September 27, 2024 - English Studies

Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory

Displacement in literature and theory refers to transfer of meaning, identity/cultural significance from on context or setting to another.

Displacement in Literature: Etymology and Concept

Etymology

The word “displacement in Literature is derived from the Latin prefix “dis-” meaning “away” or “apart” and the verb “placere” meaning “to place.” Thus, “displacement” essentially means “to place away” or “to put out of place.” This etymological root suggests a fundamental notion of removal or relocation, a concept that has been central to various fields, including literature, literary theory, and general discourse.

Concept in of Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory

Spatial Displacement: This refers to the physical movement of characters or objects from one location to another, often leading to transformative experiences or revelations.
Temporal Displacement: This involves the shifting of narrative time, such as flashbacks, flash-forwards, or temporal paradoxes, which can disrupt linear chronology and create complex narratives.

Psychological Displacement: This occurs when characters or individuals mentally or emotionally remove themselves from a traumatic or difficult situation, often projecting their feelings onto others or objects.
Social Displacement: This involves the forced or voluntary relocation of individuals or communities due to social, economic, or political factors, often leading to cultural dislocation and identity crises.
Symbolic Displacement: This occurs when objects or symbols represent deeper meanings or emotions, allowing authors to convey complex ideas indirectly.

Concept in General

Physical Displacement: The movement of an object from its original position.
Fluid Displacement: The amount of fluid displaced by an object submerged in it.
Social Displacement: The forced or voluntary relocation of individuals or communities.

Economic Displacement: The loss of jobs or livelihoods due to economic changes.
Psychological Displacement: The projection of feelings or emotions onto others or objects.

Displacement: Meanings

Physical displacement: The movement of an object from its original position.

Fluid displacement: The amount of fluid displaced by an object submerged in it.
Social displacement: The forced or voluntary relocation of individuals or communities.
Economic displacement: The loss of jobs or livelihoods due to economic changes.

Psychological displacement: The projection of feelings or emotions onto others or objects.
Literary displacement: The movement of characters or objects from one location to another, or the shifting of narrative time, or the projection of feelings onto others or objects.

Displacement in Literature and Theory: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Displacement, in literary and cultural theory, refers to the process by which meaning, identity, or cultural significance is transferred or shifted from its original context to a new one. It often occurs in relation to themes of migration, exile, or postcolonial identity, where the sense of belonging and representation is destabilized. The concept is rooted in psychoanalytic theory but has been adapted to explore how literature reflects the movement of ideas, peoples, and cultural symbols across different spaces and times.

Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory: Theorists, Works and Argument

1. Michel Foucault (Power, Space, and Displacement)

Key Works:
- Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (1975)
- The Birth of the Clinic (1973)
Argument:
- Foucault examines the role of space and spatial displacement in exerting power and social control. He links institutional practices (prisons, hospitals) to the displacement and organization of individuals in physical and social spaces.
Reference:
- Foucault, M. (1975). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage.
- Foucault, M. (1973). The Birth of the Clinic. New York: Pantheon.

2. Edward Said (Postcolonial Displacement)

Key Works:
- Orientalism (1978)
- Reflections on Exile (2001)
Argument:
- Said explores how colonialism displaces both cultures and individuals, creating a sense of exile and alienation. His concept of “exile” is both a physical and emotional displacement that shapes identity in postcolonial contexts.
Reference:
- Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Pantheon.
- Said, E. W. (2001). Reflections on Exile and Other Essays. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

3. Henri Lefebvre (The Production of Space)

Key Works:
- The Production of Space (1974)
Argument:
- Lefebvre theorizes that space is a social product and that displacement is a consequence of capitalist production. He investigates how the urbanization process displaces communities to make way for economic projects.

Reference:
- Lefebvre, H. (1991). The Production of Space. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

4. Judith Butler (Precarity and Displacement)

Key Works:
- Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? (2009)
Argument:
- Butler connects displacement to the concept of precarity, emphasizing that political and social exclusion leads to a precarious existence. She explores how certain groups are socially displaced, often becoming invisible in political life.
Reference:
- Butler, J. (2009). Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? London: Verso.

5. Giorgio Agamben (Displacement and ‘Bare Life’)

Key Works:
- H*mo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life (1995)

Argument:
- Agamben focuses on displacement through the concept of “bare life,” which refers to individuals stripped of their political significance and reduced to their biological existence. He links displacement to states of exception where individuals are excluded from political and social order.
Reference:
- Agamben, G. (1998). Ho*o Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

6. David Harvey (Displacement and Neoliberalism)

Key Works:
- A Brief History of Neoliberalism (2005)
- The Urban Experience (1989)
Argument:
- Harvey investigates how neoliberal policies lead to displacement, particularly through gentrification and urban restructuring. He argues that displacement is a necessary feature of capitalist accumulation.
Reference:
- Harvey, D. (2005). A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Harvey, D. (1989). The Urban Experience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

7. Saskia Sassen (Globalization and Displacement)

Key Works:
- Expulsions: Brutality and Complexity in the Global Economy (2014)
- The Global City (1991)
Argument:
- Sassen analyzes how globalization displaces both people and economies. She emphasizes how the expansion of global capital leads to expulsions from land, labor markets, and social systems, intensifying displacement.
Reference:
- Sassen, S. (2014). Expulsions: Brutality and Complexity in the Global Economy. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
- Sassen, S. (1991). The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

8. Frantz Fanon (Colonialism and Psychological Displacement)

Key Works:
- The Wretched of the Earth (1961)
- Black Skin, White Masks (1952)
Argument:
- Fanon addresses displacement not only in terms of geography but also in the psychological sphere. He argues that colonized individuals experience a deep sense of alienation and displacement from their identity due to the imposition of colonial power and culture.
Reference:
- Fanon, F. (2004). The Wretched of the Earth. New York: Grove Press.
- Fanon, F. (2008). Black Skin, White Masks. London: Pluto Press.

9. Hannah Arendt (Displacement and Statelessness)

Key Works:
- The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
- We Refugees (1943)
Argument:
- Arendt explores displacement through the lens of statelessness and refugee crises. She emphasizes that the loss of national belonging leaves individuals vulnerable and without legal protection, which she argues is one of the central crises of modernity.
Reference:
- Arendt, H. (1973). The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
- Arendt, H. (1994). We Refugees. In Marc Robinson (Ed.), Altogether Elsewhere: Writers on Exile. Boston: Faber and Faber.

Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory: Major Characteristics

Major Characteristic	Description	References
1. Physical Dislocation	The forced removal or movement of individuals or groups from their geographic location, often due to political, social, or economic pressures.	Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Pantheon. Harvey, D. (2005). A Brief History of Neoliberalism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
2. Social Exclusion	Displacement often leads to the exclusion of individuals from societal and political structures, leaving them without access to basic rights.	Butler, J. (2009). Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? London: Verso. Agamben, G. (1998). Hmo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life*. Stanford: Stanford UP.
3. Psychological Alienation	Displacement can create a sense of alienation and identity crisis, often due to disconnection from one’s homeland or culture.	Fanon, F. (2008). Black Skin, White Masks. London: Pluto Press. Foucault, M. (1975). Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage.
4. Economic Marginalization	Displacement often results in economic instability, where displaced individuals are marginalized from labor markets and economic opportunities.	Sassen, S. (2014). Expulsions: Brutality and Complexity in the Global Economy. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
5. Legal Vulnerability	Displaced populations often lack legal recognition or citizenship, making them vulnerable to exploitation and rights violations.	Arendt, H. (1973). The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
6. Gentrification and Urban Restructuring	In many urban environments, displacement is caused by gentrification, where low-income populations are forced out to make way for economic elites.	Harvey, D. (1989). The Urban Experience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
7. Political Disempowerment	Displacement is frequently accompanied by political disempowerment, as displaced people lose their capacity to influence political decisions.	Agamben, G. (1998). Hoo Sacer: Sovereign Power and Bare Life*. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
8. Statelessness	Many displaced individuals become stateless, without the protection of any nation, leaving them in legal and existential limbo.	Arendt, H. (1943). We Refugees. In M. Robinson (Ed.), Altogether Elsewhere: Writers on Exile. Boston: Faber and Faber.
9. Cultural Displacement	Cultural identities and traditions may be eroded or transformed through displacement, leading to a loss of heritage.	Said, E. W. (2001). Reflections on Exile and Other Essays. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory: Relevance in Literary Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory

Relevance of Displacement:
- Central to postcolonial theory, displacement addresses the consequences of colonialism, including exile, migration, and cultural dislocation.
- It examines how colonial subjects are geographically, culturally, and psychologically displaced.
- Emphasizes how displacement contributes to hybrid identities and the deconstruction of colonial power.

References:
- Said, E. W. (1978). Orientalism. New York: Pantheon.
- Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The Location of Culture. New York: Routledge.

2. Feminist Theory

Relevance of Displacement:
- Feminist theory considers how displacement affects women and marginalized genders, focusing on the intersectionality of gender, race, and displacement.
- It addresses the displacement of women in patriarchal societies, both spatially and socially, and critiques the marginalization of female voices.
References:
- Butler, J. (1990). Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge.
- Spivak, G. C. (1988). Can the Subaltern Speak? In Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

3. Marxist Literary Theory

Relevance of Displacement:
- In Marxist theory, displacement is closely linked to class struggle and economic exploitation. It is seen as a consequence of capitalist expansion, with proletarian populations displaced through processes like gentrification and industrialization.
- The theory critiques how capitalist economies displace workers from their labor and homes.
References:
- Harvey, D. (1989). The Urban Experience. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Lefebvre, H. (1991). The Production of Space. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.

4. Psychoanalytic Theory

Relevance of Displacement:
- Psychoanalytic theory explores displacement as a psychological mechanism, where repressed desires or traumas are relocated onto alternative objects or spaces.
- It also examines the psychological alienation caused by geographic and cultural displacement, focusing on identity and subject formation.

References:
- Freud, S. (1915). Repression. In The Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud.
- Fanon, F. (2008). Black Skin, White Masks. London: Pluto Press.

5. Structuralism and Semiotics

Relevance of Displacement:
- Structuralist theory addresses displacement through the lens of language and sign systems. It focuses on how meanings are displaced within linguistic structures and how symbols represent multiple meanings.
- It emphasizes the displacement of meaning across cultural texts and interpretations.
References:
- Saussure, F. de (1959). Course in General Linguistics. New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Barthes, R. (1977). Image-Music-Text. London: Fontana Press.

6. Deconstruction

Relevance of Displacement:
- In deconstruction, displacement is central to the process of destabilizing binary oppositions. It reveals how meanings are always deferred and displaced in texts, challenging fixed interpretations.
- Displacement of meaning and context in literary texts is key to Derrida’s concept of “différance.”
References:
- Derrida, J. (1976). Of Grammatology. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
- Culler, J. (1982). On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism After Structuralism. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

7. Ecocriticism

Relevance of Displacement:
- Ecocriticism examines displacement in relation to environmental degradation, focusing on the displacement of populations due to ecological disasters and environmental exploitation.
- It also looks at the displacement of non-human species and ecosystems due to human intervention.

References:
- Nixon, R. (2011). Slow Violence and the Environmentalism of the Poor. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
- Buell, L. (1995). The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

8. Queer Theory

Relevance of Displacement:
- Queer theory explores displacement in terms of sexuality and identity, addressing how LGBTQ+ individuals experience social and physical displacement in heteronormative societies.
- It challenges the displacement of non-normative sexualities from public and private spaces.
References:
- Butler, J. (1993). Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive Limits of Sex. New York: Routledge.
- Sedgwick, E. K. (1990). Epistemology of the Closet. Berkeley: University of California Press.

9. Diaspora Studies

Relevance of Displacement:
- Diaspora studies place displacement at the core of their analysis, focusing on the experiences of dispersed populations and the formation of diasporic identities.
- It examines how displacement influences cultural retention, hybridity, and transnational identities.
References:

Brah, A. (1996). Cartographies of Diaspora: Contesting Identities. London: Routledge.
Gilroy, P. (1993). The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory: Application in Critiques

Literary Work and Author	Application of Displacement in Critique	References (MLA)
*1. Wide Sargasso Sea* by Jean Rhys**	– Explores cultural and geographic displacement, focusing on Antoinette’s alienation from both her Caribbean heritage and her life in England. – Postcolonial displacement is a central theme.	Rhys, Jean. Wide Sargasso Sea. Andre Deutsch, 1966. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Three Women’s Texts and a Critique of Imperialism.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 12, no. 1, 1985, pp. 243-261.
*2. The Namesake* by Jhumpa Lahiri**	– Focuses on the displacement of immigrants and their children, emphasizing the struggles of cultural identity and belonging. – Examines the emotional impact of displacement on identity formation.	Lahiri, Jhumpa. The Namesake. Houghton Mifflin, 2003. Srikanth, Rajini. “Migration and Identity in Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake.” College Literature, vol. 31, no. 2, 2004, pp. 179-191.
*3. Beloved* by Toni Morrison**	– Displacement is explored through the legacy of slavery, where African Americans are forcibly displaced from their homeland and culture. – Focuses on psychological and historical displacement.	Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Alfred A. Knopf, 1987. Mbalia, Doreatha Drummond. “Toni Morrison’s Beloved: A Phenomenology of Displacement.” African American Review, vol. 25, no. 1, 1991, pp. 61-70.
*4. The God of Small Things* by Arundhati Roy**	– Explores social and emotional displacement within the caste system and colonial history of India. – Characters are displaced physically and emotionally, struggling with societal and personal exile.	Roy, Arundhati. The God of Small Things. Random House, 1997. Tickell, Alex. “Arundhati Roy’s The God of Small Things and the Politics of Displacement.” The Journal of Commonwealth Literature, vol. 38, no. 2, 2003, pp. 73-89.

Displacement in Literature and Literary Theory: Relevant Terms

Term	Definition
Exile	The state of being barred from one’s native country, often enforced as a consequence of political or social factors, leading to emotional and cultural displacement.
Diaspora	The dispersion of people from their original homeland, often leading to the creation of transnational identities and hybrid cultures.
Hybridity	A postcolonial term describing the blending of cultures and identities resulting from displacement, migration, or colonization.
Alienation	The sense of estrangement or isolation from one’s environment, culture, or identity, commonly resulting from physical or emotional displacement.
Liminality	The state of being in-between two spaces, cultures, or identities, often a key concept in discussing the experience of displacement and transition.
Subaltern	A term popularized by postcolonial theory to describe groups marginalized by social, political, and economic hierarchies, often displaced from mainstream narratives.
Gentrification	The process by which urban areas are transformed to cater to wealthier populations, often resulting in the displacement of poorer communities.
Migration	The movement of people from one place to another, often resulting in the experience of displacement and the negotiation of new identities in foreign environments.
Precarity	A condition of existence without predictability or security, affecting social, political, or economic spheres, often related to displacement and vulnerability.
Displacement in Literature (Freudian)	A psychoanalytic concept where emotional conflicts or desires are shifted from their original object to another, echoing broader ideas of spatial and social displacement.

Displacement in Literature: Suggested Readings

Books:
Brah, Avtar. Cartographies of Diaspora: Contesting Identities. Routledge, 1996.
URL: https://www.routledge.com/Cartographies-of-Diaspora-Contesting-Identities/Brah/p/book/9780415121253Said, Edward W. Reflections on Exile and Other Essays. Harvard University Press, 2001.
URL: https://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674009974Fanon, Frantz. The Wretched of the Earth. Translated by Richard Philcox, Grove Press, 2004.
URL: https://groveatlantic.com/book/the-wretched-of-the-earth/Roy, Arundhati. The God of Small Things. Random House, 1997.
URL: https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/153539/the-god-of-small-things-by-arundhati-roy/
Morrison, Toni. Beloved. Alfred A. Knopf, 1987.
URL: https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/115215/beloved-by-toni-morrison/
Academic Articles:
Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Three Women’s Texts and a Critique of Imperialism.” Critical Inquiry, vol. 12, no. 1, 1985, pp. 243-261.
URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/1343469Assadnassab, Afshin. “Displacement, an Unknown Freedom: Cultural Identity in Jhumpa Lahiri’s The Namesake.” (2012). https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:538672/fulltext01.pdf
Nixon, Rob. “Environmentalism and Postcolonialism.” Postcolonial Studies and Beyond, edited by Ania Loomba et al., Duke University Press, 2005, pp. 233-251.
URL: https://read.dukeupress.edu/books/book/984/chapter/145605
Websites:
Postcolonial Studies at Emory: The Postcolonial Perspective
URL: https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/postcolonialstudies/Modernism Lab at Yale University: Displacement and Exile
URL: https://modernism.coursepress.yale.edu/displacement-and-exile/Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Exile
URL: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/exile/JSTOR Daily: The Politics of Displacement
URL: https://daily.jstor.org/the-politics-of-displacement/
Literary Theory and Criticism: Postcolonialism
URL: https://literariness.org/category/postcolonialism/

“The Naming of Cats” by T.S. Eliot: A Critical Analysis

“The Naming of Cats” by T.S. Eliot first appeared in 1939 in the collection Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats.

Introduction: “The Naming of Cats” by T.S. Eliot

“The Naming of Cats” by T.S. Eliot first appeared in 1939 in the collection Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats. This whimsical poem explores the various ways cats can be named, emphasizing their unique qualities and personalities. The main idea is that a cat’s name should reflect their individual characteristics, whether it’s their appearance, behavior, or even a random word that simply sounds right. Eliot’s playful and imaginative approach to naming cats makes this poem a delightful and memorable piece of literature.

Text: “The Naming of Cats” by T.S. Eliot

The Naming of Cats is a difficult matter,
     It isn’t just one of your holiday games;
You may think at first I’m as mad as a hatter
When I tell you, a cat must have THREE DIFFERENT NAMES.
First of all, there’s the name that the family use daily,
     Such as Peter, Augustus, Alonzo, or James,
Such as Victor or Jonathan, George or Bill Bailey—
     All of them sensible everyday names.
There are fancier names if you think they sound sweeter,
     Some for the gentlemen, some for the dames:
Such as Plato, Admetus, Electra, Demeter—
     But all of them sensible everyday names,
But I tell you, a cat needs a name that’s particular,
     A name that’s peculiar, and more dignified,
Else how can he keep up his tail perpendicular,
     Or spread out his whiskers, or cherish his pride?
Of names of this kind, I can give you a quorum,
     Such as Munkustrap, Quaxo, or Coricopat,
Such as Bombalurina, or else Jellylorum—
     Names that never belong to more than one cat.
But above and beyond there’s still one name left over,
     And that is the name that you never will guess;
The name that no human research can discover—
     But THE CAT HIMSELF KNOWS, and will never confess.
When you notice a cat in profound meditation,
     The reason, I tell you, is always the same:
His mind is engaged in a rapt contemplation
     Of the thought, of the thought, of the thought of his name:
          His ineffable effable
          Effanineffable
Deep and inscrutable singular name.

Annotations: “The Naming of Cats” by T.S. Eliot

Line Number	Text	Annotation
1-2	The Naming of Cats is a difficult matter, It isn’t just one of your holiday games;	Sets the tone for the poem, establishing that naming cats is a serious and complex task.
3-4	You may think at first I’m as mad as a hatter When I tell you, a cat must have THREE DIFFERENT NAMES.	Introduces the central idea of the poem: a cat needs three distinct names.
5-8	First of all, there’s the name that the family use daily, Such as Peter, Augustus, Alonzo, or James, Such as Victor or Jonathan, George or Bill Bailey— All of them sensible everyday names.	Describes the first type of name: the common, everyday name used by the family.
9-12	There are fancier names if you think they sound sweeter, Some for the gentlemen, some for the dames: Such as Plato, Admetus, Electra, Demeter— But all of them sensible everyday names,	Introduces the second type of name: the more formal, literary name.
13-16	But I tell you, a cat needs a name that’s particular, A name that’s peculiar, and more dignified, Else how can he keep up his tail perpendicular, Or spread out his whiskers, or cherish his pride?	Emphasizes the importance of a unique and dignified name for a cat to maintain their sense of self.
17-20	Of names of this kind, I can give you a quorum, Such as Munkustrap, Quaxo, or Coricopat, Such as Bombalurina, or else Jellylorum— Names that never belong to more than one cat.	Introduces the third type of name: the secret, individual name known only to the cat.
21-24	But above and beyond there’s still one name left over, And that is the name that you never will guess; The name that no human research can discover— But THE CAT HIMSELF KNOWS, and will never confess.	Reinforces the mystery and significance of the cat’s secret name.
25-28	When you notice a cat in profound meditation, The reason, I tell you, is always the same: His mind is engaged in a rapt contemplation Of the thought, of the thought, of the thought of his name:	Suggests that cats often meditate on their secret names.
29-32	His ineffable effable Effanineffable Deep and inscrutable singular name.	Describes the cat’s secret name as something beyond human understanding.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Naming of Cats” by T.S. Eliot

Device	Definition	Example from Poem	Explanation
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or lines	“Such as Peter, Augustus, Alonzo, or James, / Such as Victor”	The repetition of “Such as” emphasizes the abundance of everyday names.
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within words	“Effable effanineffable”	The repeated “e” and “a” sounds create a musical, rhythmic quality in the description of the cat’s name.
Caesura	A pause in the middle of a line, often marked by punctuation	“When I tell you, a cat must have THREE DIFFERENT NAMES.”	The pause before “a cat must have” breaks the rhythm, emphasizing the importance of the statement.
Consonance	Repetition of consonant sounds within or at the end of words	“Of the thought, of the thought, of the thought”	The repetition of “t” creates a rhythmic and repetitive emphasis on the idea of deep thought.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence or phrase beyond the end of a line	“Of the thought, of the thought, of the thought of his name”	The line runs on without a pause, drawing out the idea of the cat’s deep contemplation of its name.
Hyperbole	Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally	“When I tell you, a cat must have THREE DIFFERENT NAMES.”	The use of hyperbole exaggerates the complexity of naming a cat for dramatic and humorous effect.
Imagery	Language that appeals to the senses	“Keep up his tail perpendicular, / Or spread out his whiskers”	Vivid descriptions help the reader visualize the cat’s proud and dignified stance.
Internal Rhyme	Rhyme within a line of poetry	“His ineffable effable”	The rhyme between “ineffable” and “effable” within the same line adds to the playful tone of the poem.
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality	“The name that no human research can discover—”	There’s an ironic twist that humans, despite all efforts, can never know the secret name of the cat.
Metaphor	A figure of speech that directly compares two unlike things	“Mad as a hatter”	The metaphor compares the speaker’s ideas about naming cats to the madness of a hatter, highlighting the absurdity of the concept.
Onomatopoeia	A word that phonetically imitates the sound it describes	“Effanineffable”	The word mimics the ineffable nature of the cat’s name through its sound, almost as though the name is beyond pronunciation.
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but reveals a truth	“Effanineffable”	The word itself is a paradox, combining “effable” (something expressible) with “ineffable” (something beyond expression), highlighting the mystery.
Personification	Attributing human qualities to non-human entities	“The CAT HIMSELF KNOWS, and will never confess.”	The cat is personified as being capable of knowledge and introspection, giving it a mysterious, almost human quality.
Polysyndeton	The use of several conjunctions in close succession	“Or spread out his whiskers, or cherish his pride”	The repeated use of “or” in this line adds a rhythm and makes the actions seem more deliberate and significant.
Repetition	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis	“Of the thought, of the thought, of the thought”	The repetition of “thought” emphasizes the depth of the cat’s contemplation of its name.
Rhyme Scheme	A pattern of rhyming words at the end of lines	“games / names / James”	The consistent rhyme scheme adds a musical quality to the poem, making it more engaging and memorable.
Simile	A figure of speech comparing two unlike things using “like” or “as”	“You may think at first I’m as mad as a hatter”	The comparison to the “mad hatter” helps emphasize the speaker’s unusual or eccentric views on the importance of naming cats.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities	“A name that no human research can discover—”	The secret name of the cat symbolizes the deep, unknowable aspects of identity that remain hidden even from close observers.
Tautology	Redundant repetition of the same idea in different words	“His ineffable effable / Effanineffable”	The speaker redundantly repeats the idea of the cat’s name being “ineffable” through playful, tautological phrasing to emphasize its indescribability.

Themes: “The Naming of Cats” by T.S. Eliot

The Importance of Identity: Eliot suggests that a cat’s name is a crucial part of their identity, as it reflects their unique qualities and personality. He emphasizes that a cat needs a name that is both particular and peculiar to maintain their sense of self and pride. This theme is evident in the lines, “A name that’s peculiar, and more dignified, Else how can he keep up his tail perpendicular, Or spread out his whiskers, or cherish his pride?” By suggesting that a cat’s name is essential for their self-esteem and well-being, Eliot highlights the importance of identity in general.

The Mystery and Intricacy of Language: The poem explores the complex nature of language and how it can be used to convey meaning. Eliot suggests that the cat’s secret name is something beyond human understanding, a “deep and inscrutable singular name.” This theme highlights the limitations of human language and the existence of deeper, more mysterious meanings. By suggesting that there are aspects of reality that cannot be fully captured or expressed through language, Eliot invites readers to contemplate the limitations of human understanding.
The Playfulness of Imagination: “The Naming of Cats” is a whimsical and imaginative poem that celebrates the joy of language and creativity. Eliot’s playful approach to naming cats and his use of unusual and evocative words contribute to the overall lighthearted tone of the poem. For example, the names “Munkustrap, Quaxo, or Coricopat” are both playful and imaginative, and they contribute to the poem’s sense of fun and wonder. Through his imaginative use of language, Eliot encourages readers to embrace their own creativity and imagination.
The Connection Between Humans and Animals: Although the poem focuses on cats, it also explores the relationship between humans and animals. By suggesting that cats have their own unique identities and experiences, Eliot implies that animals are not simply objects but sentient beings with their own thoughts and feelings. This theme is evident in the lines, “When you notice a cat in profound meditation, The reason, I tell you, is always the same: His mind is engaged in a rapt contemplation Of the thought, of the thought, of the thought of his name.” These lines suggest that cats have their own inner lives and experiences, and that they are capable of deep thought and reflection.

Literary Theories and “The Naming of Cats” by T.S. Eliot

Formalism: Formalism focuses on the intrinsic elements of a literary work, such as its form, structure, and language. In “The Naming of Cats,” Eliot employs various formal techniques to create a playful and engaging poem. The repetition of the phrase “The Naming of Cats” at the beginning of the poem establishes a rhythmic pattern, while the rhyme scheme contributes to the poem’s musicality. Eliot also uses alliteration and internal rhyme to enhance the poem’s sound and rhythm. For example, the lines “Such as Peter, Augustus, Alonzo, or James” and “Such as Plato, Admetus, Electra, Demeter” employ alliteration, while the lines “A name that’s particular, A name that’s peculiar” use internal rhyme.
Deconstruction: Deconstruction is a critical theory that challenges the idea of a fixed meaning in a text. It focuses on the underlying contradictions and ambiguities within a work. In “The Naming of Cats,” the contradiction between the idea of a secret, individual name and the desire for a name that is both particular and peculiar can be explored through a deconstructive lens. While the poem suggests that a cat’s secret name is unique and personal, it also implies that this name is something that cannot be revealed or understood. This contradiction highlights the limitations of language and the impossibility of fully capturing meaning.
Psychoanalysis: Psychoanalysis is a critical theory that analyzes the psychological motivations of characters and authors. In “The Naming of Cats,” the symbolism of the cat’s secret name can be interpreted through a psychoanalytic lens. The name can be seen as a representation of the cat’s unconscious self, a hidden part of their identity that is difficult to access or understand. This interpretation suggests that the poem is exploring deeper psychological themes, such as the unconscious mind and the desire for identity.

Critical Questions about “The Naming of Cats” by T.S. Eliot

What is the significance of the “three different names” for a cat?
The three names represent different layers of a cat’s identity, reflecting its complexity and individuality. The first name, “the name that the family use daily”, symbolizes how society and individuals are recognized in everyday life. The second name, “fancier names if you think they sound sweeter”, reflects a cat’s unique and dignified nature, suggesting that names can convey more personal or artistic elements. Finally, the third name, “the name that no human research can discover”, represents the innermost, secret identity that is known only to the cat itself, symbolizing the mystery and unknowability of an individual’s true essence.

How does T.S. Eliot use humor and whimsy to convey the theme of individuality in the poem?
Eliot uses humor through the exaggerated complexity of naming cats, implying that “The Naming of Cats is a difficult matter” despite the seemingly simple task. The whimsical idea that “a cat must have THREE DIFFERENT NAMES” emphasizes the uniqueness of each cat. The playful tone is further enhanced by fanciful names like “Munkustrap, Quaxo, or Coricopat”, which are absurd yet dignified, illustrating how individuality is expressed in unconventional and surprising ways. This mixture of humor and whimsy supports the theme that identity is multi-faceted and often more intricate than it appears.
What role does mystery play in the poem, particularly in relation to the third name?

Mystery is central to the poem, especially regarding the third name that “no human research can discover”. Eliot builds an aura of intrigue around this secret name, suggesting that even though humans may try to understand it, “THE CAT HIMSELF KNOWS, and will never confess.” This adds depth to the idea of identity, implying that there is a part of every being that remains unknowable, even to those closest to them. The cat’s introspective nature, engaged in “profound meditation”, emphasizes this hidden knowledge, symbolizing that personal identity contains an inner mystery that cannot be fully grasped by others.
How does the poem reflect human characteristics and experiences through the portrayal of cats?
Eliot’s poem anthropomorphizes cats, attributing human-like behaviors and emotions to them, which allows the reader to reflect on their own experiences of identity and individuality. The idea that a cat has “a name that’s peculiar, and more dignified”, as well as a secret inner self, mirrors the complexity of human identity, where individuals have both public personas and private, deeply personal aspects. Additionally, the description of a cat in “profound meditation”, contemplating its secret name, reflects human tendencies toward introspection and the search for self-understanding. Through these depictions, the poem invites readers to explore their own multifaceted identities.

Literary Works Similar to “The Naming of Cats” by T.S. Eliot

“Jabberwocky” by Lewis Carroll: Similar for its playful use of invented words and nonsensical language that creates a whimsical and imaginative tone.
“The Owl and the Pussycat” by Edward Lear: Shares a whimsical, fantastical approach to animal characters and uses a rhythmic, lyrical structure to engage readers.
“The Pied Piper of Hamelin” by Robert Browning: Both poems anthropomorphize animals (or creatures) and use rhythmic verse to tell a story with underlying meanings about identity and mystery.

“The Walrus and the Carpenter” by Lewis Carroll: Like Eliot’s poem, this work presents animals with human traits, exploring deeper themes in a playful, surreal manner.
“Macavity: The Mystery Cat” by T.S. Eliot: Another poem from Old Possum’s Book of Practical Cats, it shares themes of mystery, individuality, and the enigmatic nature of cats with “The Naming of Cats”.

Representative Quotations of “The Naming of Cats” by T.S. Eliot

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“The Naming of Cats is a difficult matter”	The opening line, introducing the main idea that naming a cat is a complex and serious process.	Structuralism: Language and naming systems are crucial for understanding identity, and Eliot plays with the structural complexity of names to explore layers of meaning.
“a cat must have THREE DIFFERENT NAMES”	Stresses the idea that each cat requires three distinct names, representing different aspects of its identity.	Psychoanalysis: This could symbolize the layers of human identity, with the conscious, subconscious, and unconscious selves reflected in the three names.
“Such as Peter, Augustus, Alonzo, or James”	Refers to the ordinary, everyday names given to cats by their families.	Sociolinguistics: Highlights how social conventions and familiar names shape identity in everyday contexts, showing how language functions in social interactions.
“a name that’s peculiar, and more dignified”	Describes the second type of name, which is unique and noble, unlike common names.	Existentialism: Focuses on individual uniqueness and the search for personal meaning beyond the conventional, emphasizing the importance of self-definition.
“THE CAT HIMSELF KNOWS, and will never confess”	Refers to the third name, the secret name that only the cat knows and will never reveal to humans.	Deconstruction: This line suggests an unknowable truth about identity, revealing the limitations of language and human understanding in fully capturing the essence of a being.
“His mind is engaged in a rapt contemplation”	Describes the cat deep in thought about its mysterious name.	Phenomenology: Reflects on the subjective experience and inner consciousness of the cat, emphasizing the inward, reflective process of knowing oneself.
“His ineffable effable / Effanineffable”	Plays with the paradox of the cat’s name being both expressible and inexpressible, a mystery beyond words.	Linguistic Relativity: Highlights the limitations and power of language in conveying meaning, particularly in how it shapes thought and reality, as seen in the paradoxical name.
“Keep up his tail perpendicular”	Describes the proud, dignified posture of a cat who knows its special name.	Symbolism: The cat’s posture symbolizes self-pride and confidence, representing the external expression of one’s inner identity and secret knowledge.
“Of the thought, of the thought, of the thought of his name”	Repetition emphasizing the depth and significance of the cat’s contemplation of its true name.	Postmodernism: The repetitive structure reflects the endless process of searching for identity and meaning, suggesting that it is an ever-evolving, recursive journey.
“Names that never belong to more than one cat”	Refers to the unique nature of certain names, which are specific to individual cats.	Individualism: Stresses the importance of individual identity and personal uniqueness, rejecting the idea of a collective or uniform sense of self.

“The Collar” by George Herbert: A Critical Analysis

“The Collar” by George Herbert, a poignant meditation on spiritual rebellion and divine restraint, was first published in 1633 as part of his collection, “The Temple.”

Introduction: “The Collar” by George Herbert

“The Collar” by George Herbert, a poignant meditation on spiritual rebellion and divine restraint, was first published in 1633 as part of his collection, “The Temple.” The poem, renowned for its vivid imagery and dramatic monologue, delves into the speaker’s desire for freedom and his ultimate submission to God’s will. Through a metaphor of a collar, Herbert explores the tension between human desires and divine constraints, ultimately conveying the paradoxical joy found in yielding to God’s sovereignty.

Text: “The Collar” by George Herbert

I struck the board, and cried, “No more;

I will abroad!

What? shall I ever sigh and pine?

My lines and life are free, free as the road,

Loose as the wind, as large as store.

Shall I be still in suit?

Have I no harvest but a thorn

To let me blood, and not restore

What I have lost with cordial fruit?

Sure there was wine

Before my sighs did dry it; there was corn

Before my tears did drown it.

Is the year only lost to me?

Have I no bays to crown it,

No flowers, no garlands gay? All blasted?

All wasted?

Not so, my heart; but there is fruit,

And thou hast hands.

Recover all thy sigh-blown age

On double pleasures: leave thy cold dispute

Of what is fit and not. Forsake thy cage,

Thy rope of sands,

Which petty thoughts have made, and made to thee

Good cable, to enforce and draw,

And be thy law,

While thou didst wink and wouldst not see.

Away! take heed;

I will abroad.

Call in thy death’s-head there; tie up thy fears;

He that forbears

To suit and serve his need

Deserves his load.”

But as I raved and grew more fierce and wild

At every word,

Methought I heard one calling, Child!

And I replied My Lord.

Annotations: “The Collar” by George Herbert

Line	Annotation
I struck the board, and cried, “No more;	Speaker’s frustration and rebellion.
	Pause for dramatic effect.
I will abroad!	Desire for freedom and escape.
What? shall I ever sigh and pine?	Rhetorical question expressing discontent.
My lines and life are free, free as the road,	Metaphor of freedom and unrestricted movement.
Loose as the wind, as large as store.	Continued emphasis on freedom and abundance.
Shall	Rhetorical question, continuing the speaker’s internal conflict.
I be still in suit?	Metaphor of conformity or servitude.
Have I no harvest but a thorn	Symbol of pain and suffering.
To let me blood, and not restore	Implied complaint about unfair treatment.
What I have lost with cordial fruit?	Desire for spiritual or emotional nourishment.
Sure	Assertion of belief.
there was wine	Symbol of pleasure or indulgence.
Before my sighs did dry it; there was corn	Symbol of abundance and prosperity.
Before my tears did drown it.	Implied loss of joy and abundance.
Is the year only lost to	Questioning the meaning of life and existence.
me?	Personal reflection on the speaker’s situation.
Have	Rhetorical question, seeking validation or reassurance.
I no bays to crown it,	Symbol of achievement or recognition.
No flowers, no garlands gay? All blasted?	Imagery of destruction and loss.
All	Emphatic repetition, emphasizing the extent of loss.
was wasted?	Rhetorical question, expressing despair.
Not so, my heart; but there is fruit,	Reassertion of hope or possibility.
And	Transition to a new perspective.
thou hast hands.	Implication of personal agency and responsibility.
Recover all thy sigh-blown age	Metaphor for spiritual or emotional renewal.
On double pleasures: leave thy cold dispute	Encouragement to embrace joy and avoid intellectual debate.
Of what is fit and not. Forsake thy cage,	Metaphor for breaking free from limitations or constraints.
	Pause for dramatic effect.
Thy rope of sands,	Symbol of fragility or unreliability.
Which petty thoughts have made, and made to thee	Implied self-imposed limitations.
Good cable, to enforce and draw,	Metaphor for the power of negative thoughts.
And	Transition to a new perspective.
be thy law,	Implication of self-imposed restrictions.
While thou didst wink and wouldst not see.	Suggestion of willful ignorance or denial.
Away!	Imperative command, urging action.
take heed;	Warning or caution.
I	First-person declaration.
will abroad.	Reiteration of the desire for freedom.
Call in thy death’s-head there; tie up thy fears;	Imagery of confronting mortality and overcoming anxiety.
He	Implied reference to God or a higher power.
that forbears	Suggestion of disobedience or defiance.
To	Continuing the idea of disobedience.
suit and serve his need	Implication of submission to a higher authority.
	Pause for dramatic effect.
Deserves his load.”	Assertion of consequences for disobedience.
But as I raved and grew more fierce and wild	Continuation of the speaker’s emotional turmoil.
At	Preposition indicating the focus of the speaker’s anger.
every word,	Emphasis on the intensity of the speaker’s emotions.
Methought I heard one calling, Child!	Implied divine intervention or a spiritual awakening.
And I	Response to the divine call.
replied My Lord.	Submission to a higher authority.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Collar” by George Herbert

Device	Definition	Explanation	Example from “The Collar”
Alliteration	The repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.	Helps create rhythm and mood by emphasizing certain words.	“sighs did dry”
Allusion	A reference to another work of literature, person, or event.	Evokes associations with external elements (e.g., Biblical references).	“He that forbears” (alludes to patience in Christian teaching)
Anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.	Used to create emphasis and rhythm.	“What? shall I… What? shall I…”
Apostrophe	Addressing an absent person or abstract idea.	The speaker talks directly to something non-human or absent, often expressing inner turmoil.	“Not so, my heart” (talks to his own heart)
Assonance	The repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words.	Creates musicality and harmony within the poem.	“I struck the board, and cried, ‘No more; I will abroad!'”
Caesura	A strong pause within a line of verse.	Breaks the flow of the poem, emphasizing important moments.	“I struck the board, and cried, ‘No more;'”
Consonance	The repetition of consonant sounds, typically at the end of words.	Adds a sense of unity and musicality.	“Loose as the wind, as large as store.”
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line.	Helps maintain the flow of ideas, drawing the reader forward.	“My lines and life are free, free as the road, Loose as the wind.”
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for emphasis or effect.	Expresses intense emotions or situations beyond the literal.	“Shall I ever sigh and pine?”
Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.	Creates vivid pictures in the reader’s mind.	“Before my tears did drown it.”
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality.	Highlights the difference between what is said and what is meant.	The speaker’s fierce rebellion, yet he submits in the end.
Metaphor	A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	Used to convey complex ideas by comparing them to simpler concepts.	“Thy rope of sands” (metaphor for futile efforts)
Oxymoron	Two contradictory terms used together.	Suggests complexity or inner conflict.	“Cold dispute” (combines contradictory emotions)
Paradox	A statement that contradicts itself but reveals a deeper truth.	Challenges conventional logic to reveal hidden meanings.	“Recover all thy sigh-blown age On double pleasures”
Personification	Attributing human characteristics to non-human things.	Makes abstract or inanimate elements relatable.	“Petty thoughts… made to thee Good cable”
Pun	A play on words with similar sounds or meanings.	Adds humor or depth by exploiting double meanings.	“Recover all thy sigh-blown age” (pun on age and “sage”)
Repetition	The recurrence of words or phrases.	Emphasizes key ideas and creates rhythm.	“Free, free as the road”
Rhetorical Question	A question asked for effect, not meant to be answered.	Engages the reader, reflecting the speaker’s internal struggle.	“What? shall I ever sigh and pine?”
Simile	A comparison between two things using “like” or “as.”	Clarifies an idea by likening it to something else.	“Free as the road, Loose as the wind”
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	Gives deeper meaning to objects, characters, or actions.	“Wine” symbolizes spiritual nourishment, “thorn” symbolizes pain.

Themes: “The Collar” by George Herbert

· Rebellion and Defiance: The poem opens with a tone of rebellion, as the speaker expresses frustration with the restrictions of his religious or moral life. The use of words like “No more” and “I will abroad” reflect a desire to break free from the constraints that have confined him. The speaker questions whether he should “ever sigh and pine,” suggesting that he feels enslaved by expectations and desires a life of freedom (“My lines and life are free, free as the road, Loose as the wind”). This defiant attitude dominates the first half of the poem, as the speaker rejects traditional duties and restrictions.

· Despair and Disillusionment: The theme of despair is evident as the speaker laments the perceived futility of his life. He feels that his efforts have yielded nothing but pain and frustration, metaphorically describing his harvest as “a thorn” and his labor as bloodletting without reward (“Have I no harvest but a thorn to let me blood, and not restore”). The repetition of questions, such as “Is the year only lost to me?” and “All blasted? All wasted?” reflects a deep sense of disillusionment with the course of his life, feeling as though he has reaped no rewards for his sacrifices.

· Spiritual Struggle and Conflict: Throughout the poem, there is an underlying spiritual struggle as the speaker wrestles with his faith and his duties to God. The “collar” in the title can be interpreted as a symbol of the clerical collar, representing the speaker’s obligations to his religious calling. His struggle is not only personal but also spiritual, as he grapples with his feelings of inadequacy and the lack of fulfillment in his spiritual duties (“Thy rope of sands, which petty thoughts have made”). The conflict between his rebellious desires and his faith intensifies as he moves between rage and self-reflection.

· Submission and Redemption: In the final lines of the poem, the speaker hears a voice calling “Child!”—a representation of God calling him back to faith and submission. This moment of divine intervention contrasts sharply with the earlier rebellion, and the speaker’s response, “My Lord,” signifies his return to humility and acceptance. The final act of submission reflects the theme of redemption, as the speaker recognizes that his defiance is ultimately futile and that true peace lies in surrendering to God’s will. This moment brings closure to the spiritual conflict that has dominated the poem, offering a resolution through faith.

Literary Theories and “The Collar” by George Herbert

Literary Theory	Application to “The Collar”	References
Metaphysical Poetry	Herbert’s poems often employ intricate metaphors and conceits to explore abstract concepts. In “The Collar,” the metaphor of the collar is central to the exploration of spiritual confinement and rebellion.	“I struck the board, and cried, ‘No more; / I will abroad!'”
Religious Poetry	“The Collar” is a deeply religious poem, exploring themes of divine sovereignty, human sinfulness, and spiritual redemption. The speaker’s struggle with rebellion and his eventual submission to God’s will is a common motif in religious poetry.	“And I replied My Lord.”
Psychological Criticism	This theory analyzes the psychological motivations and states of mind of characters. In “The Collar,” the speaker’s internal conflict between desire for freedom and submission to authority can be examined through a psychological lens.	“What? shall I ever sigh and pine?”

Critical Questions about “The Collar” by George Herbert

· How does the speaker’s initial sense of rebellion reflect the conflict between personal freedom and religious duty?

The speaker’s declaration, “I will abroad!” marks a clear desire for freedom from the constraints he feels in his life, which can be interpreted as both personal and spiritual. This line, along with his refusal to “sigh and pine” any longer, suggests a deep-seated frustration with the burdens of religious commitment. Does this rebellion represent a broader struggle within the speaker to balance his desires for independence with the responsibilities of faith? The vivid imagery of being “Loose as the wind” and “free as the road” conveys a longing for autonomy, yet the poem also suggests that this freedom comes at the cost of abandoning the spiritual calling symbolized by the “collar.” The tension between personal liberty and spiritual duty raises the question of whether the speaker truly seeks freedom, or if he is simply fleeing from his obligations.

· What role does metaphor play in expressing the speaker’s emotional and spiritual turmoil?

The poem is rich with metaphors that deepen the understanding of the speaker’s internal struggle. For instance, the “thorn” that draws blood but fails to “restore” symbolizes the pain and sacrifice the speaker feels without receiving spiritual nourishment in return. Similarly, “cordial fruit” and the “rope of sands” serve as metaphors for fulfillment and futility, respectively. How do these metaphors shape the reader’s understanding of the speaker’s despair and sense of loss? The image of the “rope of sands” powerfully conveys the futility of his efforts, while the metaphor of “wine” and “corn” evokes a sense of past blessings now dried up or drowned. The use of metaphor highlights the complex emotional and spiritual state of the speaker, raising the question of whether his suffering is self-imposed or inherent in his religious duties.

· How does the tone shift throughout the poem, and what does this reveal about the speaker’s journey?

The poem begins with a tone of anger and rebellion, as the speaker declares, “No more,” signaling his decision to break free from what he perceives as an oppressive life. However, as the poem progresses, the tone shifts from defiance to a softer, more reflective mood. This transition is most evident when the speaker hears the voice calling, “Child!” and his immediate response, “My Lord,” suggests submission. How does this shift in tone reveal the transformation in the speaker’s mindset, from anger to acceptance? The wild, fierce language of the beginning, characterized by rapid questioning and exclamations, contrasts sharply with the calm, almost peaceful, tone at the poem’s conclusion. This tonal shift reveals a journey from inner turmoil to spiritual reconciliation, raising the question of what ultimately leads the speaker to accept his faith again.

· What is the significance of the final dialogue between the speaker and the voice that calls “Child”?

The climax of the poem occurs when the speaker, in the midst of his raging rebellion, hears a voice call out “Child!” The speaker’s response, “My Lord,” marks a pivotal moment of submission and return to faith. Is this voice an external divine presence, such as God, or is it an internal realization within the speaker himself? The simplicity and tenderness of the word “Child” contrasts with the speaker’s earlier fury, suggesting that the speaker’s rebellion was always meant to end in reconciliation. What does this exchange reveal about the relationship between the speaker and his faith, and does the speaker’s final submission indicate genuine spiritual renewal, or is it a reluctant resignation? The tenderness of this final dialogue suggests a loving, merciful God who welcomes the speaker back despite his rebellion, which opens up questions about the nature of divine grace and forgiveness in the poem.

Literary Works Similar to “The Collar” by George Herbert

“The Flea” by John Donne: Both poems use extended metaphors to explore complex themes of love, desire, and entrapment.
“Holy Sonnets” by John Donne: Like “The Collar,” Donne’s sonnets often grapple with themes of sin, repentance, and divine love.

“Paradise Lost” by John Milton: Both works explore the conflict between free will and divine authority, although on a much larger scale in Milton’s epic.
“The Divine Comedy” by Dante Alighieri: Both works offer a spiritual journey, with a focus on sin, punishment, and redemption.
“Hymn to God the Father” by John Donne: Both poems express a sense of gratitude and submission to God, even in the face of personal struggles.

Representative Quotations of “The Collar” by George Herbert

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“I struck the board, and cried, ‘No more; I will abroad!'”	The speaker begins the poem with an act of defiance, rejecting his current life.	From a psychological perspective, this could reflect an inner crisis, rebellion against spiritual obligations or constraints.
“My lines and life are free, free as the road, Loose as the wind, as large as store.”	The speaker expresses a desire for complete freedom, comparing his life to open roads and wind.	Through a Romantic lens, this represents a longing for personal liberty and natural freedom, rejecting societal or religious bounds.
“Have I no harvest but a thorn to let me blood, and not restore what I have lost with cordial fruit?”	The speaker laments the futility of his efforts, likening them to bloodletting with no restoration.	This can be interpreted using Christian theology, symbolizing spiritual barrenness and the lack of divine reward for sacrifice.
“Sure there was wine before my sighs did dry it; there was corn before my tears did drown it.”	The speaker reflects on past spiritual nourishment, now lost to his sorrow and despair.	From a symbolic perspective, the “wine” and “corn” represent lost spiritual sustenance, echoing Biblical imagery of abundance turned to scarcity.
“Is the year only lost to me?”	The speaker questions whether all his efforts and time have been wasted.	From a philosophical viewpoint, this could represent existential doubt, where the speaker grapples with the meaning of his labor and time.
“Thy rope of sands, which petty thoughts have made, and made to thee good cable, to enforce and draw.”	The speaker metaphorically describes his futile efforts as a “rope of sands.”	Viewed through metaphor theory, the “rope of sands” symbolizes the futility of human endeavors when disconnected from divine purpose.
“But as I raved and grew more fierce and wild at every word”	The speaker admits to becoming increasingly frantic and rebellious as he vents his frustrations.	From a psychoanalytic angle, this line can be seen as the speaker’s unrestrained id emerging, driven by unchecked emotional impulses.
“Methought I heard one calling, Child!”	At the climax of the poem, the speaker hears a voice, possibly God, calling out to him tenderly.	Interpreted through theological theory, this is an intervention of divine grace, where the voice represents God calling the speaker back to faith.
“My Lord.”	The speaker’s final, simple response to the voice calling “Child,” signaling submission.	A theological interpretation sees this as an act of submission and return to God, reflecting themes of divine authority and grace.
“Call in thy death’s-head there; tie up thy fears.”	The speaker orders himself to put away thoughts of death and fear, rejecting them as unproductive.	This can be seen through existential theory, as the speaker acknowledges his mortality and the futility of dwelling on fear and death.

“Shakespearean Tragedy and the Three Ways of Psychoanalytic Criticism” by Norman N. Holland: Summary and Critique

“Shakespearean Tragedy and the Three Ways of Psychoanalytic Criticism” by Norman N. Holland first appeared in 1962 in The Hudson Review.

Introduction: “Shakespearean Tragedy and the Three Ways of Psychoanalytic Criticism” by Norman N. Holland

“Shakespearean Tragedy and the Three Ways of Psychoanalytic Criticism” by Norman N. Holland first appeared in 1962 in The Hudson Review. This essay holds significant importance in literature and literary theory as it explores the application of psychoanalytic criticism to Shakespearean tragedies. Holland’s work marked a pivotal moment in the field, offering new perspectives on the psychological depths of Shakespeare’s characters and the underlying themes that resonate with audiences.

Summary of “Shakespearean Tragedy and the Three Ways of Psychoanalytic Criticism” by Norman N. Holland

Three Minds in Psychoanalytic Criticism

The Author’s Mind
Critics often interpret Shakespeare’s tragedies as projections of the author’s unconscious, such as Freud’s idea that Hamlet reflects Shakespeare’s unresolved feelings toward his father after his death. Holland critiques this approach, stating that “anything we say about Shakespeare’s life properly belongs to biography, not literary criticism.”

The Character’s Mind
The most commonly used method treats literary characters as real people with unconscious drives. Examples include Hamlet’s Oedipal conflict and Lady Macbeth’s compulsive handwashing. However, Holland argues, “a literary character is really only a tissue of words” and questions the validity of analyzing fictional characters as if they were real people.
The Audience’s Mind
The third approach focuses on the audience’s unconscious response to the play, seeing the tragedy as a total configuration of unconscious wishes. Holland notes that this newer approach looks at the whole play, where “the author gets split up among several characters” and the audience responds to the “gestalt” of competing unconscious impulses.

Problems with Author-Focused Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalytic interpretations often “remain mere speculations” since they rely on unverifiable assumptions about the author’s emotional life.
Biographical criticism, while entertaining, does not offer concrete insights into the text itself.

Critique of Character-Centered Criticism

Holland questions the method of treating characters like real humans, saying that this approach assumes characters have a psychological reality outside the text. He states, “there is still the third of the three minds… the mind of the audience.”

New Psychoanalytic Approaches to Tragedy

Modern psychoanalysis focuses less on individual characters and more on the emotional dynamics experienced by the audience as they engage with the play’s totality.

The “newer” psychoanalytic approach focuses on how different characters represent various unconscious wishes within the audience, rather than as standalone psychological entities.

Shakespearean Tragedy’s Unique Catharsis

Shakespeare’s tragedies offer “catharsis” by re-integrating the audience’s conflicting unconscious impulses, such as the desire to rebel and be punished, into a moral order. Holland argues that this is “the psychoanalytic sense of catharsis”, as it allows the audience to confront and resolve internal conflicts.

Parallel Plot Structure

Shakespeare’s use of plot parallels (e.g., Macbeth and Macduff) allows the audience to see different versions of the hero’s tragic wish, offering a socially acceptable form of the wish within the secondary hero. Holland suggests this creates “a more grown-up form of the wish projected by the main plot.”

Criticism of Psychoanalysis’ Focus on Plot and Character

The new psychoanalytic criticism tends to focus heavily on plot and character at the expense of the play’s language and poetic form, despite the rich textual material available. Holland highlights that “this newer psychoanalytic approach… tends to neglect the poetry.”

Conclusion: Audience as the Primary Mind

Holland emphasizes that psychoanalytic critics should focus on the audience’s mind rather than the author’s or character’s, arguing that “the one to use is… the most real, the one most certainly there: the audience’s, in the last analysis, his own.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Shakespearean Tragedy and the Three Ways of Psychoanalytic Criticism” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in Holland’s Essay
Psychoanalytic Criticism	An approach to literary analysis that interprets texts through psychological theories, particularly those of Freud, focusing on unconscious desires and conflicts.	Holland discusses three types of psychoanalytic criticism: focused on the author’s mind, the character’s mind, and the audience’s mind, each offering different insights into Shakespearean tragedy.
Unconscious Mind	In Freudian psychoanalysis, the part of the mind that contains desires, fears, and memories that are not consciously acknowledged but influence behavior.	Holland explores how psychoanalytic critics analyze characters’ unconscious motivations, such as Hamlet’s Oedipal conflict, and how audiences unconsciously respond to these psychological dynamics in the play.
Oedipal Complex	A Freudian theory that describes a child’s unconscious desire for the opposite-sex parent and feelings of rivalry with the same-sex parent.	Used in the classic psychoanalytic interpretation of Hamlet, where Hamlet delays killing Claudius due to his unconscious desire for his mother and identification with his father.
Catharsis	Aristotle’s concept of emotional purification or release experienced by the audience through their engagement with tragedy.	Holland adapts this term to psychoanalysis, explaining how Shakespearean tragedies offer a form of catharsis by allowing the audience to confront and resolve deep-seated unconscious conflicts, such as rebellion and punishment.
Projection	A psychological defense mechanism where an individual attributes their own unconscious thoughts or desires to others.	Holland describes how characters like Iago and Othello in Othello are projections of different unconscious impulses within the audience, such as idealism versus cynicism.
Identification	In psychoanalysis, the process by which an individual relates to and internalizes the attributes or emotions of another person.	Characters like Hamlet are seen as objects of identification for the audience or for Shakespeare himself, where the audience relates to Hamlet’s internal conflict with authority figures like his father.
Wish-Fulfillment	A Freudian concept where dreams, fantasies, or creative works are expressions of unconscious desires seeking satisfaction.	Freud’s theory, cited by Holland, suggests that literary works like Shakespeare’s plays fulfill unconscious wishes of both the author and the audience, with characters often symbolizing these desires.
Daydreaming/Creative Writers	Freud’s theory that creative writing, like daydreams, represents wish-fulfillment or fantasies projected into narratives.	Holland references this idea to explain how psychoanalytic critics interpret Shakespeare’s characters as expressions of his personal unconscious, as seen in Hamlet’s unresolved feelings toward his father.
Gestalt	A concept from psychology meaning an organized whole, where the whole is perceived as more than the sum of its parts.	Holland uses this to describe the “newer” psychoanalytic approach, which interprets the entire play as a total configuration of unconscious conflicts, rather than focusing on individual characters or parts of the text.
Metacriticism	Criticism that reflects on the methods and theories used in literary analysis itself.	Holland contrasts “working psychoanalytic criticism” with metacriticism, referencing figures like Lionel Trilling, who analyze the theoretical underpinnings of psychoanalysis in literary studies.
Biographical Criticism	A form of literary criticism that interprets texts by exploring the author’s life and personal experiences.	Holland critiques this approach, especially when applied to Shakespeare, as speculative and unverifiable, arguing that psychoanalytic criticism should not confuse literary analysis with biography.
Character Analysis	A critical approach that treats characters as psychologically real people, analyzing their behavior, motives, and development.	Holland critiques psychoanalytic readings that treat Shakespeare’s characters as real people with psychological pasts, noting that “a literary character is really only a tissue of words.”
Plot Parallel	The use of similar or contrasting secondary plots or characters to mirror and deepen the main narrative or theme.	Holland highlights how Shakespeare uses plot parallels in tragedies like Macbeth to offer alternate, more socially acceptable forms of the main tragic wish, such as Macduff as a counterpoint to Macbeth.
Realism vs. Anti-Realism	Realism focuses on lifelike representation, while anti-realism emphasizes symbolic or non-literal aspects of art and literature.	Holland distinguishes older, character-focused psychoanalytic criticism (realist) from the newer, audience-focused analysis (anti-realist), which sees characters as projections of unconscious wishes rather than realistic people.
Suspension of Disbelief	Coleridge’s idea that audiences accept the implausibility of a narrative for the sake of emotional engagement.	Holland uses this to explain how psychoanalysis views audience reactions to Shakespearean tragedy, where the suspension of disbelief allows unconscious responses to surface.
Aesthetic Value	The consideration of what makes a work of art valuable or beautiful.	Holland argues that psychoanalysis can address aesthetic value in literature by exploring how plays like Shakespeare’s tragedies evoke unconscious emotional responses in the audience.

Contribution of “Shakespearean Tragedy and the Three Ways of Psychoanalytic Criticism” by Norman N. Holland to Literary Theory/Theories

Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism

Holland refines and critiques traditional psychoanalytic approaches to Shakespeare by exploring three major applications of psychoanalysis in literary theory:

Author-Centered Psychoanalytic Criticism

Holland discusses the traditional psychoanalytic method of interpreting literature as a projection of the author’s unconscious, where critics analyze the text to uncover the psychological workings of the author’s mind.
For example, he cites Freud’s theory that Hamlet represents Shakespeare’s unresolved Oedipal feelings toward his father’s death:

“Hamlet, they say, shows the death of John Shakespeare in 1601 reactivating the poet’s childhood attitudes toward his father.”

Contribution: Holland critiques this approach for its speculative nature, arguing that it often strays into biography and is unverifiable:

“Entertaining as they may be… they will always remain mere speculations.”

Character-Centered Psychoanalytic Criticism
- Holland examines the common psychoanalytic practice of treating characters as real people with psychological motivations. He gives examples like Freud’s Oedipal reading of Hamlet or the analysis of Lady Macbeth’s handwashing as a symbolic act of guilt:

“Freud argued that Hamlet could not punish Claudius… because that is exactly what Hamlet wanted to do as a child.”

Contribution: Holland questions this approach, emphasizing the fictional nature of literary characters:

“After all, a literary character is really only a tissue of words.”

He highlights the limitations of this theory, particularly the issue of attributing psychological depth to non-real entities.
Audience-Centered Psychoanalytic Criticism
- Holland introduces a “newer” psychoanalytic approach that shifts the focus from the author and characters to the unconscious responses of the audience. This method examines how a work of literature, particularly a Shakespearean tragedy, resonates with and activates unconscious fantasies and desires in the minds of the audience:

“The whole play appears as a total configuration or gestalt… to the mind of the audience.”

Contribution: This approach emphasizes the interaction between the text and audience, allowing psychoanalytic theory to explore how literature impacts collective and individual unconscious responses:

“The dramatist dredges up the terrors and chaos of childhood to impose on them the order of art and the resolution of the tragic ending.”

Reader-Response Theory

Holland’s focus on the audience’s unconscious reaction to the play directly aligns with the principles of reader-response theory, which posits that the meaning of a text is co-created by the reader’s interaction with the text.

Holland moves beyond psychoanalysis of the author or characters, contributing to reader-response criticism by asserting that the primary “mind” psychoanalytic critics should focus on is that of the audience:

“The one to use is not necessarily the best or most nimble but the most real, the one most certainly there: the audience’s, in the last analysis, his own.”

Contribution: Holland’s exploration of how Shakespearean tragedies function on an unconscious level for the audience integrates psychoanalytic criticism with reader-response theory, providing a framework for understanding the reader’s emotional and psychological engagement with a text.

Structuralism and Gestalt Psychology

Holland’s reference to Gestalt psychology (which focuses on the whole structure of an experience rather than its individual parts) reflects the structuralist inclination to view a literary work as a system or totality, rather than isolating individual elements like characters or specific scenes:

“This newer psychoanalytic criticism follows on… the formal interrelations between the various parts of the play, the wholeness of it.”

Contribution: By applying Gestalt principles to psychoanalysis, Holland shifts focus from individual characters to the total configuration of unconscious desires and conflicts within the play. This approach encourages critics to see the entire play as an integrated structure, rather than focusing on individual components like plot or character.

Catharsis in Psychoanalytic Terms (Neo-Aristotelian Criticism)

Holland reinterprets the Aristotelian concept of catharsis through a psychoanalytic lens, arguing that tragedies allow audiences to confront and resolve unconscious conflicts related to childhood fears and rebellious desires:

“Catharsis, in a psychoanalytic sense, means mastering both the fears from childhood and the adult’s pity for the individual suffering those fears.”

Contribution: Holland’s integration of psychoanalytic catharsis contributes to modern understandings of tragedy, suggesting that Shakespearean tragedies help audiences work through deep-seated psychological conflicts, reestablishing a sense of moral order.

Comparative Literature and Psychoanalysis of Tragedy

Holland contributes to comparative literary theory by distinguishing Shakespearean tragedy from other forms of tragedy (e.g., Greek or modern) through psychoanalysis:

“One special attribute of Shakespearean tragedy is the use of plot parallels… offering another form of the major tragic wish.”

Contribution: Holland’s psychoanalytic reading highlights how Shakespeare’s use of plot parallels (e.g., Macbeth vs. Macduff) deepens the audience’s engagement with the play’s unconscious themes, differentiating it from other tragic forms. He also points out how Shakespearean verse functions as a tool for engaging the unconscious, giving Shakespearean tragedy “range and depth” unmatched by other forms.

Examples of Critiques Through “Shakespearean Tragedy and the Three Ways of Psychoanalytic Criticism” by Norman N. Holland

Literary Work	Critique Through Author-Centered Psychoanalysis	Critique Through Character-Centered Psychoanalysis	Critique Through Audience-Centered Psychoanalysis
Hamlet (by Shakespeare)	Freud’s theory suggests that Hamlet represents Shakespeare’s unresolved Oedipal conflict with his father, connecting to John Shakespeare’s death. Holland critiques this biographical approach, noting: “Anything we say about Shakespeare’s life properly belongs to biography, not literary criticism.”	Freud’s classic Oedipal interpretation of Hamlet’s delay in killing Claudius is because Hamlet harbors unconscious desires toward his mother. Holland notes: “Freud argued that Hamlet… could not punish Claudius because that is exactly what Hamlet wanted to do as a child.”	The audience experiences catharsis by confronting unconscious fears of parental authority. Hamlet’s struggles represent the audience’s conflicted emotions about rebellion and punishment: “Catharsis, in a psychoanalytic sense, means mastering the fears from childhood.”
Macbeth (by Shakespeare)	Biographical psychoanalysts may suggest Macbeth’s ambition reflects Shakespeare’s internalized desires or fears about power and authority. Holland dismisses these biographical readings as speculative and unprovable.	Macbeth and Lady Macbeth represent two halves of a split personality: one defiant, the other remorseful. “Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are like two halves of a dissociated personality… together they exhaust the possibilities of response.”	The audience is drawn into Macbeth’s ambition and downfall, seeing in him their own unconscious desires to rebel and be punished. The use of plot parallels, such as Macduff’s actions, provides socially acceptable resolutions to Macbeth’s tragic wishes.
Othello (by Shakespeare)	Some critics may see Othello as reflecting Shakespeare’s own feelings of jealousy or insecurity. Holland critiques this, emphasizing that psychoanalysis must focus on literature, not on speculative ideas about the author’s personal life.	Freud’s psychoanalytic reading of Othello could interpret Iago’s villainy as stemming from unconscious love for Othello. Holland notes how such readings treat characters as real people: “a literary character is really only a tissue of words.”	The audience experiences the tension between idealism (Othello’s love for Desdemona) and cynicism (Iago’s manipulation). Holland suggests Iago and Othello represent conflicting unconscious impulses within the audience’s mind. “Iago represents disillusionment.”
King Lear (by Shakespeare)	A psychoanalytic reading might suggest Lear reflects Shakespeare’s own anxieties about aging and loss of power. Holland critiques such approaches as speculative: “There is no possibility of verifying these deductions about Shakespeare’s emotional life.”	Lear’s madness could be interpreted as repression of unconscious desires toward his daughters. Freud’s reading suggests Lear’s madness is driven by guilt. Holland critiques this method but acknowledges its influence on literary character analysis.	The audience projects unconscious fears about family dynamics, power, and mortality onto Lear’s journey. The parallel subplots (e.g., Gloucester and his sons) mirror the primary tragedy, allowing the audience to experience these fears in multiple forms.

Criticism Against “Shakespearean Tragedy and the Three Ways of Psychoanalytic Criticism” by Norman N. Holland

Overemphasis on Psychoanalysis

Holland’s framework heavily relies on Freudian psychoanalysis, which some critics argue is outdated or overly reductive for analyzing complex literary works.
Psychoanalytic criticism, particularly the focus on unconscious desires and childhood fantasies, may oversimplify the richness of Shakespearean tragedy by reducing it to psychological archetypes.

Neglect of Historical and Cultural Context

Holland’s psychoanalytic approach largely ignores the historical, political, and cultural contexts in which Shakespeare wrote. Focusing solely on psychoanalysis may result in missing key insights about how the plays reflect the values and concerns of Elizabethan society.

Limited Scope of Audience-Centered Criticism

Although Holland advances the audience-centered approach, critics may argue that it still fails to account for diverse audience interpretations, as it assumes a universal, unconscious reaction to Shakespeare’s tragedies.
The emphasis on the audience’s unconscious desires and reactions may downplay individual, subjective experiences of the text, limiting the flexibility of psychoanalytic theory in explaining varying interpretations.

Speculative Nature of Psychoanalytic Interpretations

Holland himself critiques speculative biographical readings, but some might argue that psychoanalysis as a whole remains speculative when applied to literature, as it relies on hypothetical unconscious processes that are difficult to verify.
Critics may point out that psychoanalytic interpretations often lack textual evidence and can lead to far-fetched conclusions based on the critic’s assumptions rather than the text itself.

Neglect of Language and Formal Elements

Holland’s focus on plot, character, and psychological themes in the newer psychoanalytic approach can be seen as downplaying the importance of language, form, and structure in Shakespeare’s works.
The poetic and rhetorical complexity of Shakespeare’s tragedies is often overlooked in favor of psychological readings, which limits the depth of analysis in terms of Shakespeare’s linguistic innovation.

Oversimplification of Tragedy’s Emotional Complexity

While Holland’s theory of catharsis in psychoanalytic terms offers insight, some might argue that it oversimplifies the emotional complexity of Shakespearean tragedy by reducing it to a binary conflict of rebellion and punishment.
Tragedies often engage with a broader range of emotions, philosophical ideas, and human experiences that may not fit neatly into Holland’s psychoanalytic model.

Dismissal of Biographical Criticism

Holland critiques author-centered psychoanalysis, but critics may argue that completely dismissing the biographical context overlooks valuable insights that connect Shakespeare’s personal experiences with his works.
Biographical approaches can offer a nuanced understanding of how Shakespeare’s life influenced his writing, and rejecting them outright limits a potentially rich avenue of analysis.

Generalization of Psychoanalytic Theories

Holland’s application of psychoanalytic theory across multiple tragedies may result in overgeneralizations about how different plays work on the audience’s unconscious. Critics may argue that each tragedy has its own unique psychological and emotional dynamics that cannot be easily categorized into a single framework.

Representative Quotations from “Shakespearean Tragedy and the Three Ways of Psychoanalytic Criticism” by Norman N. Holland with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Shakespeare’s tragedies seem to be a favorite preserve of psychoanalytic critics.”	Holland introduces the idea that Shakespeare’s works, particularly his tragedies, have long been a subject of psychoanalytic analysis due to their psychological depth.
“Psychoanalysis, like any psychology, deals not with literature as such, but with minds.”	Holland emphasizes that psychoanalysis is primarily concerned with analyzing the mental processes behind literature, not the literary text itself.
“In the case of a tragedy, there are three minds handy: the author’s, a character’s, and the audience’s.”	This outlines Holland’s central framework for psychoanalytic criticism, which can focus on the mind of the author, character, or audience.
“Any statement in psychoanalytic criticism involves two steps… congruity between something in the work… and the psychoanalytic proposition.”	Holland stresses the need for a critic to establish a link between the literary work and a psychoanalytic concept, making the analysis more rigorous.
“The sharp line runs between… methods which consider the work as a totality and… the mind of a single character.”	Holland contrasts two psychoanalytic approaches: focusing on the whole play versus focusing on the psyche of individual characters.
“Catharsis, in a psychoanalytic sense, means mastering both the fears from childhood and the adult’s pity for the individual suffering those fears.”	Holland reinterprets Aristotle’s notion of catharsis through psychoanalysis, suggesting that tragedy helps audiences confront and resolve unconscious childhood fears.
“In more sophisticated writings… the author gets split up among several characters.”	Holland argues that in complex works like Shakespearean tragedy, the author’s unconscious wishes are dispersed among multiple characters, not confined to just one.
“After all, a literary character is really only a tissue of words.”	Holland critiques character-centered psychoanalysis, reminding readers that literary characters are fictional constructs and not real people with psychological depth.
“The real mind to use is… the audience’s, in the last analysis, his own.”	Holland asserts that psychoanalytic criticism is most effective when it focuses on the audience’s unconscious mind rather than the author’s or characters’ psyches.
“The dramatist dredges up the terrors and chaos of childhood to impose on them the order of art and the resolution of the tragic ending.”	Holland explains that tragedy provides a psychological resolution for the audience by transforming chaotic childhood fears into the structured narrative of the play.