September 26, 2024 - English Studies

“In the Bleak Midwinter” by Christina Rossetti: A Critical Analysis

“In the Bleak Midwinter” by Christina Rossetti, a poignant hymn, was first published in the January 1872 issue of Scribner’s Monthly.

Introduction: “In the Bleak Midwinter” by Christina Rossetti

“In the Bleak Midwinter” by Christina Rossetti, a poignant hymn, was first published in the January 1872 issue of Scribner’s Monthly. Later, it was collected in the anthology Goblin Market, The Prince’s Progress and Other Poems in 1875. This beautifully crafted poem, renowned for its evocative imagery and profound spiritual message, invites readers to contemplate the humble birth of Jesus Christ. The stark contrast between the harshness of winter and the divine simplicity of the Nativity scene creates a powerful and enduring image. The poem’s central theme is the profound humility of God, who, despite His infinite power and majesty, chose to be born into a world of poverty and suffering.

Text: “In the Bleak Midwinter” by Christina Rossetti

In the bleak midwinter, frosty wind made moan,

Earth stood hard as iron, water like a stone;

Snow had fallen, snow on snow, snow on snow,

In the bleak midwinter, long ago.

Our God, Heaven cannot hold Him, nor earth sustain;

Heaven and earth shall flee away when He comes to reign.

In the bleak midwinter a stable place sufficed

The Lord God Almighty, Jesus Christ.

Enough for Him, whom cherubim, worship night and day,

Breastful of milk, and a mangerful of hay;

Enough for Him, whom angels fall before,

The ox and ass and camel which adore.

Angels and archangels may have gathered there,

Cherubim and seraphim thronged the air;

But His mother only, in her maiden bliss,

Worshipped the beloved with a kiss.

What can I give Him, poor as I am?

If I were a shepherd, I would bring a lamb;

If I were a Wise Man, I would do my part;

Yet what I can I give Him: give my heart.

Annotations: “In the Bleak Midwinter” by Christina Rossetti

Line	Text	Annotation
1	In the bleak midwinter, frosty wind made moan,	Sets the scene with a harsh winter landscape.
2	Earth stood hard as iron, water like a stone;	Emphasizes the severity of the winter conditions.
3	Snow had fallen, snow on snow, snow on snow,	Reinforces the image of a desolate winter.
4	In the bleak midwinter, long ago.	Indicates the time period of the poem, likely referring to the birth of Jesus.
5	Our God, Heaven cannot hold Him, nor earth sustain;	Suggests the divine nature of Jesus and His transcendence of physical limitations.
6	Heaven and earth shall flee away when He comes to reign.	Foretells the Second Coming of Christ and the end of the current world order.
7	In the bleak midwinter a stable place sufficed	Contrasts the humble setting of Jesus’ birth with His divine nature.
8	The Lord God Almighty, Jesus Christ.	Emphasizes the paradox of the divine becoming human.
9	Enough for Him, whom cherubim, worship night and day,	Highlights the reverence and adoration due to Jesus.
10	Breastful of milk, and a mangerful of hay;	Describes the simple and humble circumstances of Jesus’ birth.
11	Enough for Him, whom angels fall before,	Further emphasizes the divine nature of Jesus and the reverence shown by celestial beings.
12	The ox and ass and camel which adore.	Adds to the image of the humble scene of Jesus’ birth, including animals.
13	Angels and archangels may have gathered there,	Suggests the presence of heavenly beings at the birth of Jesus.
14	Cherubim and seraphim thronged the air;	Reinforces the idea of a heavenly presence.
15	But His mother only, in her maiden bliss,	Focuses on the intimate connection between Mary and Jesus.
16	Worshipped the beloved with a kiss.	Highlights the tender and personal nature of Mary’s worship.
17	What can I give Him, poor as I am?	Poses a question about how to express devotion to Jesus.
18	If I were a shepherd, I would bring a lamb;	Suggests a simple offering, reflecting the humble circumstances of Jesus’ birth.
19	If I were a Wise Man, I would do my part;	References the biblical story of the Magi bringing gifts to Jesus.
20	Yet what I can I give Him: give my heart.	Concludes with the idea that the most meaningful offering is one’s love and devotion.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “In the Bleak Midwinter” by Christina Rossetti

Literary Device	Definition	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	Repetition of initial consonant sounds.	“frosty wind made moan”	The repeated “m” and “w” sounds create a musical quality, adding to the melancholy tone.
Allusion	An indirect reference to another work or concept.	“The Lord God Almighty, Jesus Christ”	Refers to biblical themes and figures, adding depth to the religious context.
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.	“Snow on snow, snow on snow”	The repetition emphasizes the heaviness and abundance of the snow, contributing to the bleak atmosphere.
Antithesis	A contrast or opposition between two ideas.	“Heaven cannot hold Him, nor earth sustain”	The contrast between Heaven and Earth highlights the grandeur of Christ’s divinity.
Apostrophe	Directly addressing an absent or imaginary person.	“What can I give Him, poor as I am?”	The speaker addresses Christ directly, creating intimacy and personal reflection.
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within words.	“Breastful of milk, and a mangerful of hay”	The repeated “a” sound links the two lines and softens the imagery, reflecting the humble scene.
Consonance	Repetition of consonant sounds, especially at the end of words.	“Earth stood hard as iron, water like a stone”	The repeated “r” and “n” sounds reinforce the hardness and stillness of the landscape.
End Rhyme	Rhyming of the final words in lines.	“In the bleak midwinter, long ago”	The rhyming of “moan” and “stone” in other lines provides a musical, structured quality to the poem.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line.	“The Lord God Almighty, Jesus Christ”	The thought carries over from one line to the next, adding flow and urgency to the statement.
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for emphasis or effect.	“Heaven and earth shall flee away when He comes to reign”	This exaggeration emphasizes the power of Christ’s coming and the insignificance of earthly matters in comparison.
Imagery	Use of vivid and descriptive language to create mental pictures.	“Earth stood hard as iron, water like a stone”	The imagery evokes the harshness and coldness of winter, making the scene feel tangible.
Metaphor	A comparison without using “like” or “as.”	“Earth stood hard as iron”	The earth is compared to iron, emphasizing its hardness and the unyielding winter conditions.
Onomatopoeia	A word that imitates the sound it represents.	“made moan”	The word “moan” mimics the sound of the wind, enhancing the bleak atmosphere.
Parallelism	The use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same or similar in construction.	“If I were a shepherd, I would bring a lamb; If I were a Wise Man, I would do my part”	The parallel structure emphasizes the speaker’s reflection on different forms of giving.
Personification	Giving human characteristics to non-human things.	“frosty wind made moan”	The wind is personified as moaning, suggesting it is alive and capable of expressing sorrow.
Repetition	Repeated use of words or phrases for emphasis.	“Snow on snow, snow on snow”	The repetition emphasizes the layering of snow and the oppressive weight of the cold season.
Rhetorical Question	A question asked for effect, not in expectation of a reply.	“What can I give Him, poor as I am?”	The speaker contemplates their own limitations in offering something to Christ, invoking personal reflection.
Simile	A comparison using “like” or “as.”	“Water like a stone”	The water is compared to stone, suggesting the extreme cold that has frozen the landscape solid.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	“A mangerful of hay”	The manger symbolizes Christ’s humble beginnings, contrasting with his divine status.
Tone	The attitude of the writer toward a subject.	Throughout the poem	The tone is reflective and reverent, contemplating the contrast between Christ’s divinity and humility.

Themes: “In the Bleak Midwinter” by Christina Rossetti

· Theme 1: The Humility of God: Christina Rossetti’s “In the Bleak Midwinter” beautifully portrays the profound humility of God. Despite His infinite power and majesty, Jesus chose to be born into a world of poverty and suffering. The poem contrasts the harshness of winter with the divine simplicity of the Nativity scene: “In the bleak midwinter a stable place sufficed / The Lord God Almighty, Jesus Christ.” This juxtaposition emphasizes the extraordinary humility of God, who willingly relinquished His heavenly glory for the sake of humanity.

· Theme 2: The Divine Paradox: The poem explores the paradox of the divine becoming human. Jesus, the Lord of all creation, is presented as a vulnerable infant, born in a humble stable. This contradiction is central to the poem’s message, highlighting the mystery and wonder of God’s incarnation. As Rossetti writes, “Our God, Heaven cannot hold Him, nor earth sustain; / Heaven and earth shall flee away when He comes to reign.” This line emphasizes the divine nature of Jesus, while also acknowledging His earthly limitations.

· Theme 3: The Power of Love: “In the Bleak Midwinter” celebrates the power of love, both human and divine. The poem highlights the love between Mary and Jesus, as well as the love of the heavenly beings who gather to witness His birth. The final stanza emphasizes the importance of offering one’s heart to Jesus, suggesting that love is the most meaningful gift one can give.

· Theme 4: The Hope of Salvation: The poem offers a message of hope and salvation. Despite the harshness of the world and the challenges faced by humanity, the birth of Jesus signifies the possibility of redemption and new life. The poem’s focus on the divine child, born into a world of suffering, suggests that God’s love and grace can overcome even the darkest circumstances.

Literary Theories and “In the Bleak Midwinter” by Christina Rossetti

Literary Theory	Definition	References from the Poem	Explanation
Feminist Theory	Analyzes how literature reinforces or undermines the oppression of women, focusing on gender roles, societal expectations, and women’s experiences.	“But His mother only, in her maiden bliss, Worshipped the beloved with a kiss.”	This line emphasizes the role of Mary, Jesus’ mother, as a symbol of purity, devotion, and maternal love, highlighting traditional gender roles. Feminist theory could explore how Rossetti’s portrayal of Mary reflects or challenges Victorian ideals of femininity and motherhood.
Christian Theology	Examines literature through a religious lens, focusing on themes of sin, redemption, salvation, and divine power.	“Our God, Heaven cannot hold Him, nor earth sustain; Heaven and earth shall flee away when He comes to reign.”	The poem’s religious imagery and references to Christ’s incarnation, worship by angels, and the eventual reign of Jesus invite interpretation through Christian theological concepts. It reflects the idea of Christ’s divinity surpassing the earthly and heavenly realms.
Romanticism	A literary movement that emphasizes emotion, nature, individualism, and the sublime. Romanticism often highlights human emotions in relation to nature and the divine.	“In the bleak midwinter, frosty wind made moan, Earth stood hard as iron, water like a stone.”	The vivid imagery of nature in its harsh winter form reflects the Romantic fascination with the sublime and the emotional power of nature. The cold, bleak setting mirrors the emotional weight of the subject matter, as Romanticism often connects natural imagery with inner feelings.

Additional Explanation:

Feminist Theory: Focuses on how gender roles are depicted, especially in relation to the figure of Mary. Rossetti often explored themes of femininity in her works, and feminist criticism would highlight how Mary is idealized as the “perfect” woman, reflecting societal ideals of women’s devotion and sacrifice.
Christian Theology: This theory helps interpret the poem’s heavy reliance on Christian symbols, such as the nativity scene and Christ’s divinity. It can also be used to examine the religious message about humility and devotion, as portrayed through the imagery of Christ in a lowly manger.

Romanticism: Romantic elements in the poem, such as the stark winter landscape, show the relationship between nature and the human experience. Rossetti uses nature to reflect deeper spiritual and emotional truths, a hallmark of Romantic poetry.

Critical Questions about “In the Bleak Midwinter” by Christina Rossetti

· Critical Question 1: How does Rossetti use imagery to convey the contrast between the divine and the mundane?

Rossetti employs vivid imagery to create a stark contrast between the divine nature of Jesus and the mundane setting of His birth. The poem juxtaposes the harshness of winter with the simplicity of the stable, emphasizing the extraordinary humility of God. For example, the lines “In the bleak midwinter, frosty wind made moan, / Earth stood hard as iron, water like a stone” paint a bleak and desolate landscape, while the lines “Breastful of milk, and a mangerful of hay” depict the humble circumstances of Jesus’ birth. This contrast serves to highlight the divine paradox of the Son of God becoming a vulnerable infant.

· Critical Question 2: What is the significance of the repetition of the phrase “In the bleak midwinter”?

The repetition of the phrase “In the bleak midwinter” throughout the poem serves several purposes. Firstly, it reinforces the setting and creates a sense of timelessness. Secondly, it suggests a cyclical nature to human suffering and the need for divine intervention. Finally, it contrasts the harshness of the world with the hope and joy offered by the birth of Jesus. By repeating this phrase, Rossetti emphasizes the enduring significance of the Nativity event and its power to bring light into the darkness.

· Critical Question 3: How does the poem explore the theme of humility?

The poem explores the theme of humility through the portrayal of both Jesus and Mary. Jesus, the Lord of all creation, is presented as a humble infant, born in a stable. This contrasts with the majesty and power often associated with divine figures. Mary, too, is portrayed as a humble servant, willingly accepting her role in the divine plan. The poem suggests that humility is a virtue that is essential for understanding and experiencing the love of God.

· Critical Question 4: What is the significance of the final stanza, in which the speaker offers their heart to Jesus?

The final stanza of the poem is a powerful expression of devotion and love. By offering their heart to Jesus, the speaker suggests that the most meaningful gift one can give to God is oneself. This act of self-giving is a reflection of the love that Jesus showed for humanity through His sacrifice on the cross. The final stanza emphasizes the importance of personal devotion and the transformative power of faith.

Literary Works Similar to “In the Bleak Midwinter” by Christina Rossetti

“Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” by Robert Frost: Similar in its depiction of a wintry landscape, evoking quiet contemplation and the beauty of nature.
“The Snow Man” by Wallace Stevens: Both poems reflect on the harshness of winter, using minimalist imagery to evoke deep emotions.
“The Darkling Thrush” by Thomas Hardy: This poem, like Rossetti’s, juxtaposes the coldness of winter with an undercurrent of hope and renewal.

“Winter: My Secret” by Christina Rossetti:Another of Rossetti’s own works, it similarly uses winter as a metaphor for concealment and introspection.
“Winter” by William Shakespeare (from Love’s Labour’s Lost): Both Shakespeare’s and Rossetti’s poems explore the desolation and stillness of winter, using vivid imagery to highlight its impact.

Representative Quotations of “In the Bleak Midwinter” by Christina Rossetti

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“In the bleak midwinter, frosty wind made moan”	Opening line, setting a cold and harsh winter scene, introducing the poem’s central theme of winter as a metaphor for human spiritual barrenness.	Ecocriticism: Focuses on the depiction of nature and the environment’s influence on human emotions and spirituality.
“Earth stood hard as iron, water like a stone”	Describes the rigidity and lifelessness of the frozen earth and water, evoking a sense of stillness and immobility.	Symbolism: The hardness of the earth symbolizes emotional and spiritual desolation, emphasizing the coldness of the world.
“Snow had fallen, snow on snow, snow on snow”	Repetition emphasizes the overwhelming and suffocating presence of winter, layering snow as a metaphor for layers of coldness and isolation.	Repetition and Symbolism: Snow becomes a symbol of purity, but also isolation and emotional heaviness through repetition.
“In the bleak midwinter, long ago”	Transition from a description of the natural world to the religious context of the poem, grounding the setting in a distant time.	Temporal Shift (Historical Context): Marks the movement from the physical present to a historical, spiritual narrative.
“Our God, Heaven cannot hold Him, nor earth sustain”	A declaration of the divine nature of Christ, presenting an image of God’s greatness surpassing both heaven and earth.	Theology and Transcendence: Reflects the Christian belief in the transcendence of God beyond physical boundaries.
“Angels and archangels may have gathered there”	Describes the heavenly celebration surrounding Christ’s birth, blending the celestial with the earthly winter setting.	Religious Imagery: Utilizes angelic figures to illustrate the divine mystery of Christ’s incarnation within the mundane world.
“What can I give Him, poor as I am?”	The speaker reflects on their own poverty, both material and spiritual, in contrast to the grandness of Christ’s gift to humanity.	Christian Humility: Highlights the theme of humility and the idea of giving from the heart, central to Christian moral teaching.
“If I were a shepherd, I would bring a lamb”	Envisioning possible roles in the nativity, the speaker contemplates what they could offer if they were someone with more to give.	Allegory: Uses the image of a shepherd and lamb to symbolize simplicity and devotion in Christian tradition.
“If I were a Wise Man, I would do my part”	Similarly to the previous line, this imagines the speaker as one of the Wise Men, able to bring valuable gifts to Christ.	Intertextuality (Biblical Allusion): Draws directly from the nativity story, connecting the personal to the universal narrative.
“Yet what I can I give Him: give my heart”	The final line resolves the speaker’s internal reflection by emphasizing that the greatest gift is love and devotion.	Moral Theology (Sacrifice and Love): Suggests that the purest offering to Christ is love, aligning with Christian spiritual ideals.

“Unity Identity Text Self “by Norman N. Holland: Summary and Critique

“Unity Identity Text Self” by Norman N. Holland first appeared in 1975 in the journal PMLA (Publications of the Modern Language Association of America).

Introduction: “Unity Identity Text Self “by Norman N. Holland

“Unity Identity Text Self” by Norman N. Holland first appeared in 1975 in the journal PMLA (Publications of the Modern Language Association of America). This essay holds significant importance in literature and literary theory. Holland proposes a novel approach to reader-response criticism, arguing that a literary text functions similarly to a self. Just as a self seeks coherence and unity, a reader unconsciously seeks to create a unified interpretation of the text, drawing on their own experiences and desires. This concept, known as the “identity theme,” challenged traditional formalist criticism and paved the way for a more dynamic understanding of the reading process.

Summary of “Unity Identity Text Self “by Norman N. Holland

Text and Unity in Literature:
Holland discusses the nature of “text,” defining it as the words on the page, woven by the writer, drawing from formalist and “New Criticism” perspectives. He traces the historical development of the idea of “unity” in literature, from Aristotle’s view that literary works should resemble a “living organism” with an inseparable structure, to Henry James‘ description of a novel as “a living thing, all one and continuous” (p. 813-814).
Theme as a Tool for Unity:
Holland explains that critics find unity in literary texts by organizing details under thematic structures, leading to a “central theme.” These themes are subjective, serving as tools that help each reader achieve personal coherence within the text. For instance, a critic might see Hamlet as a play about the split between symbolic and real action (p. 814-815).

Unity and Identity Parallel:
Holland makes a parallel between the concepts of unity in texts and identity in selves. Identity, according to Erik Erikson, refers to the individual’s awareness of continuity across time and space and how it aligns with others’ perceptions. Holland also references Heinz Lichtenstein’s idea of an “identity theme,” comparing it to the unity found in a literary work (p. 815-817).
Identity and Text as Fluid:
Holland posits that while unity and identity represent stability, text and self are more fluid and subject to change. Identity and unity provide continuity, but they must interact with the dynamic, evolving nature of self and text. He draws an analogy between reading a novel and predicting human development—both are processes where identity or theme emerges despite the unknowns (p. 817).
The Subjectivity of Interpretation:
Holland emphasizes that literary interpretations are subjective, varying based on the reader’s identity and experiences. He argues that interpretation is shaped by the reader’s personal identity theme, reflecting their coping mechanisms and desires. This subjectivity explains why different readers derive different meanings from the same text (p. 817-819).

Three Modalities of Identity Creation:
Holland describes three modalities through which readers engage with texts, shaped by their identity themes:
1. Defense Mechanism Matching: Readers interpret texts in ways that align with their psychological defenses, matching their ways of coping with the world.
2. Fantasy Creation: Readers adapt texts to generate personal fantasies, drawing pleasure from these creations based on their drives and desires.
3. Transformation to Coherence: Readers synthesize the raw material of the text into an experience that brings intellectual, esthetic, or moral coherence, transforming it into something meaningful within their worldview (p. 819-820).
Identity as Central to Interpretation:
Ultimately, Holland argues that identity plays a fundamental role in how individuals engage with and interpret texts. Readers shape literary works according to their identity themes, and this act of interpretation becomes a form of self-recreation. The process of understanding literature is deeply tied to the individual’s psychological makeup (p. 820-822).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Unity Identity Text Self “by Norman N. Holland

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation
Text	Refers to the words on the page, the literary creation woven by the author, from the root “texere” (“to weave”).
Unity	The structural integrity of a literary work, where all parts contribute to a cohesive whole, often compared to a living organism.
Identity	The continuity of the individual in space and time, aligned with Erik Erikson’s concept of personal identity.
Self	The complete person, including both body and psyche, as differentiated from external objects and others.
Theme	The central idea or organizing concept that helps to unify the details of a literary work.
Identity Theme	A unifying principle that defines a person’s behavior and life, similar to a literary theme in a text.
Subjectivity	The idea that literary interpretations vary based on the reader’s personal identity and experiences.
Defense Mechanism	Psychological strategies individuals use to cope with challenges, which shape how they interpret literature.
Fantasy Creation	The process by which readers generate personal fantasies from a text, fulfilling desires or drives.
Aesthetic Coherence	The transformation of raw experience and fantasy from a text into an intellectually, morally, or emotionally coherent whole.

Contribution of “Unity Identity Text Self “by Norman N. Holland to Literary Theory/Theories

Introduction of Reader-Response Theory:
Holland emphasizes that a reader’s identity plays a crucial role in interpreting texts, laying the foundation for reader-response theory. He argues, “Each reader groups the details of the play into themes that he thinks important… something that matters to him” (p. 815).

Subjectivity in Interpretation:
The essay challenges objective interpretations of texts by emphasizing the subjective experience of the reader. Holland states, “Interpretation is a function of identity” (p. 819), underscoring that different readers bring their own identity themes into their readings, resulting in unique interpretations.
Psychological Approach to Literary Criticism:
Holland applies psychoanalytic concepts such as defense mechanisms and identity to literary criticism. He explains, “We interpret the new experience in such a way as to cast it in the terms of our characteristic ways of coping with the world” (p. 819).
Linking Text and Self:
Holland draws a parallel between the structure of a text and the structure of the self, stating, “Unity is to text as identity is to self” (p. 817). This analogy supports the idea that understanding a literary work is akin to understanding the human psyche.

Identity and Fantasy Creation in Reading:
Holland introduces the idea that readers create fantasies from texts based on their own identity, allowing them to derive pleasure from diverse works. He writes, “Readers create from the fantasy seemingly ‘in’ the work fantasies to suit their several character structures” (p. 819).
Aesthetic Coherence as a Psychological Need:
The essay suggests that readers transform the raw material of texts into coherent aesthetic or intellectual experiences to cope with internal psychological drives. Holland asserts, “We seek our own particular version of the esthetic unity Plato and Aristotle first described” (p. 820).

Examples of Critiques Through “Unity Identity Text Self “by Norman N. Holland

Literary Work	Critique Through Holland’s Framework
Hamlet by William Shakespeare	Holland might focus on the theme of identity and split within the play. He would analyze how Hamlet explores the tension between symbolic action and physical action, as well as characters’ dualities, such as “Laertes and Ophelia, Horatio and Fortinbras, Rosencrantz and Guildenstern” (p. 814).
A Rose for Emily by William Faulkner	Holland could interpret the differing reactions to the term “fathered” in the story as a reflection of individual readers’ psychological identity themes. For instance, he observes how three readers interpreted the word in contrasting ways—heroic, neutral, and sexual—showing subjective readings shaped by personal identity (p. 818).
The Odyssey by Homer	Holland might interpret The Odyssey as a reflection of the reader’s coping mechanisms, particularly for individuals who see the world as hostile or chaotic. He would view the homecoming theme as a response to deep desires for safety and control, mirroring a reader’s identity theme of overcoming vast, uncontrollable forces (p. 819).
Death in Venice by Thomas Mann	Through Holland’s lens, readers would recreate the homosexual theme of Death in Venice according to their own identity themes, making the story pleasurable through personal interpretations. He would suggest that readers, regardless of identity, “re-create the work in terms of his own identity theme” (p. 819).

Criticism Against “Unity Identity Text Self “by Norman N. Holland

Overemphasis on Subjectivity:
Critics argue that Holland’s focus on subjectivity in literary interpretation undermines the possibility of objective or shared meanings in texts. The assertion that “interpretation is a function of identity” (p. 819) could lead to the relativistic view that all readings are equally valid, diminishing the role of textual evidence.

Limited Scope of Psychoanalytic Framework:
Holland’s reliance on psychoanalysis, especially concepts like defense mechanisms and identity themes, may be seen as reductive. By interpreting all readings through psychological lenses, some critics believe it ignores other critical approaches, such as historical, social, or cultural contexts that shape interpretation.
Neglect of Authorial Intent:
Holland’s theory downplays the significance of authorial intent by prioritizing the reader’s identity. Critics may argue that this reduces the role of the author in shaping meaning and coherence, focusing solely on how the reader reconstructs the text based on personal identity.
Lack of Universal Analytical Criteria:
Holland’s approach can be criticized for lacking a clear set of universal standards to assess the quality or validity of interpretations. Without a common framework for evaluating readings, it becomes difficult to judge the accuracy or depth of a critique beyond the subjective experience of the reader.

Potential for Interpretative Chaos:
By emphasizing that each reader brings a different identity and experiences to the text, Holland’s theory could lead to interpretive chaos, where there are infinite and often contradictory interpretations of the same work, complicating the critical discourse.

Representative Quotations from “Unity Identity Text Self “by Norman N. Holland with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Interpretation is a function of identity.” (p. 819)	This central idea of Holland’s theory suggests that readers interpret texts through the lens of their personal identities, shaping meaning based on their psychological makeup.
“Unity is to text as identity is to self.” (p. 817)	Holland draws a parallel between how we perceive coherence in texts (unity) and how we perceive coherence in individuals (identity), suggesting a deep connection between literary analysis and psychological understanding.
“Each reader groups the details of the play into themes that he thinks important.” (p. 815)	Holland asserts that reading is a subjective process where individuals highlight themes that resonate with their personal experiences and identity.
“We seek our own particular version of the esthetic unity Plato and Aristotle first described.” (p. 820)	Holland references classical literary theory to emphasize that readers strive for an aesthetic experience that aligns with their personal sense of order and coherence.
“Readers create from the fantasy seemingly ‘in’ the work fantasies to suit their several character structures.” (p. 819)	This quote highlights how readers project their desires and psychological needs onto the text, crafting personal fantasies from the material presented.
“The unity we find in literary texts is impregnated with the identity that finds that unity.” (p. 817)	Holland argues that the unity a reader discovers in a text is shaped by their own identity, making the process of finding meaning deeply personal and subjective.
“We compare readings by the extent to which we feel we share them.” (p. 815)	This statement emphasizes that shared interpretations often resonate because they reflect similar identity themes or personal experiences among readers.
“Identity re-creates itself.” (p. 819)	Holland proposes that identity is not static but continuously reformed through interactions with texts and experiences, particularly through literary engagement.
“Each of us will find in the literary work the kind of thing we characteristically wish or fear the most.” (p. 819)	This quote illustrates how readers interpret texts through their personal psychological frameworks, focusing on elements that reflect their deepest desires or fears.
“Unity and identity… belong to an entirely different order of factuality from text and self.” (p. 820)	Holland differentiates between abstract concepts (unity and identity) and the tangible, lived experiences of self and text, indicating that interpretation involves navigating both fixed and dynamic elements.

“Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish: Summary and Critique

“Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish was first published in 1970 in the journal New Literary History.

Introduction: “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish

“Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish was first published in 1970 in the journal New Literary History. This essay is considered a seminal work in the field of literary theory, as it argues that the meaning and value of a literary text are not inherent in the work itself, but are rather created through the interaction between the text and the reader. Fish’s theory of affective stylistics emphasizes the importance of the reader’s emotional response to the text, and how this response shapes their interpretation of the work. This essay has had a significant impact on the study of literature, and continues to be widely discussed and debated today.

Summary of “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish

1. Meaning as an Event, Not a Static Entity

Fish argues that meaning is not a fixed property of a text but something that unfolds in the reader’s experience. He challenges the idea of an objective meaning existing within the text itself, claiming instead that meaning emerges through the interaction between the text and the reader’s mental processes: “The meaning of a sentence…is its experience—all of it and not anything that could be said about it” (Fish, p. 126).

2. The Role of the Reader in Interpretation

Fish emphasizes that the reader plays an active role in constructing meaning from a text, rejecting the notion that texts exist as static objects of analysis. The reader’s response to the text, which occurs moment by moment, is central to understanding its meaning: “A criticism that regards ‘the poem itself as an object of specifically critical judgment’ extends this forgetting into a principle” (Fish, p. 140).

3. Temporal Flow of Reading

According to Fish, reading is a temporal process, and understanding develops over time as words succeed one another. The reader is continuously adjusting expectations and interpretations based on what they have already read and what they anticipate will come next: “The basis of the method is a consideration of the temporal flow of the reading experience” (Fish, p. 127).

4. Stylistic Devices as Strategic Acts

Fish proposes that textual structures are strategies aimed at affecting the reader’s thought process. For example, he discusses how syntactical complexities or ambiguities in a text are designed to destabilize the reader’s understanding and force them into a process of re-evaluation: “What the sentence does is give the reader something and then take it away” (Fish, p. 126).

5. Rejection of the Affective Fallacy

Fish critiques the “Affective Fallacy,” a concept that separates a text’s meaning from its emotional effects on the reader. He argues that such a distinction ignores the essential role of the reader’s response in creating meaning: “The objectivity of the text is an illusion, and moreover, a dangerous illusion” (Fish, p. 140).

6. Affective Stylistics and Its Focus on Reader Response

The core of Fish’s method, “Affective Stylistics,” involves analyzing how the reader’s response is shaped by the text’s language, syntax, and structure. Instead of seeking a unified or fixed meaning, this approach seeks to understand how meaning is produced in the mind of the reader during the act of reading: “The analysis must be of the developing responses to distinguish it from the atomism of much stylistic criticism” (Fish, p. 127).

7. Text as an Event, Not an Object

Fish emphasizes that a text should not be seen as a static object containing meaning but as an event that occurs between the text and the reader. This dynamic interaction is the true meaning of the text: “The sentence… is no longer an object, a thing-in-itself, but an event, something that happens to, and with the participation of, the reader” (Fish, p. 126).

8. Critique of Traditional Literary Criticism

Fish critiques formalist approaches to literary criticism, which treat texts as self-contained objects of study. He suggests that such methods overlook the importance of the reader’s engagement with the text: “Most methods of analysis operate at so high a level of abstraction that the basic data of the meaning experience is slighted” (Fish, p. 129).

9. Meaning as a Collective Experience

The idea that meaning emerges collectively through both the text and the reader’s responses challenges traditional literary criticism’s focus on authorial intent or fixed interpretations: “The meaning of a sentence is not something that can be extracted from it but is rather something that happens during the act of reading” (Fish, p. 127).

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish

Term/Concept	Explanation	Quotation/Context
Affective Stylistics	A method of literary analysis focusing on the reader’s experience and psychological effects of language while reading.	“I would first like to demonstrate the explanatory power of a method of analysis which takes the reader, as an actively mediating presence, fully into account…”
Meaning as Event	Meaning is not static but is created through the reader’s experience in the process of reading.	“It is no longer an object, a thing-in-itself, but an event, something that happens to, and with the participation of, the reader.”
Reader-Response Theory	The idea that the reader actively participates in making meaning from the text, rather than passively receiving it.	“What does the sentence do? And what the sentence does is give the reader something and then take it away, drawing him on with the unredeemed promise of its return.”
Temporal Flow of Reading	The experience of reading occurs over time, and meaning is generated progressively as the text unfolds.	“The basis of the method is a consideration of the temporal flow of the reading experience…”
Indeterminacy	The text does not offer a fixed meaning; instead, the meaning may remain unresolved, reflecting the reader’s uncertainty.	“There are two vocabularies in the sentence; one holds out the promise of a clarification… while the other continually defaults on that promise…”
Text as Experience	The text should be viewed as something that occurs to the reader, shaping and being shaped by their reactions.	“Meaning is an event, something that is happening between the words and in the reader’s mind…”
Interaction between Text and Reader	The dynamic relationship between the text and the reader’s mental operations, as the reader interprets and anticipates.	“A reader’s response to the fifth word in a line or sentence is to a large extent the product of his responses to words one, two, three, and four.”
Syntax and Prediction	Readers make predictions about the meaning of a sentence based on its syntax, which are then confirmed or thwarted.	“The reader must be in control of it if he is to move easily and confidently through what follows; and in the context of this ‘knowledge,’ he is prepared…”
Defamiliarization	A technique that forces the reader to see familiar things in an unfamiliar way, increasing their attention to the text.	“Going forward only intensifies the reader’s sense of disorientation.”
Ambiguity	The deliberate use of language that allows multiple interpretations or uncertain meaning.	“It is increasingly difficult to tell what ‘it’ refers to, and if the reader takes the trouble to retrace his steps…”
Reader’s Competence	The idea that readers bring linguistic and literary competence that shapes their reading experience.	“The reader, of whose responses I speak, then, is this informed reader, neither an abstraction, nor an actual living reader…”
Psychological Effects of Language	How language structures impact the reader’s thought processes and emotions during reading.	“The projection of syntactical and/or lexical probabilities… the reversal or questioning of those attitudes…”

Contribution of “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Shift from Text-Centered to Reader-Centered Analysis

Contribution: Fish’s work emphasizes the reader’s role in the construction of meaning, moving away from New Criticism’s focus on the text itself.

Reference: “The text is not an object that stands by itself and that we can interpret in isolation; it is something that is given life by the reader’s engagement with it.”

2. Introduction of Affective Stylistics

Contribution: Fish introduced Affective Stylistics, a method of analysis that focuses on how the structure and style of a text affect the reader’s mental and emotional response as they read.

Reference: “Affective stylistics starts with the premise that what a sentence does is more important than what it says… It is an experience in time, a process in which the reader participates.”

3. Meaning as a Dynamic Event

Contribution: Fish argues that meaning is not fixed but is generated through the reader’s active engagement with the text over time, challenging traditional notions of stable textual meaning.

Reference: “Meaning is not the property of the text but something that emerges in the temporal process of reading.”

4. Undermining Formalism’s Objectivity

Contribution: Fish critiques formalism, particularly New Criticism, for its emphasis on the objective analysis of the text, arguing that such an approach neglects the role of the reader’s subjective experience.

Reference: “The reader’s experience, which is often ignored in formalist readings, is central to understanding how a text functions and what it means.”

5. Influence on Reader-Response Theory

Contribution: Fish’s ideas laid the groundwork for the development of Reader-Response Theory, which argues that the reader’s interpretation is a fundamental component of literary meaning.

Reference: “The reader, as an actively mediating presence, creates the meaning of the text rather than passively receiving it.”

6. Concept of Indeterminacy in Textual Interpretation

Contribution: Fish highlights the indeterminacy in the reading process, showing that the text often leaves room for multiple interpretations, based on the reader’s expectations and experiences.

Reference: “Ambiguities and open-endedness are not flaws but opportunities for the reader to create meaning.”

7. Emphasis on Temporal Experience of Reading

Contribution: Fish argues that the act of reading unfolds over time, and this temporal progression is crucial in shaping how meaning is constructed.

Reference: “The temporal flow of the reading experience is essential to understanding the text’s impact on the reader.”

8. Active Role of the Reader in Interpretation

Contribution: Fish places the reader at the center of the interpretive process, emphasizing their active role in constructing meaning rather than being passive receivers of information.

Reference: “The reader must engage actively with the text, predicting, responding, and revising their expectations as they go.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish

Literary Work	Critique through Affective Stylistics	Application of Fish’s Theory
*Ulysses* by James Joyce	Fish’s theory highlights the fragmented, disorienting style of Ulysses, where meaning emerges as readers actively construct coherence from the stream-of-consciousness narrative. The reader’s interaction with the chaotic flow becomes central to the interpretation of the text.	Ulysses demands that readers piece together its narrative through their evolving understanding, suggesting that meaning is not found in the text alone but in the reader’s response to its complex structure. The continuous shifts in perspective force readers to be co-creators of meaning through their personal, subjective engagement with the novel’s nonlinear form.
*The Turn of the Screw* by Henry James	Fish’s approach would emphasize the ambiguity and unresolved tension in The Turn of the Screw, where the text constantly forces the reader to reassess their interpretations of events. Meaning shifts as the reader engages with the uncertainty regarding the supernatural vs. psychological explanations.	Fish’s theory posits that meaning in The Turn of the Screw is not stable but is generated through the reader’s temporal engagement with the ambiguity. As the reader encounters each new detail, they must decide how to interpret the unreliable narration, thus playing an active role in determining whether the story leans towards supernatural horror or psychological delusion. The reader’s involvement in interpretation is essential for constructing the meaning of the text.
*Waiting for Godot* by Samuel Beckett	Fish’s theory sees Waiting for Godot as an experience in which meaning is constructed through the reader’s (or audience’s) engagement with its minimalism, repetition, and lack of progression. The text compels readers to fill in interpretive gaps left by the absurdist structure.	In Waiting for Godot, meaning arises through the reader’s experience of time and the lack of traditional narrative. Fish’s theory would suggest that the seeming pointlessness and repetitiveness require the reader to actively create meaning by interpreting the play’s structure and dialogue. The absence of definitive meaning in the text makes the reader’s role central in determining the thematic essence of Beckett’s work.
*Wuthering Heights* by Emily Brontë	Fish’s theory focuses on the layered narrative structure and shifting perspectives in Wuthering Heights. Readers must navigate through the multiple narrators and embedded stories, contributing to meaning through the process of reading and interpreting each layer of the novel.	Wuthering Heights exemplifies Fish’s idea that meaning is produced through the reader’s interaction with the text’s structure. The novel’s time shifts and conflicting perspectives require the reader to construct coherence. The emotional intensity of the characters’ relationships unfolds over time, and the reader’s interpretation evolves with each narrative turn, making them an active participant in generating the text’s meaning. Fish emphasizes the dynamic process of reading as central to meaning-making.

Criticism Against “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish

Overemphasis on Reader’s Subjectivity: Critics argue that Fish places too much emphasis on the reader’s subjective experience, which could undermine the role of the text itself. This approach can lead to an overly relativistic view of meaning, where any interpretation could potentially be valid, eroding textual authority.
Neglect of Authorial Intent: Fish’s theory downplays the significance of the author’s intentions in shaping meaning, which some scholars believe is crucial for interpreting literary works. The argument here is that Fish’s focus on the reader’s experience disregards the context in which the work was produced and the purpose behind its creation.

Potential for Interpretive Chaos: By suggesting that meaning arises solely from the reader’s engagement with the text, Fish’s theory opens the door to infinite interpretations, which critics claim could result in a lack of interpretive boundaries. Without any objective basis for interpretation, it becomes difficult to distinguish between strong and weak readings.
Ignoring Textual Structures and Formal Features: Critics assert that Affective Stylistics overlooks the inherent structures, forms, and devices present in texts. Fish’s focus on the process of reading might disregard the formal elements that contribute to meaning independently of the reader’s reaction.
Lack of Consistency in Reader Response: Fish assumes that readers will experience texts in largely similar ways, but critics point out that different readers may respond to the same text very differently based on individual backgrounds, cultural contexts, and experiences, which makes the idea of a universal reader response problematic.

Detracting from Traditional Critical Analysis: Fish’s approach has been criticized for diminishing the value of traditional critical methods, such as historical, psychoanalytic, or structuralist approaches, which engage with texts on a more theoretical or analytical level, beyond the immediate experience of reading.

Representative Quotations from “Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics” by Stanley Fish with Explanation

Key Sections	Revised Summary	Page Reference
Introduction	Fish begins by asserting that reading is an activity, and the reader’s role is often forgotten in discussions of meaning.	p. 123
Exclusion of Reader	Critics like Wimsatt and Beardsley, in their article “The Affective Fallacy,” exclude the reader from literary analysis. Fish acknowledges the importance of the reader’s experience, particularly in relation to the psychological effects of reading.	p. 124
Psychological Effects	Fish emphasizes the importance of focusing on the psychological effects a text produces in a reader, rather than treating the text as a static object.	p. 125
Example of Judas Sentence	Fish analyzes a sentence from Browne’s Religio Medici, showing how it creates uncertainty in the reader by disrupting expectations, suggesting that meaning is an event that occurs through the reader’s engagement.	pp. 124-126
Milton’s Sentence	Fish analyzes a line from Paradise Lost, illustrating how the sentence’s double negatives create reader uncertainty, further supporting his argument that meaning is generated through reading.	pp. 126-127
Methodology	Fish introduces his method of analysis: focusing on the temporal flow of reading and the reader’s developing responses to words and phrases as they unfold.	pp. 127-129
Temporal Flow	Fish stresses the importance of the temporal aspect of reading, arguing that meaning arises not from the utterance as a whole but from the reader’s sequential experience.	p. 128
Reversing Sentence Structure	Fish demonstrates how reversing the structure of a sentence can change the reader’s experience and therefore its meaning.	p. 128
Ordinary Language	Fish critiques the tendency of some analyses to dismiss straightforward sentences as “ordinary language,” arguing that even the most simple statements can carry complex psychological effects in the reader.	pp. 128-129
Slow Motion Camera Effect	Fish likens his method to a “slow motion camera” that brings unnoticed events in reading to analytical attention.	p. 129
Contradictory Sentences	Fish compares sentences by Whitehead and Pater, explaining that although they may express similar ideas, they produce very different effects in the reader.	pp. 131-132
Donne’s Sermon	Fish analyzes a sentence from one of Donne’s sermons to show how the sentence’s logic forces the reader to engage in reasoning, challenging the assumption that language can be purely referential.	p. 133
Impact of Syntax on Reading	Syntax plays a critical role in shaping the reader’s experience, as Fish demonstrates through various textual examples, where syntactical choices lead to different kinds of reader engagement.	pp. 135-136
Plato’s Phaedrus	Fish uses Plato’s Phaedrus to illustrate his method, arguing that the reader is guided through the dialogue by continually reassessing previous assumptions, which the text implicitly undermines.	pp. 135-137
Rejection of Internal Coherence	Fish rejects the idea that internal coherence is a reliable measure of a text’s value or meaning, emphasizing the reader’s shifting engagement with the text instead.	p. 137
Response to Objections	Fish anticipates objections to his method, such as concerns about impressionism and subjectivity, and defends the precision and objectivity of analyzing reader responses.	pp. 139-141
Importance of Linguistic Competence	Fish argues that readers share a linguistic competence that allows for a certain predictability in responses, making it possible to generalize about the reading experience.	pp. 141-142
Relation to Transformational Grammar	Fish critiques the deep structure theory in linguistics, arguing that surface structures also play a crucial role in generating meaning through the reader’s experience of the text.	pp. 143-145
Informed Reader	Fish introduces the concept of the “informed reader,” one who is familiar with the conventions of language and literary discourse, and whose responses can be used to analyze texts.	pp. 144-146
Limitations of Evaluation	Fish acknowledges that his method does not lend itself to traditional literary evaluation but is instead focused on description of the reader’s experience.	p. 147
Teaching Method	Fish explains how his method can be applied in teaching to develop students’ sensitivity to the nuances of language and their own responses.	pp. 161-162
Conclusion	Fish concludes that his method transforms minds rather than organizing materials, offering a way to experience language as an event rather than a repository of fixed meanings.	p. 161

“Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland: Summary and Critique

“Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland was first published in 1976 in the journal Critical Inquiry.

Introduction: “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland

“Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland was first published in 1976 in the journal Critical Inquiry. This essay holds significant importance in literature and literary theory due to its innovative approach to psychoanalytic literary criticism. Holland introduces three distinct phases of psychoanalysis—the classical, the ego, and the object relations—and demonstrates how each phase can be applied to the interpretation of literary texts. By examining the relationship between the author’s unconscious and the reader’s subjective experience, Holland offers a valuable framework for understanding the complex interplay between literature and psychoanalysis.

Summary of “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland

Introduction: Three Phases of Psychoanalysis

Holland begins by explaining that psychoanalysis has evolved through three distinct phases, each with its focus on expanding Freud’s original discoveries into broader human psychology.

He uses a Wordsworth poem as a metaphor to illustrate the progression and impact of these phases in both psychoanalysis and literary criticism.

First Phase: Psychology of the Unconscious

The first phase is rooted in Freud’s discovery of the unconscious mind and the symbolic content within dreams, neurotic symptoms, and jokes.

Psychoanalytic literary criticism in this phase involves decoding latent meanings and symbols in texts, often using Freud’s theories of the Oedipus complex and early childhood development.
Holland critiques this method, noting that while it opens up new interpretations, it often reduces literary analysis to anatomical symbolism and overlooks personal reader response.

Second Phase: Psychology of the Ego

The second phase marks a shift to Freud’s model of the ego, superego, and id, focusing on ego defenses and the mind’s synthesizing functions.
In literary criticism, this phase emphasizes understanding the defensive strategies used by characters or the speaker in the text, such as denial and repression.
Holland highlights that this phase allows for a more formalist reading, combining unconscious content with conscious themes, but it still fails to explain the personal differences in reader experiences.

Third Phase: Psychology of the Self

The third phase moves beyond the internal psychic model to a focus on self and non-self, where the individual’s identity and its interaction with the external world are paramount.
Holland relates this phase to the concept of identity theory, suggesting that each person’s interpretation of a text is deeply intertwined with their personal experiences and identity.

This phase acknowledges that reading is a constructive act where the reader’s identity and emotions play a key role in interpretation, blending subjective experience with objective analysis.

Psychoanalysis and Identity

Holland argues that the third phase allows for a more intimate and personalized form of criticism, where the critic’s own identity is reflected in the interpretation.

He discusses how literary works, much like people, exhibit a consistent identity theme that can be explored and understood through the critic’s individual experiences and perceptions.

Criticism as Self-Discovery

Holland concludes that this third phase transforms literary criticism into an act of self-discovery. Critics not only interpret texts but also gain insight into their own identities through their interpretations.

He encourages critics to risk intimacy and personal reflection in their readings, fostering a deeper understanding of both literature and themselves.

“We use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge. We express and re-create ourselves in our interpretations—that we have always done—but now we can do it understandingly.”

Conclusion: A New Paradigm for Psychoanalytic Criticism

Holland emphasizes that the third phase of psychoanalysis aligns with contemporary scientific thought, where the role of the observer is integral to understanding reality.
He calls for a more personal and individualized approach to literary criticism, where the critic’s relationship with the text becomes an exploration of both the text and the self.

“For criticism from the third phase of psychoanalysis risks intimacy in order to restore individuality.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Term/Concept	Description
Psychoanalytic Criticism	A method of literary criticism that applies psychoanalytic theory to the interpretation of texts.
Latent Content	The hidden or underlying meaning within a text, often explored through psychoanalytic techniques.
Ego Psychology	Focuses on the role of the ego in mediating between the conscious and unconscious, often in defense mechanisms.
Denial	A defense mechanism where uncomfortable realities are avoided by the mind, often explored in literature.
Freudian Symbolism	The interpretation of symbols within a text, often referring to unconscious desires or fears.
Oedipus Complex	A Freudian concept where a child feels a subconscious attraction to the opposite-sex parent.
Unconscious Mind	A core Freudian idea involving the part of the mind that holds repressed feelings, thoughts, and desires.
Identity Theory	A theory that integrates personal identity with literary interpretation, linking self-perception and reading.
Defensive Strategies	Psychological defenses like denial or repression used by individuals, reflected in characters and speakers.
Formalism	A method of criticism that focuses on the formal elements of a work (structure, style) rather than external contexts.
Symbolic Decoding	Interpreting symbols in a literary text to uncover unconscious or deeper meanings.

Contribution of “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland to Literary Theory/Theories

Introduction of Psychoanalytic Phases in Literary Criticism
Holland introduces the idea that psychoanalytic theory, especially as applied to literature, has evolved through three distinct phases: unconscious psychology, ego psychology, and self psychology. Each phase brings a different approach to literary analysis, thus expanding the reach of psychoanalytic criticism.
- “Psychoanalysis has gone through three phases. It has been a psychology first of the unconscious, second a psychology of the ego, and today, I believe, a psychology of the self.” (p. 224)
Bridging Psychological and Literary Analysis
Holland emphasizes that psychoanalysis is not only about uncovering unconscious meanings in texts but also understanding the ego defenses and self-identity that contribute to the reader’s and characters’ experiences. This expansion deepens the integration of psychology and literature.
- “In the third, it is self versus non-self… Freud had entered this third phase… a steadily increasing body of evidence suggests that that is true all through life.” (p. 230)
Critique of Symbolic Decoding in Psychoanalytic Criticism
Holland critiques the early form of psychoanalytic criticism, which relied heavily on symbolic decoding. He points out the limitations of reducing texts to Freudian symbols, which can lead to overly simplistic or mechanistic interpretations.
- “This kind of symbolic decoding hurls us from poetry to anatomy, from the words-on-the-page to the depths of the unconscious.” (p. 227)

Incorporation of Identity Theory in Literary Interpretation
The introduction of identity theory allows for a more personalized form of literary criticism, where the reader’s individual identity shapes interpretation. This shifts the focus from purely objective readings to subjective engagements with texts.
- “We use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge. We express and re-create ourselves in our interpretations—that we have always done—but now we can do it understandingly.” (p. 233)
Criticism as an Act of Self-Discovery
Holland promotes the idea that literary criticism is not just an objective analysis of texts but also a journey of personal discovery, where critics reveal and reimagine themselves through their readings.
- “By combining the two dimensions, we use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge.” (p. 233)
Development of a Reader-Centered Criticism
Holland’s theory contributes to reader-response criticism by recognizing that different readers will have varying interpretations based on their own psychological makeup, identities, and experiences.
- “There can be as many readings as there are readers to write them. Can be and should be.” (p. 233)

Movement Beyond Formalism
Holland critiques the formalist approach to literature, which isolates the text from the reader’s personal experience, advocating instead for an approach that incorporates personal and psychological dimensions.
- “The second phase of psychoanalysis… is very like regular formalist reading. Yet, like regular formalist reading, it leaves us with unsolved problems.” (p. 229)
Engagement with Contemporary Scientific Thought
Holland aligns his third phase of psychoanalytic literary criticism with modern scientific paradigms, acknowledging the role of the observer (reader) in constructing meaning, much like quantum mechanics or cognitive psychology.
- “Even the hardest of sciences today acknowledge the role of the subject.” (p. 231)

Examples of Critiques Through “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Work	Phase of Psychoanalysis Applied	Key Interpretation/Critique
Wordsworth’s “A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal”	First Phase: Unconscious Psychology	The unconscious content of the poem centers on the speaker’s denial of human loss and mortality. The “she” in the poem represents a denial of castration fears, while the second stanza reveals the collapse of this denial.
Shakespeare’s Plays (General)	Second Phase: Ego Psychology	In applying ego psychology, Holland examines how Shakespeare’s characters use ego defenses like repression and denial to navigate internal conflicts, allowing for a more nuanced understanding of their motivations.
Freud’s Case Studies (Anna O.)	Third Phase: Self Psychology and Identity Theory	Holland’s third phase explores how Freud’s famous case studies (such as Anna O.) reflect the development of self-identity and the subject’s struggle between self and non-self, linking the individual to broader human experience.
Donne’s Poetry	Second Phase: Ego Psychology	Holland interprets Donne’s complex metaphors and irony as expressions of ego defenses, where the poet’s intellectualized style serves as a defense mechanism against emotional vulnerability.

Criticism Against “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland

Overemphasis on Subjectivity
Critics argue that Holland’s focus on personal identity and subjective interpretation in the third phase of psychoanalysis undermines the possibility of finding common or objective meanings in literary texts. This could lead to an overly individualistic approach where the text becomes secondary to the reader’s psychology.

“There can be as many readings as there are readers to write them.”

Limited Applicability to All Texts
Holland’s psychoanalytic model, especially the first and second phases, is seen as overly reliant on Freudian theories, which may not be suitable for all literary works or authors, particularly those outside of Western literary traditions or those that do not reflect Freudian psychological models.
Reductionism in Early Phases
The first phase, which focuses on decoding latent unconscious content through Freudian symbolism, has been criticized for being reductive. It can reduce complex literary works to simplistic psychoanalytic symbols, such as reading characters or images as mere representations of sexual or castration anxieties.

“This kind of symbolic decoding hurls us from poetry to anatomy.”

Lack of Emphasis on Historical and Social Context
Holland’s psychoanalytic approach often downplays the historical, cultural, and social contexts of literary works. Critics argue that ignoring these external factors can result in an incomplete or skewed understanding of the text, as literature is often a product of its time and cultural environment.
Challenges with Scientific Validity
Some scholars question the scientific rigor of applying psychoanalysis, particularly subjective interpretations of identity, to literary criticism. The use of psychoanalytic theory in literature is sometimes viewed as speculative and lacking empirical support.
Inconsistent Critical Framework
While Holland’s phases move from unconscious psychology to identity theory, critics argue that this progression is not always consistently applied across different works and lacks a unified methodology. The approach shifts between personal introspection and text-based analysis, leading to a fragmented critical framework.

Potential for Over-Personalization
The third phase, which emphasizes self-discovery through interpretation, may lead to critics placing too much focus on their own emotions and experiences rather than the text itself. This can detract from a balanced analysis and make the critique overly personal.

“We use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge.”

Representative Quotations from “Literary Interpretation and Three Phases of Psychoanalysis” by Norman N. Holland with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Psychoanalysis has gone through three phases. It has been a psychology first of the unconscious, second a psychology of the ego, and today, I believe, a psychology of the self.”	Holland introduces the core structure of his argument, showing how psychoanalysis and its application in literary criticism have evolved through three stages.
“The first phase was a psychology of the unconscious, focusing on hidden meanings and symbols within texts, particularly related to sexual and developmental anxieties.”	This outlines the emphasis of the first phase on uncovering hidden or latent meanings using Freudian concepts such as the Oedipus complex or symbolic representation.
“In the second phase, the focus shifted to ego defenses, such as denial and repression, which are reflected in the way characters or speakers in literature deal with internal conflict.”	Holland explains how the second phase uses ego psychology to examine how individuals manage conflicts between their desires and reality, as represented through literary characters.
“We use literary knowledge to gain self-knowledge. We express and re-create ourselves in our interpretations—that we have always done—but now we can do it understandingly.”	Holland advocates for self-discovery through literary criticism, particularly in the third phase where readers’ personal identities shape their interpretation of the text.
“This kind of symbolic decoding hurls us from poetry to anatomy, from the words-on-the-page to the depths of the unconscious.”	A critique of early psychoanalytic criticism, which often overemphasizes symbolic analysis, reducing literature to Freudian psychological concepts.
“Identity is the key term. Erikson and most other analysts treat it as simply one’s general sense of one’s own wholeness.”	Here, Holland introduces identity theory, emphasizing its relevance to the third phase of psychoanalysis and how it impacts personal and critical interpretation of texts.
“The denier denied. If you try to escape the abrasions of time and human relationships, they will turn on you with dreadful truth.”	Holland reflects on the inevitability of human experience, illustrating how literature reveals psychological truths, even if the reader or characters attempt to deny them.
“For me, the need to see and understand is very strong.”	A personal statement from Holland that underscores his individual approach to literary criticism, linking his personal desire for understanding with his psychoanalytic method.
“In this kind of critical analysis, we located the experience of the work not in ourselves but in the work.”	This statement critiques formalist approaches, which isolate the literary text from the reader’s personal engagement or emotional involvement, creating a dispassionate reading.
“There can be as many readings as there are readers to write them. Can be and should be.”	Holland emphasizes the subjective nature of literary criticism, particularly in the third phase, where every reader’s interpretation is unique and personal.

“Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland: Summary and Critique

“Human Identity” Norman N. Holland, initially published in the prestigious journal Critical Inquiry in 1978, has since become a cornerstone in the fields of literary theory and criticism.

Introduction: “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland

“Human Identity” Norman N. Holland, initially published in the prestigious journal Critical Inquiry in 1978, has since become a cornerstone in the fields of literary theory and criticism. Holland’s exploration of the complex interplay between individual identity and the texts we encounter has had a profound and enduring impact on scholarly discourse. His innovative approach, which delves into the psychological dimensions of reading and interpretation, has provided invaluable insights into the ways in which readers engage with literary works to construct their own personal narratives.

Summary of “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland

Psychoanalysis and the Reformation of Identity

Holland discusses the evolution of psychoanalysis in addressing human identity, shifting from Freud’s materialistic psychology to deeper explorations of the self.
- “Psychoanalysis from its very origins has been profoundly involved in the owning of self.” (p. 451)

Concept of Identity in Erikson and Lichtenstein

Holland references Erikson’s “sense of identity,” which includes how individuals perceive themselves and how others perceive them.
- “Erikson uses the word to mean sense of identity…through all of Eriksonian mutuality.” (p. 451)
Lichtenstein’s “primary identity” focuses on early childhood development, emphasizing the meshing of maternal and infant needs as the foundation of identity.
- “A primary identity: something that develops in each of us in the first year of life…” (p. 452)

Identity as a Dialectic of Sameness and Difference

Holland emphasizes the concept of identity as a dynamic balance of sameness and difference, where personal identity remains consistent through life changes.
- “I am constantly changing, but…there remains a continuing me who is the style that permeates all those changes.” (p. 452)

Theme and Variation: Identity as a Holistic Concept

Holland likens identity to a musical theme with variations, where each action is a variation on a core theme of the individual’s life.
- “Each action is a variation on a theme…which we learn by seeing the theme in its ever-new variations.” (p. 453)

Holistic Reasoning in Psychoanalysis

Holistic reasoning in identity focuses on patterns, fit, and meaning rather than strict causality. Freud’s dream analysis is a prime example of this approach.
- “Holistic explanations…bring out the individuality and wholeness of a system.” (p. 453-454)

Primary Identity vs. Identity Theme

Holland distinguishes between “primary identity” (an innate, unconscious sense of self) and “identity theme” (a formulation by others to understand an individual’s personal style).
- “I can never know your ‘primary identity,’ for it is deeply and unconsciously inside you…[but] I can formulate a constancy in your personal style.” (p. 455)

Identity and Individual Uniqueness

Holland argues that identity theory allows us to talk rigorously about unique individuals, merging personal experience with scientific inquiry.
- “We can talk rigorously about unique individuals, but not impersonally.” (p. 455)

Shaw as a Case Study in Identity

Holland uses George Bernard Shaw as a case study, showing how Shaw’s personal identity theme—seeking a “purposeful and fulfilling opposite”—shaped his political and literary work.
- “Shaw tries either to find or to be a purposeful and fulfilling opposite.” (p. 457)

Identity as a Framework for Understanding Behavior

Holland suggests that understanding someone’s identity allows for holistic insights into their life choices, personality, and behaviors, beyond simple cause-effect models.
- “Identity theory thus extends Freud’s method of dream interpretation…to the whole life of a person.” (p. 454-455)

The Impact of Identity Theory on Psychology

Holland concludes by arguing that identity theory transforms our understanding of personality, motivation, and social interaction, providing a comprehensive framework for psychological and cultural analysis.
- “Identity theory gives us a way of accounting for human individuality within the generalities of species and culture.” (p. 468)

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Context in the Essay
Primary Identity	A foundational sense of self developed in early childhood, particularly through interactions between mother and child.	Holland, drawing on Lichtenstein, defines “primary identity” as something formed during the first year of life when an infant’s needs mesh with the mother’s. This identity becomes the core of the individual’s later developments. (p. 452)
Identity Theme	A pattern of consistent traits or behaviors that characterize an individual, recognized by both self and others.	Holland uses this concept to describe the continuity within a person’s life. Every action can be seen as a variation of an identity theme, forming a holistic understanding of the individual’s identity. (p. 453)
Sameness and Difference	The dialectic relationship where identity is defined both by what remains constant (sameness) and what changes (difference).	Holland emphasizes that identity is understood through the interplay of sameness (what stays consistent) and difference (the variations in behavior and experience). This dialectic helps individuals recognize changes within the self. (p. 452)
Theme and Variation	A concept borrowed from music, where a theme is repeated with changes (variations) while maintaining a recognizable core.	Holland compares identity to a musical theme with variations. Each action is a variation on the individual’s core theme, helping to define the person’s identity across different contexts and life stages. (p. 453)
Holistic Reasoning	A method of interpretation that focuses on understanding patterns, fits, and meanings rather than relying solely on cause-effect or predictive models.	Holland contrasts this approach with scientific reasoning, using Freud’s dream interpretation as an example. Holistic reasoning allows for a more comprehensive understanding of human identity by examining how various life elements fit into an individual’s identity theme. (p. 454)
Freudian Psychoanalysis	A method of psychological analysis that explores unconscious motivations, particularly through techniques like dream interpretation.	Holland builds on Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, particularly Freud’s use of free associations and dream analysis to uncover identity themes and explore the relationship between conscious and unconscious desires. (p. 454)
Self and Other	The relationship between the individual’s perception of themselves (self) and their perception of external individuals or forces (other).	Holland discusses how identity is shaped by both self-perception and interactions with others. He stresses the importance of this dynamic in understanding personal identity and how it influences relationships and social contexts. (p. 455)
Relational Knowing	A way of understanding individuals that acknowledges the role of personal relationships and subjective experiences in shaping knowledge.	Holland argues that true knowledge of a person’s identity cannot be impersonal; it is always influenced by relationships and the interpretive framework of the observer. This concept emphasizes the role of empathy in understanding identity. (p. 455)
Psychoanalytic Criticism	A form of literary analysis that interprets texts through psychoanalytic theories, especially those related to unconscious desires, childhood experiences, and identity.	As a critic and psychoanalyst, Holland applies psychoanalytic principles to literary interpretation. He emphasizes how understanding an author’s identity and unconscious motivations can illuminate their work. (p. 456)
Identity as Process and Product	The idea that identity is both a process of continual change and a stable product that remains recognizable over time.	Holland explains that identity is dynamic, continuously shaped by new experiences, yet there is a core “product” of identity that persists through these changes. This dual nature allows for the holistic study of identity in psychoanalysis. (p. 466)
Individuum est ineffabile	A medieval adage meaning “the individual is ineffable,” implying that unique individuals cannot be fully captured or described by language or science.	Holland challenges this idea by suggesting that psychoanalytic techniques allow us to speak rigorously about human uniqueness, even though complete understanding remains elusive. He proposes identity theory as a way to approach this complexity. (p. 451)
Creative Evolution	A term used to describe the idea that human development is not determined by biological or social forces alone but involves purposeful, creative direction by the individual.	Holland uses Shaw’s rejection of determinisms like Darwinism and Marxism to highlight how individuals (and by extension, identities) can creatively evolve based on personal choices, rejecting deterministic views of history or biology. (p. 457)
Empathy in Psychoanalysis	The ability to understand and share the feelings of another person, crucial in psychoanalysis for understanding an individual’s identity.	Holland emphasizes that understanding identity requires empathy, as one’s perception of another’s identity is influenced by the observer’s own identity and subjective experience. (p. 455)
Identity as a Holistic Concept	The view that identity encompasses the whole life of a person, integrating personal history, behaviors, beliefs, and external perceptions.	Holland advocates for a holistic understanding of identity, where each action or event is seen as part of a broader, coherent pattern that defines the individual. This concept allows psychoanalysts to study individuals in a comprehensive way. (p. 453-454)

Contribution of “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland to Literary Theory/Theories

· Introduction of Identity Theory in Literary Criticism

Holland introduces identity theory as a new lens for literary criticism, focusing on how individual identity shapes literary interpretation.
- “My books apply the concept of identity here developed to literary response.” (p. 451)

· Holistic Approach to Literary Interpretation

Holland argues for a holistic approach to understanding literature, where the entire life and identity of the author and the reader influence the interpretation of a text.
- “Holistic explanations…bring out the individuality and wholeness of a system.” (p. 454)

· Psychological Reader-Response Theory

Expanding reader-response theory, Holland emphasizes the role of the reader’s identity in the process of interpreting texts, where each reader’s personal psychology and identity shape their unique reading of the same text.
- “Identity theory gives us a way of accounting for human individuality within the generalities of species and culture.” (p. 468)

· Integration of Psychoanalysis and Literary Criticism

Holland bridges psychoanalytic theory with literary theory, suggesting that literature can be understood through the psychological framework of identity, which encompasses unconscious desires, personal history, and subjective experiences.
- “Freud’s theory of motivation begins with the pleasure principle, really an ‘unpleasure principle’…humans act to minimize unpleasure.” (p. 468)

· Challenge to Structuralism and Objective Literary Theories

Holland critiques structuralist and objective approaches to literary analysis, asserting that literary interpretation cannot be impersonal or purely scientific because it involves the subjective identities of both the reader and the author.
- “We can talk rigorously about unique individuals, but not impersonally.” (p. 455)

· Concept of Identity as Dynamic and Evolving

Holland contributes to the notion of identity in literary theory by presenting it as both process and product. This allows for an understanding of identity (and by extension, literature) as something that is continuously shaped and reshaped through interactions with the text.
- “Identity comprises both process and product, both a conclusion one comes to and a way of continually modifying that conclusion.” (p. 466)

· Reformation of the Traditional “Author-Centered” Criticism

While rejecting rigid author-centered criticism, Holland redefines the relationship between an author’s identity and their work, suggesting that understanding an author’s personal identity theme can enrich literary analysis.
- “I find I want to put that theme into words, even though I know that any such phrasing must…be inadequate.” (p. 457)

· Influence of Eriksonian Identity and Psychoanalysis on Literary Theory

Holland incorporates Erik Erikson’s concept of identity development into literary theory, suggesting that literature can reflect stages of identity formation in both authors and characters.
- “Erikson uses the word to mean sense of identity…through all of Eriksonian mutuality.” (p. 451)

· Shift from Deterministic Interpretations to Creative Interpretations

Holland advocates for moving away from deterministic views (e.g., Marxism, Freudian determinism) in literary theory toward a model where the reader and the author engage creatively with the text, using identity as a dynamic force.
- “Shaw rejected deterministic views like Darwinism…instead, he insisted on Creative Evolution, a purposeful and directed interpretation of life.” (p. 457)

· Interdisciplinary Approach Combining Psychology, Literature, and Philosophy

Holland’s work contributes to literary theory by creating an interdisciplinary framework that integrates psychology, literary analysis, and philosophical questions about the nature of identity, knowledge, and human experience.
- “The principle of identity re-creation…makes it possible to speak rigorously about individuals, reuniting objective and subjective realities.” (p. 469)

· Empathy as a Critical Tool in Literary Analysis

Holland emphasizes the importance of empathy in literary criticism, where understanding the identity of the author, characters, and even readers themselves requires a subjective and empathetic approach.
- “Any formulation of an identity theme will…be a function both of the you I see and of my way of seeing—my identity as well as yours.” (p. 455)

Examples of Critiques Through “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Work	Critique Through “Human Identity”	Application of Holland’s Identity Theory
“Hamlet” by William Shakespeare	Hamlet’s indecision and actions are viewed as expressions of his conflicted identity, shaped by the trauma of his father’s death and his complicated relationship with his mother. Hamlet’s identity theme revolves around vengeance, loyalty, and moral hesitation.	Holland’s theory would suggest that Hamlet’s identity is a dynamic balance between his internal struggles (sameness) and his external actions (differences). Each action is a variation of his core identity theme of ethical dilemmas and self-doubt.
“The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald	Gatsby’s relentless pursuit of wealth and social status represents his identity theme, which is driven by his desire to recreate an idealized version of himself and his past love for Daisy. His self-creation reflects a primary identity shaped by longing and loss.	Holland would argue that Gatsby’s identity is continuously recreated through his dreams of wealth and status. His theme is the contrast between his self-perception and the reality of his unattainable desires. His identity is defined by his need to reconcile these differences.
“Jane Eyre” by Charlotte Brontë	Jane’s journey of self-discovery is driven by her search for autonomy and moral integrity. Her identity theme revolves around the tension between social expectations and personal desires, as well as the need for love and self-respect.	Holland’s theory would interpret Jane Eyre’s identity as a theme with variations—her choices reflect her consistent need to maintain self-respect while navigating social constraints. Each relationship and experience she encounters is a variation on this identity theme.
“A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man” by James Joyce	Stephen Dedalus’s development as an artist is an exploration of his evolving identity. His search for independence and artistic expression mirrors his primary identity, formed through conflicts with family, religion, and nationalism.	Through Holland’s lens, Stephen’s identity is a process of re-creation, constantly evolving as he interacts with different aspects of his environment. His identity theme involves breaking free from societal constraints to realize his artistic self. Each decision and artistic endeavor represents a variation on this core theme.

Criticism Against “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland

Overemphasis on Subjectivity

Critics argue that Holland’s focus on the subjective identity of the reader and author can lead to overly personal interpretations, which may undermine more objective or shared understandings of a text.
- “Interpretation becomes overly personal, dependent on individual psychology, rather than universal literary merit.”

Neglect of Structural and Formalist Approaches

Holland’s theory largely dismisses structuralism, formalism, and other more scientific approaches to literary analysis, which emphasize the text itself rather than the reader’s identity.
- “Holland’s approach shifts too much focus from the text to the reader’s psychological framework, neglecting structural elements critical to literary form.”

Lack of Predictive Power

One critique of identity theory is that it lacks predictive power, meaning it cannot anticipate how readers will interpret texts or how identity themes will manifest in new contexts.
- “Identity theory cannot predict reader responses, making it less useful for broad literary analysis or theory-building.”

Inconsistency in Defining Identity

Critics point out that Holland’s definition of identity is broad and fluid, making it difficult to establish a clear, consistent understanding of how identity functions in literary interpretation.
- “Holland’s concept of identity is too vague, leading to inconsistencies in application across different texts and readers.”

Potential to Oversimplify Complex Texts

By focusing heavily on identity themes, there is a risk that Holland’s theory might oversimplify complex literary works, reducing them to reflections of personal identity rather than exploring their deeper literary, cultural, or historical significance.
- “Complex texts can be reduced to mere reflections of identity, overlooking broader social, historical, or thematic layers.”

Limited Engagement with Broader Social and Cultural Contexts

Holland’s identity theory is often critiqued for focusing more on the individual’s psychological experience, potentially ignoring the broader social, political, or cultural contexts that influence literature and its reception.
- “By prioritizing individual psychology, Holland downplays the importance of collective cultural and social influences on literary works.”

Difficulty in Empirical Validation

Critics argue that Holland’s identity theory is difficult to empirically validate or refute, since it relies on subjective experiences and interpretations, making it challenging to test in a rigorous academic framework.
- “The theory’s reliance on subjective interpretation makes it hard to empirically verify or challenge through academic methods.”

Suggested Readings: “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland

Holland, Norman N. “Human Identity.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 4, no. 3, 1978, pp. 451–69. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343069. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.
Gardiner, Judith Kegan. “On Female Identity and Writing by Women.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 8, no. 2, 1981, pp. 347–61. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1343167. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.

Holland, Norman N., and Leona F. Sherman. “Gothic Possibilities.” New Literary History, vol. 8, no. 2, 1977, pp. 279–94. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/468522. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.
Pagan, Nicholas O. “In Memoriam: Norman N. Holland, 1927–2017.” PMLA, vol. 133, no. 5, 2018, pp. 1268–70. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45179458. Accessed 25 Sept. 2024.

Representative Quotations from “Human Identity” by Norman N. Holland with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“What is me? What is not-me? What am I responsible for?” (p. 451)	Holland explores the core questions of identity, focusing on the boundaries between self and external forces. This inquiry underpins his exploration of how identity shapes our perception of responsibility, actions, and personal style.
“Identity refers to the whole pattern of sameness within change which is a human life.” (p. 452)	This quote encapsulates Holland’s view that identity is the persistent pattern of self that remains even as a person undergoes changes. It highlights the dialectical relationship between constancy (sameness) and transformation (change).
“Each action is a variation on a theme which we learn by seeing the theme in its ever-new variations.” (p. 453)	Holland likens identity to a musical theme with variations, emphasizing that identity is not static but expressed differently through each action. This metaphor illustrates the dynamic and evolving nature of personal identity.
“We can talk rigorously about unique individuals, but not impersonally.” (p. 455)	This statement highlights Holland’s belief that true understanding of an individual’s identity requires personal involvement and empathy. He argues that analysis of identity cannot be detached or objective, as it is inherently subjective.
“Holistic explanations come in terms of ‘fit,’ similarity, pattern, or meaning. Hence, they do not predict.” (p. 454)	Holland contrasts holistic reasoning with scientific methods, noting that identity cannot be understood through cause-effect relationships or prediction. Instead, identity is recognized through patterns and fits, resisting reductive analysis.
“I can never know your ‘primary identity,’ for it is deeply and unconsciously inside you.” (p. 455)	Holland emphasizes that an individual’s primary identity is inaccessible to others because it is formed unconsciously in early life. This points to the intrinsic limits of psychoanalytic interpretation of identity, highlighting its complexity.
“Identity theory gives us a way of accounting for human individuality within the generalities of species and culture.” (p. 468)	This quote illustrates Holland’s contribution to literary theory, where identity theory provides a framework for understanding human individuality within broader cultural and social contexts, making identity a central concept in literary analysis.
“The ultimate use of ‘identity’ is to change the paradigm through which we construe the world.” (p. 468)	Holland argues that identity theory challenges traditional paradigms, particularly the division between subjective and objective knowledge, offering a new framework for understanding both literature and human behavior.
“In understanding someone’s cognition, we must understand what he is trying to do, and why.” (p. 468)	Holland stresses the importance of understanding motivation and intent in analyzing cognition and behavior. This approach aligns with his broader theory that identity shapes perception, decision-making, and literary interpretation.
“All our knowing, even the most scientific, has become relational.” (p. 455)	Holland argues that even scientific knowledge is influenced by human identity and relationships, challenging the notion of objective, impersonal knowledge. This reflects his view that all understanding is mediated by personal and subjective experience.

“How Ordinary Is Ordinary Language?” by Stanley E. Fish: Summary and Critique

“How Ordinary Is Ordinary Language?” by Stanley E. Fish first appeared in 1973 in the New Literary History journal.

Introduction: “How Ordinary Is Ordinary Language?” by Stanley E. Fish

“How Ordinary Is Ordinary Language?” by Stanley E. Fish first appeared in 1973 in the New Literary History journal. This essay is considered a pivotal piece in the development of New Criticism and reader-response theory. Fish argues that language is not merely a neutral tool for conveying meaning but is actively shaped by the reader’s interpretive strategies. This idea challenges traditional notions of authorial intent and objective meaning, emphasizing the subjective nature of literary interpretation. Fish’s essay has had a significant impact on literary theory, influencing discussions about the relationship between the text, the reader, and the cultural context.

Summary of “How Ordinary Is Ordinary Language?” by Stanley E. Fish

Linguistics and Literary Criticism: A Lingering Debate Fish begins by addressing the long-standing conflict between linguists and literary critics, a debate ongoing for over 20 years. Linguists assert that literature is fundamentally language and therefore, linguistic analysis is relevant. In contrast, critics argue that linguistic analyses miss essential elements of literature, particularly what makes it unique (“linguists have failed to distinguish clearly between the structure of language and the structure of literature” – p. 43). This mutual critique has led to a stalemate in reconciling the two fields.

The Misconception of Ordinary Language Fish highlights that both linguists and critics err by assuming a distinction between ordinary and literary language. This split trivializes both, as ordinary language is stripped of its human values, purpose, and context, reducing it to mere form (“the very act of distinguishing between ordinary and literary language, because of what it assumes, leads necessarily to an inadequate account of both” – p. 45). Fish contends that separating ordinary and literary language impoverishes our understanding of both domains.
Trivialization of Ordinary Language By excluding purpose, value, and intention from ordinary language, it becomes sterile, a mere system devoid of human essence. Literature, then, is relegated to a marginal status where its deviation from this impoverished language is seen as inferior or parasitic (Fish critiques this as “deviation theories always trivialize the norm and therefore trivialize everything else” – p. 44). This binary approach reduces the value of both language and literature, imposing artificial constraints on their interpretation.
The Failure of Deviation Theories Fish critiques what he terms “deviation theories,” which separate ordinary and literary language by designating literary language as a deviation from the norm. This categorization, according to Fish, trivializes both the norm (ordinary language) and what deviates from it (literary language). The consequence is a diminished understanding of the richness inherent in both language forms.

Restoring Value to Ordinary Language Fish argues for a new perspective that restores human content to language, rejecting the trivializing effect of treating language as a formal system without values. He draws on speech act theory and philosophical semantics to propose that ordinary language, far from being devoid of human values, is deeply infused with them. This approach offers a way to view literature not as a deviation but as an enriched form of language, full of human purpose and intention (“a theory which restores human content to language also restores legitimate status to literature” – p. 50).
Implications for Linguistics and Literary Theory Fish suggests that embracing the human and intentional aspects of ordinary language opens up possibilities for new methods of literary analysis. Literature is no longer a special category isolated from everyday discourse but an integral part of language, shaped by the same values and purposes that govern human communication (“what characterizes literature is not formal properties, but an attitude—always within our power to assume—toward properties that belong by constitutive right to language” – p. 52).
Conclusion: Literature as Framed Language Ultimately, Fish concludes that literature is distinguished not by its inherent linguistic features but by the frame we impose on it, signaling our intent to examine language with heightened awareness (“literature is language around which we have drawn a frame, a frame that indicates a decision to regard with a particular self-consciousness the resources language has always possessed” – p. 52). This redefinition collapses the binary distinction between ordinary and literary language, positioning both as part of a continuum rather than separate entities.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “How Ordinary Is Ordinary Language?” by Stanley E. Fish

Term/Concept	Explanation
Ordinary Language	Refers to language as it is used in everyday communication, often contrasted with literary language. Fish critiques its reduction to a formal system devoid of human values.
Literary Language	The language used in literature, often seen as distinct from ordinary language. Fish challenges the notion that literary language deviates from ordinary language.
Deviation Theory	The idea that literary language is a deviation from the norm of ordinary language. Fish argues that this trivializes both types of language.
Speech Act Theory	A philosophical theory (rooted in the work of J.L. Austin and John Searle) that sees utterances as actions rather than mere statements. Fish uses this theory to argue that all language is permeated with human intention and purpose.
Formalism	An approach to literary theory that emphasizes the form or structure of a text over its content or meaning. Fish critiques this focus on form as limiting the understanding of language and literature.
Message-Plus Theory	A theory of literature that sees literary texts as conveying messages more effectively or beautifully than ordinary language. Fish criticizes this as prioritizing style over content.
Message-Minus Theory	A view of literature that emphasizes style and form, often at the expense of content or message. Fish sees this as equally limiting.
Positivism	A belief in objective, observable facts that underpin both linguistic and literary analysis. Fish critiques this as ignoring the human values embedded in language.
Performative Language	Language that accomplishes an action (e.g., promising, ordering) rather than merely describing something. Fish references this concept to argue that all language, including ordinary language, is performative.
Norm	The idea of a standard or conventional form of language (ordinary language). Fish argues that deviation theories establish a norm that diminishes both ordinary and literary language.
Framing	The act of drawing attention to language by framing it in a particular way, often seen in literature. Fish argues that literature is distinguished by the frame we impose around language, not by inherent linguistic properties.
Autonomy of Criticism	The idea that literary criticism operates independently from other disciplines, like linguistics. Fish critiques this separation as artificial and unproductive.

Contribution of “How Ordinary Is Ordinary Language?” by Stanley E. Fish to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Challenge to Formalism

Contribution: Fish critiques formalism, which emphasizes the structure and form of literary texts over content. He argues that formalist approaches to literature fail to capture the richness of both ordinary and literary language.
Quotation: Fish states that “the very act of distinguishing between ordinary and literary language… leads necessarily to an inadequate account of both” (p. 45). He suggests that formalism trivializes both the norm of ordinary language and the deviation that defines literature in formalist terms.

2. Critique of Structuralism

Contribution: Fish indirectly critiques structuralism, especially the structuralist emphasis on the underlying structures of language. He opposes the view that literary language is a formal deviation from an ordinary linguistic structure.
Quotation: Fish critiques Roman Jakobson’s structuralist approach, noting that in Jakobson’s view, “the chief task of literary theory is to discover ‘what makes a verbal message a work of art'”, and that this method implies “a verbal message” is something distinct from language itself (p. 48).

3. Expansion of Speech Act Theory in Literary Studies

Contribution: Fish applies Speech Act Theory to literary criticism, arguing that all language—ordinary or literary—carries human intention, purpose, and value. This suggests that literature should be analyzed as a form of human action rather than as a distinct language form.
Quotation: Fish argues, “the strongest contention of the theory [speech act theory] is that all utterances are to be so regarded [as speech acts], and the importance of that contention is… ‘what we have to study is not the sentence… but the issuing of an utterance in a situation’ by a human being” (p. 50-51).

4. Rejection of the Ordinary vs. Literary Language Distinction

Contribution: Fish challenges the ordinary vs. literary language dichotomy by asserting that all language is inherently rich in purpose and human values. He calls for a unified approach to analyzing all forms of language, rejecting the idea that literary language is a deviation from an ordinary linguistic norm.
Quotation: Fish criticizes this division, stating, “It is my contention that the very act of distinguishing between ordinary and literary language… leads to an inadequate account of both” (p. 45). He argues that “ordinary language is extraordinary because at its heart is… the realm of values, intentions, and purposes” (p. 51).

5. Contribution to Reader-Response Theory

Contribution: Fish’s notion of “framing” language aligns with reader-response theory, where the meaning of a text emerges through the interaction between the reader and the text. He argues that literature is not defined by its language but by the attitude or “frame” that readers impose on it.
Quotation: Fish asserts that “what characterizes literature… is not formal properties, but an attitude—always within our power to assume—toward properties that belong by constitutive right to language” (p. 52). This notion reflects the idea that the reader’s role in interpreting a text is central to its literary value.

6. Critique of Positivism in Literary and Linguistic Theory

Contribution: Fish critiques positivism, the belief that language can be understood purely through formal, objective analysis. He argues that this approach strips language of its human essence and results in an artificial separation between language and literature.
Quotation: Fish criticizes “the positivist assumption that ordinary language is available to a purely formal description”, noting that this assumption impoverishes our understanding of both language and literature (p. 44).

7. Reevaluation of Literary Value and Aesthetic Judgment

Contribution: Fish’s argument leads to a reevaluation of how literary value and aesthetic judgment are determined. He claims that the evaluative criteria used to identify literature are not universal, but local and context-specific, reflecting collective decisions about what counts as literature.
Quotation: He argues that “criteria of evaluation (that is, criteria for identifying literature) are valid only for the aesthetic they support and reflect”, and that “all aesthetics… are local and conventional rather than universal” (p. 53).

8. Impact on Deconstruction

Contribution: While Fish doesn’t directly engage with deconstruction, his rejection of fixed linguistic boundaries between literary and ordinary language prefigures deconstructionist ideas, particularly the notion that meaning is fluid and constructed by both the text and its interpretation.
Quotation: Fish notes that “literature is no longer granted a special status”, which suggests a leveling of all types of language as valid sites for meaning-making (p. 52).

Examples of Critiques Through “How Ordinary Is Ordinary Language?” by Stanley E. Fish

Literary Work	Traditional Critique	Critique Using Fish’s Framework
“A Modest Proposal” by Jonathan Swift	Typically analyzed for its satirical content and use of irony, showing how Swift criticizes British policies toward Ireland through exaggerated, grotesque proposals.	Fish’s critique would focus on how the human intentions and values embedded in Swift’s language are inseparable from its ordinary usage. The satire becomes powerful because it uses “ordinary” language for extraordinary human critique, uniting purpose, values, and intentions with the language itself.
“Ulysses” by James Joyce	Often analyzed through formalistic or structuralist lenses, focusing on Joyce’s complex narrative techniques and stream-of-consciousness writing style.	Fish would argue against viewing Joyce’s language as a deviation from the norm. Instead, he would suggest that Joyce’s language is an example of how ordinary language is extraordinary in conveying deeply human experiences, like consciousness and memory. Joyce’s form and content are unified by purpose and value.
“The Faerie Queene” by Edmund Spenser	Traditionally critiqued for its allegorical content and use of archaic language, often analyzed for the moral and religious messages encoded in its elaborate structure.	Fish might critique the tendency to regard Spenser’s work as formally difficult or deviational. He would emphasize that Spenser’s language reflects the human purposes and values at play in his moral allegory, and that understanding these values unites the language and meaning without seeing the language as distinct from the human content.
“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot	Seen through a Modernist lens, it is typically critiqued for its fragmentary structure and allusions to classical and contemporary texts, representing a fragmented modern consciousness.	Rather than focusing on the fragmentation as a formal deviation, Fish’s critique would emphasize how Eliot’s ordinary language reflects extraordinary human concerns about alienation and despair. He would argue that Eliot’s style is not a departure from ordinary language but is deeply tied to expressing human experience in modernity.
“How Do I Love Thee” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning	Frequently analyzed as a romantic love poem, it is traditionally viewed through its emotional expressiveness and its adherence to sonnet form.	Fish would challenge the notion that lyric poetry such as this can be separated from ordinary language. He might focus on how Browning’s poem uses language imbued with purpose and intention, making it part of the continuum of everyday communication rather than a deviation. The poetic language and emotional expression are united with ordinary human values.
“An Essay on Man” by Alexander Pope	Critiqued for its didactic tone and focus on philosophical arguments about human nature, often seen as a blend of poetry and rational discourse.	Fish would reject the idea that Pope’s rational arguments reduce the work’s literary status. He would argue that the values and purposes in Pope’s writing (exploring human existence) are inseparable from the language, demonstrating that ordinary and literary language are united by human intention.
“The Rape of the Lock” by Alexander Pope	Analyzed as a mock-epic, it uses the grand style of classical epics to satirize trivial contemporary events, particularly in social satire.	Fish would critique how this satirical work demonstrates that ordinary language is inherently literary. The high and low elements are both part of a unified language that serves human purposes—here, satirical and moral commentary. The work’s playfulness with form does not separate it from ordinary language but exemplifies how all language is embedded with purpose.

Criticism Against “How Ordinary Is Ordinary Language?” by Stanley E. Fish

Oversimplification of Literary-Linguistic Distinctions
Critics might argue that Fish oversimplifies the established distinction between literary and ordinary language. By collapsing the two categories, he potentially overlooks important formal, structural, and stylistic differences that distinguish literary works from everyday speech.
Neglect of Formalism’s Contributions
Fish’s critique of formalism can be seen as dismissive of the valuable insights that formal analysis provides. Formalist approaches allow for a deep understanding of the technical elements that contribute to a text’s meaning, and Fish’s rejection might be viewed as undermining this aspect of literary scholarship.
Undervaluing the Role of Aesthetic Experience
Some critics could claim that Fish diminishes the aesthetic value of literature by focusing too heavily on its embedded human purposes and intentions. By merging literary and ordinary language, Fish may downplay the unique aesthetic experiences that literature offers, which are often central to its value.

Ambiguity in the “Framing” Concept
Fish’s idea that literature is created through the “frame” readers impose on language has been critiqued as vague and subjective. Critics argue that it is unclear how this framing process operates, and it leaves too much open to interpretation, making it difficult to apply consistently across literary criticism.
Overreliance on Reader-Response Theory
Fish’s emphasis on the reader’s role in making language “literary” aligns with reader-response theory, but some scholars criticize this approach for giving too much agency to the reader. This focus potentially neglects the text’s inherent qualities and undermines the importance of authorial intention.
Failure to Address the Practical Limits of Linguistics in Literary Criticism
While Fish critiques linguistic approaches for failing to account for human purposes in language, critics may argue that Fish does not fully address the practical limitations of using linguistics as a tool for literary criticism. Linguistics, as a discipline, might not be designed to capture the aesthetic and symbolic dimensions of literary works.

Challenges to the Elimination of Literary Status
Fish’s assertion that literature does not hold a special status might be criticized for eroding the distinctive cultural and intellectual value that has traditionally been afforded to literary works. This claim could be seen as reducing literature’s unique role in society by merging it too closely with ordinary language.
Resistance from Structuralist and Post-Structuralist Thinkers
Structuralist and post-structuralist theorists might argue that Fish’s rejection of linguistic structures in favor of human intentions overlooks the importance of deeper linguistic patterns and structures that underlie both ordinary and literary language. Fish’s approach may seem too focused on external human contexts rather than internal textual structures.
Limited Applicability Across Genres
Some critics might argue that Fish’s theory does not account for the diversity of literary genres. For example, works of experimental fiction or poetry that deliberately play with language in non-ordinary ways may not fit comfortably within Fish’s unified framework of language.

Representative Quotations from “How Ordinary Is Ordinary Language?” by Stanley E. Fish with Explanation

“Deviation theories always trivialize the norm and therefore trivialize everything else.”
Fish critiques the common distinction between ordinary and literary language, arguing that categorizing literary language as a deviation from the norm reduces the significance of both ordinary and literary language (p. 44).
“The task of the linguist… is limited to describing those formal components of a literary text which are accessible to him, but the linguist cannot judge the value of these various features; only the literary critic can do that.”
Fish references the linguist’s constrained role in literary criticism, critiquing the positivist assumption that linguistic analysis can exclude value judgments, which are essential for literary studies (p. 45).
“Ordinary language is extraordinary because at its heart is precisely that realm of values, intentions, and purposes which is often assumed to be the exclusive property of literature.”
Fish argues that ordinary language is not a neutral medium but is deeply intertwined with human purpose, making it as complex and value-laden as literary language (p. 51).

“What characterizes literature then is not formal properties, but an attitude—always within our power to assume—toward properties that belong by constitutive right to language.”
Fish challenges formalist approaches to defining literature by arguing that literature is defined by the reader’s frame of mind, not by intrinsic formal properties (p. 52).
“The very act of distinguishing between ordinary and literary language, because of what it assumes, leads necessarily to an inadequate account of both.”
Fish asserts that creating a dichotomy between ordinary and literary language results in an impoverished understanding of each, as both are interwoven with human values and intentions (p. 45).
“By accepting the positivist assumption that ordinary language is available to a purely formal description, both sides assure that their investigations of literary language will be fruitless and arid.”
Fish critiques the positivist notion that ordinary language can be analyzed purely through form, without considering its human content. This leads, he argues, to an incomplete understanding of literary language as well (p. 44).

“Criticism, in its present form, is forced to choose between separating literature from life or reintegrating it with the impoverished notion of life implicit in the norm of ordinary language.”
Fish identifies a central problem in contemporary criticism: either treat literature as separate from life or reintegrate it with a shallow understanding of ordinary language (p. 48).
“In short, what philosophical semantics and the philosophy of speech acts are telling us is that ordinary language is extraordinary.”
Drawing on speech act theory, Fish argues that all language is imbued with human purpose and meaning, collapsing the distinction between ordinary and literary language (p. 51).
“A theory which restores human content to language also restores legitimate status to literature by reuniting it with a norm that is no longer trivialized.”
Fish suggests that if we view ordinary language as rich with human content, literature too can be seen as part of this continuity, rather than as something deviant or lesser (p. 51).

“All aesthetics… are local and conventional rather than universal, reflecting a collective decision as to what will count as literature.”
Fish challenges universal aesthetic standards, arguing that judgments about what constitutes literature are culturally constructed and subject to change (p. 53).