to tell African stories, reinforcing a sense of cultural inferiority.

Criticism Against “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

· Idealism in the Promotion of African Languages: One criticism could be that Ngũgĩ’s advocacy for the promotion of African languages in national policies and education systems is overly idealistic, given the practical challenges of implementing such policies in multilingual nations. While his call for mother-tongue education and translation between African languages is commendable, critics might argue that he underestimates the logistical and financial challenges of promoting hundreds of African languages in formal settings.

Practicality of implementation: In countries where there are hundreds of languages, managing resources for each one equally can be seen as overwhelming for governments that already struggle with limited budgets for education and infrastructure. As Ngũgĩ himself notes, “Hundreds of languages also mean there are hundreds of communities… [this] confronts policy-makers as a nightmare” (p. 125). Critics might argue that he does not offer a detailed, feasible strategy to address this “nightmare.”

· Overemphasis on Language as the Primary Tool of Liberation: Ngũgĩ emphasizes language as central to cultural and political liberation, but critics might argue that he places too much importance on linguistic decolonization while underplaying other socio-economic and political factors that are crucial for African development. While language is undoubtedly important, other pressing issues like poverty, governance, and infrastructure development might require more immediate attention.

Single-factor approach: By focusing predominantly on language, Ngũgĩ’s framework could be seen as a “single-factor” approach, where language is portrayed as the ultimate path to liberation, potentially sidelining other critical areas of societal development. As he states, “The moment we lost our languages was also the moment we lost our bodies, our gold, diamonds, copper, coffee, tea” (p. 130), which could be interpreted as oversimplifying the complexities of colonialism and exploitation.

· Insufficient Acknowledgment of the Role of European Languages: Some critics may point out that Ngũgĩ’s critique of European languages is too rigid and does not adequately acknowledge their role in facilitating pan-African communication, intellectual exchange, and global engagement. In many African nations, European languages have become a unifying medium in multilingual societies, and critics might argue that dismissing them entirely could limit opportunities for Africans to participate in global discourse.

Benefits of European languages: While Ngũgĩ critiques European languages as tools of domination, critics might argue that these languages have also allowed African scholars, writers, and policymakers to engage with global audiences. As he admits, “European languages are seen as coming to the rescue of a cohesive Africa” (p. 126), yet he does not fully acknowledge that these languages have allowed for international advocacy, collaboration, and intellectual exchange.

· Undermining the Role of Bilingualism and Code-Switching: Ngũgĩ advocates for a language policy centered on African languages, but critics might argue that he overlooks the linguistic realities of many Africans, who often practice bilingualism or code-switching. Rather than advocating for the replacement of European languages with African languages, critics might argue for a more nuanced approach that embraces linguistic hybridity, where both African and European languages coexist and complement each other.

Bilingualism as a strength: Critics might contend that bilingualism is a powerful tool for Africans, allowing them to navigate both local and global contexts. Rather than framing European languages as entirely negative, a more balanced view might recognize the value of multilingualism that includes both African and European languages.

· Romanticizing Pre-Colonial Linguistic Unity: Some critics might accuse Ngũgĩ of romanticizing pre-colonial linguistic unity or cohesion, suggesting that African languages were always in harmony before colonial interference. Critics might argue that even before colonialism, there were linguistic tensions and hierarchies within African societies, and that Ngũgĩ’s vision of a pan-African linguistic network may overlook historical complexities and conflicts between ethnic and linguistic groups.

Pre-colonial language dynamics: Ngũgĩ suggests that African languages existed in “networking” relationships, but critics may challenge this notion by pointing to pre-colonial examples where certain languages and ethnic groups were dominant or privileged over others, indicating that linguistic hierarchies and conflicts existed long before European colonization.

· Lack of Attention to Technological and Globalization Realities: Ngũgĩ’s essay does not fully address the role of modern technology, the internet, and global media in shaping language use in contemporary Africa. Critics might argue that his focus on traditional language policies does not adequately account for the rapid changes brought about by digital communication, social media, and globalization, which often favor European languages. The globalized world, where English and French are dominant in digital platforms, may pose challenges that his language policy proposals do not fully tackle.

Global digital landscape: As global communication increasingly takes place online in European languages, critics might question how African languages can compete in these spaces. Ngũgĩ briefly touches on globalization, stating that “African languages seem to stand in the way of the elite receiving their share of ‘global goodies’” (p. 126), but critics might argue that his solutions do not adequately address the dominance of European languages in the global digital economy.

· Over-reliance on Government Intervention: Ngũgĩ places significant emphasis on the role of government policy in reviving and promoting African languages, but critics might argue that relying on state-driven language policies may not be the most effective approach. In many African countries, governments are burdened with political and economic challenges, and expecting them to prioritize language policies might not be realistic.

Governmental limitations: Ngũgĩ calls for “positive government policies with the political will and financial muscle behind the policies” (p. 129), but critics might point out that in many African nations, governments are often unable to effectively implement such policies due to corruption, political instability, or lack of resources. They might argue that civil society, grassroots organizations, and private initiatives could play a more immediate and impactful role in promoting African languages.

· Limited Recognition of the Role of Popular Culture: Ngũgĩ’s essay focuses on formal language policies and education systems, but critics might argue that he does not give enough attention to the role of popular culture, such as music, film, and social media, in shaping language use in Africa. These cultural spaces often blend African and European languages and are powerful platforms for promoting African languages outside formal structures.

Popular culture as a force for language preservation: Critics could argue that informal spaces like music and entertainment can play a significant role in revitalizing African languages. The widespread use of African languages in contemporary African music and film industries, for instance, represents an organic way in which languages are kept alive and influential.

· Limited Attention to Regional Lingua Francas: While Ngũgĩ emphasizes the promotion of African languages, critics might argue that he does not give enough attention to the role of regional African lingua francas like Kiswahili or Hausa, which have already facilitated communication across linguistic borders in many parts of Africa. Rather than focusing on promoting every individual African language, critics might argue for the elevation of regional lingua francas to bridge linguistic divides.

Focus on regional languages: Critics might contend that more emphasis on regional African languages could be more practical and effective than attempting to promote every African language. Kiswahili, for example, already serves as a lingua franca for millions of people in East Africa, providing a model for how African languages can foster unity across diverse linguistic communities.

Representative Quotations from “The Politics Of Translation: Notes Towards An African Language Policy” By Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“When two armies fight, they protect their own base, while they try to destabilize and even capture their opponent’s.”	This metaphor highlights the importance of preserving one’s cultural and linguistic identity in the face of external pressures.
“The idea was to deny them the authority of naming self and the world, to delegitimize the history and the knowledge they already possessed, delegitimize their own language as a credible source of knowledge and definition of the world, so that the conqueror’s language can become the source of the very definition of being.”	This passage describes the colonial strategy of suppressing indigenous languages and cultures to impose European dominance.
“It was done with the enslaved. African languages and names were banned in the plantations; and later in the continent as a whole, so much so that that African people now accept Europhonity to define their countries and who they are: Francophone, Anglophone or Lusophone.”	This quote illustrates how colonialism has had a lasting impact on African societies, shaping their linguistic identities and cultural norms.
“The security of one’s base, even when two armies are cooperating to achieve a jointly held tactical or strategic end against a third, is necessary.”	This statement emphasizes that cultural and linguistic preservation is essential, even in situations of collaboration or cooperation.
“Some of course may want to argue that it is easier to do so as South Africa has only 11 languages to contend with, but what about other African countries where they have many more languages? Hundreds even? But hundreds of languages also mean there are hundreds of communities that use them, and these communities constitute the geographic nation!”	This quote challenges the notion that multilingualism is a hindrance to national unity and argues that it can be a source of strength and diversity.
“In an article he recently published in the Jalada of 15 September 2015 under the title ‘Writing in African Languages: A question for our times’, Mũkoma wa Ngũgi tells hilarious stories of African students in Kenya laughing outright at one another for ‘shrubbing’ English.”	This anecdote highlights the internalized linguistic prejudice that exists within African societies, where fluency in English is often seen as a sign of superiority.
“The sub-text is that African languages are inherently incapable of relating to each other, but ironically they each can relate to English, especially when Anglophone writing dives into them for a proverb or two to spice their literary offering to a europhone modernity of monolingualism.”	This passage critiques the view that African languages are incompatible with each other, while English is seen as a unifying language, despite its colonial history.
“Translation – a kind of dialogue or conversation among languages – is another challenge to the orthodoxy.”	This quote suggests that translation can play a crucial role in challenging the dominance of European languages and fostering dialogue among African languages.
“The cruel genius of colonialism was to turn normality into abnormality and then make the colonized accept the abnormality as the real norm … The moment we lost our languages was also the moment we lost our bodies, our gold, diamonds, copper, coffee, tea.”	This powerful statement captures the interconnectedness between language, culture, and economic exploitation under colonialism.
“So our language policies and actions should empower Africa by making Africans own their resources from languages – making dreams with our languages – to other natural resources – making things with them, consuming some, exchanging some.”	This concluding statement emphasizes the importance of language policies that empower African languages and enable Africans to reclaim their cultural and economic sovereignty.

“Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o: Summary and Critique

“Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in the September-December 2004 issue of World Literature Today, Vol. 78, No. 3/4, pages 13-15.

Introduction: “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

“Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o first appeared in the September-December 2004 issue of World Literature Today, Vol. 78, No. 3/4, pages 13-15. Published by the Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma, this seminal article underscores the importance of reclaiming indigenous languages and cultural narratives in literature and literary theory. Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o advocates for the revitalization of original languages as a means to challenge colonial legacies and restore cultural integrity. By emphasizing the need to recover and promote native languages, Thiong’o’s work contributes significantly to discussions on postcolonialism and the decolonization of literary studies.

Summary of “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Colonial Suppression of African Languages: Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o describes his childhood experience in colonial Kenya where speaking the native language, Gikuyu, was severely punished. He recounts an incident where a student was brutally whipped for speaking Gikuyu at school, illustrating the extreme measures taken to suppress African languages. “Speaking African languages in the school compound was a crime” (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 13). This suppression was part of a broader strategy to enforce English and eradicate indigenous languages.
Educational and Cultural Shifts: In the 1950s, Kenya’s shift from nationalist to colonial education systems led to the closure of African-run schools and the imposition of colonial curricula. Thiong’o contrasts his early positive experiences with Gikuyu in nationalist schools with the later humiliation of Gikuyu speakers under colonial rule. He notes that “the emphasis on humiliating the Gikuyu language-users” was a direct result of the new colonial educational policies (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 14).

Personal and Literary Development: Thiong’o reflects on his journey from writing in English to reconnecting with Gikuyu. Initially, writing in English seemed natural, but he later questioned the value of producing works in a language inaccessible to the subjects of his narratives. He admits, “I was taking away from the genius of Gikuyu to add to the genius of English” (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 14). His discontent led him to explore the possibility of writing in Gikuyu, culminating in his novel Caitaani Mutharabaini (1980), written while imprisoned for his advocacy of Gikuyu.
Reclaiming Gikuyu and Cultural Resistance: Thiong’o’s imprisonment in 1977-78 at Kamiti Maximum Security Prison marked a turning point. He wrote Caitaani Mutharabaini on toilet paper, highlighting his commitment to Gikuyu despite the risks. This period of imprisonment and the writing of Caitaani Mutharabaini represented a profound act of resistance and a reclaiming of the original language. He asserts, “The decision had already been made. I would no longer write fiction in English” (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 15).
Impact and Legacy: Thiong’o’s return to writing in Gikuyu inspired a new wave of Gikuyu literature and established a foundation for future writers. He emphasizes the significance of this shift, noting, “A new literature has been born” (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 15). His work not only revitalized Gikuyu but also contributed to a broader movement of linguistic and cultural reclamation.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Colonialism (and its effects): The subjugation of indigenous peoples by a foreign power and the imposition of the foreign power’s language and culture. (e.g. The Kenyan education system that banned African languages and emphasized English)
Linguistic discrimination (and its effects): The prejudice against a particular language and its speakers. (e.g. The punishment of students caught speaking Gikuyu at school)
Cultural alienation : The feeling of isolation or estrangement from one’s own culture. (e.g. The author’s growing distance from Gikuyu as he excelled in English)

Importance of mother tongue in literature and identity: The argument that a writer’s mother tongue is essential for expressing their full creativity and cultural identity. (e.g. The author’s realization that Gikuyu, not English, should be the primary language of his creative work)
The power of language: Language is not just a neutral tool for communication; it is a carrier of culture, identity, and power. (e.g. The Kenyan government’s imprisonment of the author for writing in Gikuyu)
Resistance through language: The use of language to challenge oppression and fight for cultural survival. (e.g. The author’s decision to write only in Gikuyu after his imprisonment)

Contribution of “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution	References from the Article
Postcolonial Theory	Challenges the Eurocentric dominance of literary canons and emphasizes the importance of decolonizing literary discourse. Argues for the recognition of indigenous literatures and languages.	“The Kenyan education system…banned African languages and emphasized English.” “I was being forced by the practical needs to face the Gikuyu language.”
Cultural Studies	Explores the intersection of culture, power, and identity. Highlights the role of language in shaping cultural identities and narratives.	“Language is the people who speak it.” “I was taking away from the people who created Gikuyu and its genius.”
Language and Literature	Examines the relationship between language and literary production. Argues that language is not just a tool but a shaping force in literary expression.	“The genius of a language is not dependent on the quantity of its speakers.” “I was taking away from the genius of Gikuyu to add to the genius of English.”
African Literature	Contributes to the development of African literary theory, challenging Western-centric perspectives and emphasizing the unique contributions of African literatures.	“The outbreak of the war was followed by a ban on performances and publications in African languages.” “A new literature has been born.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Title	Author	Critique Through “Recovering the Original”
The River Between	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	Thiong’o reflects on his early works like The River Between and Weep Not, Child, which, although inspired by African culture, were written in English. He critiques the loss of Gikuyu’s original genius as it was translated into English, leading to a disconnection from the language’s true essence (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 14).
A Grain of Wheat	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	Thiong’o expresses unease about writing A Grain of Wheat in English, despite its success. He criticizes the linguistic disconnect, as the novel’s African context and cultural nuances are filtered through English, which may not fully convey the Gikuyu experience (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 14).
Caitaani Mutharabaini (Devil on the Cross)	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	This work, written in Gikuyu while Thiong’o was imprisoned, represents a critical return to indigenous language. Thiong’o highlights the contrast between the novel’s reception in Gikuyu and its English translation, emphasizing the importance of maintaining cultural authenticity and resistance through native languages (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 15).
Petals of Blood	Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o	In Petals of Blood, Thiong’o continued writing in English, which he now views as a compromise. He critiques this decision, recognizing the tension between his use of English and his desire to reconnect with Gikuyu, demonstrating the ongoing struggle between cultural representation and linguistic limitations (Thiong’o, 2004, p. 15).

Criticism Against “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o

Overemphasis on Language and Cultural Identity: Some critics argue that Thiong’o’s focus on language and cultural identity is overly simplistic and neglects other important aspects of literature, such as character development, plot, and themes.
Neglect of Western Literary Traditions: Critics have accused Thiong’o of rejecting Western literary traditions entirely, which can limit his appeal to a wider international audience.
Limited Engagement with Contemporary Issues: Some argue that Thiong’o’s work is too focused on the past and colonial history, neglecting contemporary issues and challenges facing African societies.

Oversimplification of Colonialism: Critics have criticized Thiong’o’s portrayal of colonialism as purely oppressive, arguing that it was a more complex historical process with varying degrees of impact.
Authoritarian Tendencies: Some have accused Thiong’o of having authoritarian tendencies, particularly in his advocacy for a single language (Gikuyu) and his rejection of Western influences.

Representative Quotations from “Recovering the Original” by Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“No matter how horribly he screamed and wriggled with pain, they would not let him go.”	This quote highlights the brutality of colonial punishment and the dehumanization of indigenous people.
“Speaking African languages in the school compound was a crime.”	This sentence underscores the suppression of African languages and cultures under colonial rule.
“The one with the monitor at the end of the day was the sinner and would be punished.”	This quote reveals the system of peer pressure and surveillance used to enforce colonial language policies.
“The country was then a British settler colony, with a sizeable white settlement in the arable heartland, which they then called White Highlands.”	This sentence describes the racial and economic inequality imposed by colonialism.
“I was too young to know about this linkage; all I knew was that I was going to a school where we would be taught ‘deep’ English alongside other subjects and languages, in our case, Gikuyu.”	This quote illustrates the conflicting expectations placed on African students during colonialism, who were expected to learn both their native language and English.
“But I do recall that a composition in Gikuyu was good enough to have me paraded in front of the class, in praise.”	This quote highlights the early recognition of the author’s talent in Gikuyu, suggesting that his love for the language began at a young age.
“The screaming student was being thrashed to take him out of the darkness of his language to the light of English knowledge.”	This quote reveals the colonial belief that English was superior to African languages and that speaking an indigenous language was a sign of ignorance.
“I was taking away from the genius of Gikuyu to add to the genius of English.”	This quote reflects the author’s realization that his writing in English was contributing to the marginalization of Gikuyu.
“The people about whom I wrote so eloquently would never be in a position to read the drama of their lives in their own language.”	This quote emphasizes the linguistic alienation experienced by many African writers during colonialism.
“Only the genius of the language kept me alive to tell the tale.”	This quote underscores the importance of language in preserving cultural heritage and identity, even in the face of oppression.

“Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o: Summary and Critique

“Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o first appeared in World Literature Today in the September-October 2006 issue (Vol. 80, No. 5, pp. 12-17).

Introduction: “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

“Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o first appeared in World Literature Today in the September-October 2006 issue (Vol. 80, No. 5, pp. 12-17). Published by the Board of Regents of the University of Oklahoma, this essay highlights the role of power structures in shaping narratives and controlling cultural production. Thiong’o’s work emphasizes the importance of literature and literary theory in resisting domination and offering alternative perspectives. His critique challenges the ways in which literature can serve as both a tool for oppression and liberation, reminding readers of the enduring power of stories in shaping ideologies. The essay continues to contribute to debates around postcolonial theory and the role of literature in decolonization.

Summary of “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Exploration of Power and Globalization: Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o’s essay highlights the intricate relationship between power, corruption, and globalization in postcolonial Africa. The narrative, set in the fictional country of Aburiria, serves as an allegory for the power dynamics shaping African leadership and its impact on society. Ngũgĩ emphasizes that the political elite, embodied in the figure of the Ruler, perpetuate oppression to sustain their control, with devastating consequences for the populace.
“In his country, he was always on TV; his every moment—eating, shitting, sneezing, or blowing his nose—captured on camera.” (p. 13)

Anger as a Root of Despotism: One of the key themes in the essay is the portrayal of anger as a corrosive force within authoritarian rule. Ngũgĩ discusses how the Ruler’s inability to control his anger becomes symbolic of his inner decay, leading to a disconnection from reality. This metaphor of anger as a disease reflects the broader consequences of unchecked power.
“Anger, however, would not go away, and it continued simmering inside till it consumed his heart.” (p. 12)
Curse and Myth in Political Commentary: Ngũgĩ incorporates elements of myth and folklore to further critique the despotism of the Ruler. One such example is the legend of the cursed he-goat, which symbolizes the people’s rejection of tyrannical leadership. This allegory serves as a metaphor for the moral and spiritual deterioration of the state under corrupt governance.

“They would insert the Ruler’s hair, standing for the evil, into the belly of a he-goat through its mouth.” (p. 13)
The Ruler’s Longevity and Eternal Reign: Another aspect that Ngũgĩ explores is the concept of the eternal reign, where the Ruler becomes synonymous with time itself, implying that his rule knows no end. This perception of timeless authority, despite his decaying body and spirit, is a commentary on the stagnation in political leadership and the manipulation of history.
“His rule had no beginning and no end; and judging from the facts, one may well believe the claim.” (p. 13)

The Tears of Rachael: The essay delves into personal relationships as reflective of larger political structures. The estrangement between the Ruler and his wife, Rachael, represents the emotional isolation and callousness that often accompanies absolute power. Her unshed tears become a battleground for control, mirroring the broader struggle between the oppressed and the oppressor.
“Her tears had become the battlefield of their wills.” (p. 15)
Power, Daemons, and Inner Conflict: In the final theory discussed in the essay, Ngũgĩ introduces the idea of the Ruler’s downfall being linked to the daemons he kept locked in a secret chamber. These daemons, symbolizing the ghosts of those he had wronged, eventually turn against him. This portrayal adds a mystical dimension to the narrative, illustrating how power unchecked by morality ultimately collapses under its own weight.

“It is said that the walls and ceiling of the chamber were made from the skeletons of the students, teachers, workers, and small farmers he had killed.” (p. 16)

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Example/Explanation
Allegory	A narrative in which characters and events represent broader themes and ideas, often moral or political.	The Ruler of Aburiria represents corrupt African leadership, and his illness symbolizes the moral and societal decay that accompanies tyranny and oppression.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	The he-goat in the essay symbolizes the curse of oppression and the people’s collective suffering under corrupt leadership.
Irony	A contrast between expectations and reality, often used for humorous or critical effect.	The Ruler is always seen on TV, even doing mundane things like yawning or sneezing, yet his presence is absent from the real issues affecting the people of Aburiria.
Myth	A traditional story, often involving supernatural beings or events, that explains natural or social phenomena.	The curse involving the he-goat reflects African folklore, grounding the narrative in myth to explain the consequences of tyranny.
Personification	Attributing human characteristics to non-human entities.	The illness of the Ruler is portrayed almost as a living entity, representing the emotional and political decay caused by unchecked anger and power.
Satire	The use of humor, irony, or exaggeration to criticize people’s stupidity or vices, particularly in politics.	Ngũgĩ uses satire to mock the Ruler’s obsession with trivialities, such as his demand to appear on Global Network News, highlighting the absurdity of despotic rule.
Allusion	An indirect reference to another text, person, or event.	Ngũgĩ alludes to African postcolonial history and the legacy of European colonization to contextualize the power dynamics in Aburiria.
Metaphor	A figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unrelated things.	The illness is a metaphor for the deteriorating state of the nation under corrupt leadership, where internal conflicts erode the integrity of the ruler and the country.
Foreshadowing	A hint or clue about what will happen later in the story.	The mysterious illness and the curse hint at the eventual downfall of the Ruler, suggesting that the unchecked power will ultimately lead to destruction.
Motif	A recurring element that has symbolic significance in the narrative.	The recurring motif of tears (Rachael’s tears, the Ruler’s lack of tears) symbolizes emotional repression and the personal cost of maintaining power.
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but reveals a deeper truth.	The Ruler’s assertion that he has control over everything, including time, is paradoxical because, despite his power, he is ultimately powerless against the forces of aging and mortality.
Hyperbole	Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.	The claim that the Ruler’s reign began before the world and will only end when the world ends is an example of hyperbole, exaggerating his grip on power and the people’s perception of his rule.
Imagery	The use of vivid and descriptive language to appeal to the senses.	The descriptions of the chamber made from the skeletons of the Ruler’s enemies create a vivid image of the grotesque and violent nature of his rule.

Contribution of “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution	Reference/Explanation
Postcolonial Theory	Power Daemons critiques the lasting impact of colonialism on African political systems, focusing on how postcolonial African leaders adopt the same methods of control and oppression.	Ngũgĩ emphasizes the continuity of colonial oppression in the postcolonial era through figures like the Ruler, who embodies the internalization of colonial power structures. “He came into power with flaming swords…” (p. 16)
Marxist Criticism	The essay highlights class struggles, particularly the role of the ruling elite in exploiting the working class, aligning with Marxist critiques of capitalist and authoritarian societies.	The Ruler’s obsession with power is tied to material wealth and control, reflecting a Marxist critique of how ruling classes sustain their power through exploitation and violence. “The skulls of his most hated enemies hung on the walls…” (p. 16)
Psychoanalytic Theory	Ngũgĩ explores the psychological dimensions of power, particularly through the Ruler’s internal conflicts and projections of anger, fear, and guilt, contributing to psychoanalytic readings of leadership.	The Ruler’s mysterious illness, stemming from unresolved anger and guilt, reflects Freud’s concept of repression. “Anger… continued simmering inside till it consumed his heart.” (p. 12)
Allegory in Literature	Power Daemons serves as an allegory for the struggles of postcolonial societies, using symbolic characters and events to represent broader political and social issues.	The essay’s use of the fictional country of Aburiria allows for an allegorical exploration of political corruption and moral decay. “The illness… would not go away.” (p. 12)
Feminist Literary Criticism	The essay critiques the patriarchal power structures that marginalize women, as seen in the relationship between the Ruler and his wife, Rachael, who is emotionally and physically imprisoned.	Rachael’s role reflects the limited agency of women under patriarchal power, where she becomes a symbol of both defiance and subjugation. “Her tears had become the battlefield of their wills.” (p. 15)
Myth Criticism	Ngũgĩ draws on African myths and folklore to build a narrative that critiques modern political systems, aligning with myth criticism’s focus on how ancient stories shape contemporary culture.	The curse of the he-goat and the daemon chamber illustrate the integration of myth into political allegory, making ancient beliefs relevant to modern societal issues. “The cry of a wronged he-goat…” (p. 13)
Deconstruction	Ngũgĩ’s narrative undermines traditional binary oppositions, such as good versus evil, ruler versus ruled, as the Ruler embodies both oppressor and oppressed in his personal downfall.	The essay deconstructs the idea of absolute power, showing how the Ruler’s illness destabilizes the traditional notion of strength. “The illness… defied all logic and medical expertise.” (p. 12)
Narrative Theory	Ngũgĩ uses non-linear storytelling and multiple perspectives, contributing to narrative theory by showcasing how fragmented narratives can represent complex socio-political realities.	The blending of different stories about the Ruler’s illness (myth, curse, and politics) represents multiple narrative layers, each revealing a different aspect of power. “There were many theories about the strange illness…” (p. 12)

Examples of Critiques Through “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Literary Work	Critique Through “Power Daemons”	Explanation
*Things Fall Apart* by Chinua Achebe	Colonial Power and Resistance: Through Power Daemons, Achebe’s portrayal of colonial disruption is reinforced, highlighting how power destroys cultural systems.	Just as Ngũgĩ critiques postcolonial leaders who perpetuate oppressive systems, Achebe exposes the collapse of indigenous cultures under colonial power. “The illness… consumed his heart.” (p. 12)
*Heart of Darkness* by Joseph Conrad	The Corruption of Power: Like Ngũgĩ, Conrad reveals how power corrupts leaders, with both Kurtz and the Ruler descending into madness as a result of unchecked control.	Ngũgĩ’s portrayal of the Ruler’s illness and symbolic fall aligns with Conrad’s depiction of Kurtz, where imperial domination leads to moral and psychological decay. “The skulls… hung on the walls.” (p. 16)
*The Tempest* by William Shakespeare	Master-Slave Dynamics: Ngũgĩ’s analysis of power dynamics can be used to critique Prospero’s control over Caliban, paralleling colonial and postcolonial struggles.	Ngũgĩ’s depiction of the Ruler’s exploitation of his people echoes Prospero’s enslavement of Caliban, questioning authority and dominance. “The Ruler… skillful in creating and nursing conflicts.” (p. 13)
*A Grain of Wheat* by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o	Guilt and Betrayal: Through Power Daemons, Ngũgĩ’s own earlier work is deepened, showing how internal guilt (as in the Ruler’s illness) plays a role in political downfall.	Both works explore the psychological burdens carried by leaders and those complicit in oppression, with guilt manifesting physically and socially. “Could anger… cause a mystery illness?” (p. 12)

Criticism Against “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o

Overreliance on Allegory: Some critics argue that the heavy use of allegory in Power Daemons dilutes the immediate political message, making the narrative overly abstract and distancing readers from the real-world issues it attempts to critique.
Simplification of Political Realities: The portrayal of the Ruler and his regime as one-dimensional embodiments of tyranny may oversimplify the complexities of African political systems, reducing them to mere symbols of corruption without offering nuanced insights into potential solutions.

Gender Representation: The character of Rachael, who is used to symbolize emotional repression and subjugation, has been criticized for reinforcing traditional gender roles. Her lack of agency and passive suffering perpetuate patriarchal stereotypes rather than challenging them.
Ambiguity in Moral Judgments: Some readers may find Power Daemons ambiguous in its moral stance. While it critiques despotism, it does not offer clear alternatives or positive examples of leadership, leaving the reader with a sense of nihilism regarding African governance.
Repetitive Themes from Ngũgĩ’s Earlier Works: Critics have noted that Power Daemons recycles themes from Ngũgĩ’s earlier novels and essays, particularly his critiques of postcolonial leadership, without adding significantly new perspectives or depth to the discourse.

Representative Quotations from “Power Daemons” by Ngũgĩ Wa Thiong’o with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Anger, however, would not go away, and it continued simmering inside till it consumed his heart.” (p. 12)	This quote represents the destructive nature of unchecked power and unresolved emotions, reflecting how the Ruler’s anger symbolizes his moral and political downfall.
“There were many theories about the strange illness of the second Ruler of the Free Republic of Aburiria.” (p. 12)	The “illness” becomes a metaphor for the corrupt, decaying political system under the Ruler’s leadership, emphasizing the physical and moral deterioration of the state.
“The skulls of his most hated enemies hung on the walls… a museum and a temple.” (p. 16)	This imagery emphasizes the brutality of the Ruler’s regime, where the past victims of violence are used as symbols of power and intimidation, linking violence to political control.
“The cry of a wronged he-goat…” (p. 13)	Ngũgĩ uses this mythic imagery to highlight the deep-seated cultural and societal beliefs that shape the Ruler’s actions, symbolizing the people’s resistance to oppression.
“Her tears had become the battlefield of their wills.” (p. 15)	Rachael’s tears symbolize emotional repression and the struggle for control within personal relationships, mirroring the larger political struggle between the oppressed and oppressor.
“His rule had no beginning and no end; and judging from the facts, one may well believe the claim.” (p. 13)	This hyperbolic statement reflects the perceived omnipotence of the Ruler, critiquing the notion of eternal, unchallenged leadership in postcolonial regimes.
“Even his yawns were news because, whether triggered by boredom, fatigue, hunger, or thirst, they were often followed by some national drama.” (p. 12)	This satirical depiction of the Ruler’s presence in media critiques the cult of personality in authoritarian regimes, where even mundane actions are exaggerated for public consumption.
“Could anger, however deeply felt, cause a mystery illness that defied all logic and medical expertise?” (p. 12)	This rhetorical question emphasizes the symbolic nature of the illness, suggesting that it represents something beyond the physical, such as the psychological burden of wielding power.
“I plucked out your tongues and tore your lips to show you that a politician without a mouth is no politician at all.” (p. 16)	This brutal metaphor critiques the silencing of political opposition and dissent, where the Ruler’s violent actions are aimed at ensuring no one challenges his authority.
“The illness was the sole work of the daemons that the Ruler had housed in a special chamber in the State House.” (p. 16)	This supernatural explanation for the Ruler’s illness illustrates the mystical and irrational forces that often surround political power, suggesting the moral consequences of tyranny.