October 8, 2024 - English Studies

“The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom: Summary and Critique

“The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom, first appeared in 1974 in the journal boundary 2, is known for its focus on the “anxiety of influence” concept.

Introduction: “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom

“The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom, first appeared in 1974 in the journal boundary 2, is known for its focus on the “anxiety of influence” concept, explores the main qualities and importance of a continuous Western literary tradition. Bloom argues that new writers grapple with and attempt to surpass the works of their predecessors, creating a dynamic interplay that shapes the course of literature. This theory, central to Bloom’s critical framework, has been highly influential in literary theory, sparking debate and shaping how we understand the relationship between authors and their literary heritage.

Summary of “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom

The Tension Between Tradition and Innovation

Bloom highlights the inherent tension in literary tradition, emphasizing that it stifles creativity as much as it nurtures it: “Tradition is now valuable precisely because it partly blocks, because it stifles the weak, because it represses even the strong.”

This tension drives the creative process, as writers must contend with their precursors, consciously working against past forms to create something new.

Belatedness and Literary Tradition

Bloom argues that modern writers are “latecomers” and must grapple with the legacy of those who came before them: “Nothing is now more salutary than such a sense [of belatedness]. Without it, we cannot distinguish between the energy of humanistic performance and merely organic energy.”

He opposes Nietzsche’s idea that feeling like a latecomer is detrimental, instead seeing it as a crucial component of literary creation in the modern age.

The Myth of Continuity in Tradition

Bloom critiques the notion of continuity in tradition, especially as framed by critics like Northrop Frye, who claim that tradition includes all writers and perspectives: “Frye’s reduction… is a noble idealization, and as a lie against time will go the way of every other noble idealization.”

He suggests that literary tradition is selective and exclusive, shaped by cultural forces and canonical judgments rather than any inherent inclusivity.

Canon Formation and Revisionism

Bloom discusses how literary canons are both created and dismantled over time. The process of canon formation, beginning with figures like Aristarchus in Alexandria, is central to the Western literary tradition: “We are Alexandrians still, and we may as well be proud of it, for it is central to our profession.”

He also critiques the current state of literary revisionism, arguing that it has become dominant, to the point where traditional standards of literature are “fading into the light of a common garishness.”

The Role of the Teacher in Tradition

Bloom reflects on the role of the teacher as both a bearer and challenger of tradition, emphasizing the teacher’s responsibility to confront the weight of tradition: “The teacher of literature… is condemned to teach the presentness of the past, because history, philosophy, and religion have withdrawn as agents from the Scene of Instruction.”

He presents teaching as an inherently erotic act, in the Platonic sense of desiring what one does not yet possess: “Teaching, as Plato knew, is necessarily a branch of erotics, in the wide sense of desiring what we have not got, of redressing our poverty, of compounding with our fantasies.”

Belatedness and the Dialectics of Tradition

Bloom explores the psychological burden of belatedness, especially in Romanticism, where writers felt haunted by their predecessors: “Romantic tradition is consciously late, and Romantic literary psychology is therefore necessarily a psychology of belatedness.”

This sense of coming after, or trespassing upon sacred literary ground, becomes a central theme in modern literary works, exemplified by figures like Pynchon.

The Inescapability of Tradition

Bloom asserts that no writer or thinker can escape tradition, as it informs all creation and education: “You cannot write or teach or think or even read, without imitation, and what you imitate is what another person has done.”

This handing over of knowledge, or “traditio,” is essential to the survival of literary and cultural forms, even as each generation reshapes what it has inherited.

The Power of Repression in Tradition

Bloom emphasizes the repressive function of literary tradition, which forces new authors into conflict with their predecessors: “The Milton who made his great poem identical with the process of repression that is vital to literary tradition.”

He advocates for embracing this repression as a necessary condition for meaningful literary creation.

Conclusion: The Burden of Tradition

Bloom concludes by noting the immense burden literary tradition places on both writers and teachers, who must navigate the dialectics of tradition while fostering new creation: “Instruction, in our late phase, becomes an antithetical process almost in spite of itself, and for antithetical teaching you require antithetical texts.”

He calls for a deeper engagement with this burden rather than attempts to evade it, seeing it as crucial to both the survival and renewal of literary tradition.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Description	Explanation from Bloom’s Text
Tradition	The handing down of literary works, styles, and values across generations.	Bloom explores how tradition both enables and stifles creativity, describing it as a “handing-over” or transmission that includes repression, which challenges new authors to struggle against their past.
Belatedness	The feeling of coming after great predecessors in literature.	Bloom highlights the anxiety of influence felt by modern writers, arguing that this sense of being a latecomer is essential for distinguishing meaningful literary creation from mere “organic energy.”
Canon Formation	The process by which certain works are selected and deemed as classics.	Bloom critiques the historical process of canon formation, noting how it started in Alexandria and has continued through selective inclusion and exclusion, creating literary standards across generations.
Revisionism	The reinterpretation or reshaping of established literary works or canons.	Bloom argues that the current dominance of revisionism has led to the weakening of traditional literary standards, as constant revision leads to “a fading into the light of a common garishness.”
Dialectics	The interaction of opposing forces that leads to progress or development.	The central theme of Bloom’s essay is the “dialectics of tradition,” where he examines the dynamic struggle between tradition and new literary creation, resulting in both tension and transformation.
Influence	The impact of previous writers and their works on later writers.	Bloom describes how all writers are influenced by their precursors, and tradition is defined by the continuous influence passed down from one generation to the next.
Repression	The act of suppressing earlier literary forms or ideas to create something new.	Bloom discusses how repression is vital to the literary process, where new authors must repress their predecessors’ forms to forge their own identity and creativity.
Romantic Tradition	A literary movement emphasizing emotion, nature, and the sublime, often feeling late in history.	Bloom critiques Romanticism for its deep sense of belatedness and its obsessive grappling with literary predecessors, calling it a tradition “appalled by its own overt continuities.”
Modernism	A movement aimed at breaking away from traditional forms to express new ideas.	Bloom claims that Modernism never fully existed but was rather a myth turned dogma by critics like Hugh Kenner, transforming the experimental into an entrenched literary period.
The Scene of Instruction	The relationship between teacher and student in the transmission of knowledge.	Bloom discusses this concept in relation to literary tradition, likening it to a primal scene where teaching and literary influence occur, often with “internalized violence” between student and teacher.
Antithetical Teaching	Teaching that challenges both the students’ and teachers’ assumptions.	Bloom suggests that in the current phase of tradition, teaching must become antithetical, using texts that challenge the established norms of both teacher and student.
Myth of Continuity	The belief that literary tradition is a continuous, unbroken chain of influence.	Bloom critiques the idea of tradition as an inclusive continuum, arguing that tradition involves discontinuities and breaks, and the myth of continuity is a “lie against time” passed by critics on themselves.

Contribution of “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Contribution to the Theory of Influence and Anxiety of Influence

Key Idea: Bloom expands on his broader theoretical framework, often referred to as the “anxiety of influence,” where writers are in constant struggle with their literary precursors.

From the Text: “To study literary tradition today is to achieve a dangerous but enabling act of the mind that works against all ease in fresh ‘creation.'”
Contribution: This essay reinforces Bloom’s notion that creativity arises from a writer’s confrontation with tradition, where literary production is shaped by a tension between emulation and rebellion against past masters.

2. Contribution to Canon Formation and Canonical Criticism

Key Idea: Bloom critiques the formation of literary canons and the selective process of which works are deemed “classics.”
From the Text: “How are canons of accepted classics formed, and how are they unformed?… When Homer became a schoolbook, literature became a school subject quite permanently.”
Contribution: This essay contributes to canonical criticism by examining the historical, cultural, and pedagogical processes through which certain texts are elevated to canonical status, while others are marginalized. He argues that canons are shaped not by inherent literary value but by cultural forces and institutional practices.

3. Contribution to Postmodernism and Revisionist Criticism

Key Idea: Bloom critiques both Modernism and Postmodernism, framing them as myths perpetuated by critics and writers.
From the Text: “Post-Modernism also has its canons and its canonizers; and I find myself surrounded by living classics, in recently dead poets of strong ambition and hysterical intensity.”

Contribution: By deconstructing the myth of Modernism and critiquing Postmodernism, Bloom contributes to the broader discourse in literary theory about the fluidity of literary movements and the often arbitrary nature of the boundaries drawn between them.

4. Contribution to Hermeneutics and Interpretation Theory

Key Idea: Bloom touches on the interpretative act within tradition, discussing how readers and writers engage with texts from the past through reinterpretation and revision.

From the Text: “Literary tradition, once we even contemplate entering its academies, now insists upon being our ‘family history,’ and inducts us into its ‘family romance.'”
Contribution: His discussion of literary tradition as a “family romance” highlights the psychoanalytic underpinnings of interpretative practices, connecting the reading of texts with the psychological dynamics of influence, Oedipal struggles, and familial relationships.

5. Contribution to Romanticism and the Concept of Belatedness

Key Idea: Bloom emphasizes the Romantic tradition’s fixation on belatedness, a feeling of being chronologically and creatively late in comparison to literary precursors.
From the Text: “Romantic tradition is consciously late, and Romantic literary psychology is therefore necessarily a psychology of belatedness.”
Contribution: This essay advances the theory that Romanticism, and its descendants, is rooted in the anxiety of coming after great predecessors, contributing to a broader understanding of how time, history, and lateness shape literary production and identity.

6. Contribution to Deconstruction and the Challenge to Continuity

Key Idea: Bloom challenges the idea of seamless continuity in literary tradition, advocating for a recognition of discontinuities and breaks in the evolution of literary works.
From the Text: “The fiction of continuity is a noble idealization, and as a lie against time will go the way of every other noble idealization.”

Contribution: This critique aligns with deconstructionist approaches to literature, where presumed structures or grand narratives (like continuity in tradition) are exposed as constructed and often misleading.

7. Contribution to Pedagogical Theory in Literature

Key Idea: Bloom offers a reflection on the role of teachers in transmitting literary tradition and shaping the way students engage with literature.

From the Text: “The teacher of literature… is condemned to teach the presentness of the past.”
Contribution: This essay contributes to pedagogical theory by framing the teaching of literature as an “erotic” and dialectical process where both teachers and students are engaged in the struggle between the weight of tradition and the creation of new meaning.

8. Contribution to the Theory of Repression in Literary Creation

Key Idea: Bloom argues that repression is a necessary aspect of literary tradition, where new writers must suppress earlier forms to produce original work.
From the Text: “The Milton who made his great poem identical with the process of repression that is vital to literary tradition.”
Contribution: Bloom extends psychoanalytic ideas of repression into literary theory, suggesting that creativity is bound up with the act of suppressing earlier influences, a vital process in shaping strong literary voices.

9. Contribution to the Debate on Tradition vs. Innovation

Key Idea: Bloom asserts that tradition is not only a source of continuity but also a force that obstructs and challenges innovation.
From the Text: “Literary tradition appears powerless to justify its own selectivities… it moves from an idealized function to a stifling or blocking tendency.”

Contribution: This essay contributes to debates in literary theory on how tradition both facilitates and hinders literary innovation, reinforcing the view that the dialectical relationship between tradition and new creation is central to literary progress.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Critique Through Bloom’s Lens	Explanation from the Text
“Gravity’s Rainbow” by Thomas Pynchon	Critique of Belatedness and Tradition Inversion	Bloom uses Pynchon as an example of a modern writer grappling with the weight of tradition, describing Gravity’s Rainbow as a work of “sado-masochistic parody,” reflecting the dark humor and inversion of traditional literary archetypes. He sees Pynchon’s work as a reaction to literary predecessors.
“Self-Reliance” by Ralph Waldo Emerson	Romantic Belatedness and Guilt of Tradition	Bloom admires Emerson but critiques his failure to overcome the Romantic guilt of belatedness. Bloom asserts that Self-Reliance reflects the struggle to assert originality while being haunted by literary predecessors: “Whitman follows Emerson…yet the guilt of belatedness haunts him.”
“Paradise Lost” by John Milton	Tradition of Repression and Authority	Bloom highlights Paradise Lost as a central example of literary tradition as repression. Milton’s Satan is described as an artist whose act of creation is limited by repression, a figure embodying the struggle against a powerful predecessor: “Milton made his great poem identical with repression.”
“Aurora Leigh” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning	Critique of Canonical Misjudgment	Bloom critiques the once-high canonical status of Aurora Leigh, using it as an example of how literary greatness is often misjudged by contemporaries. “Ruskin…proclaimed Aurora Leigh by Mrs. Browning to be the best long poem of the Nineteenth Century,” but this judgment did not stand the test of time.

Criticism Against “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom

1. Overemphasis on Belatedness and Anxiety of Influence

Criticism: Some critics argue that Bloom’s focus on belatedness and the anxiety of influence limits the understanding of literary creation, reducing the complex dynamics of literary production to a psychological struggle between the writer and their predecessors.
Issue: This perspective can overlook the social, political, and cultural factors that also influence literary works, simplifying the creative process into a one-dimensional conflict.

2. Elitism in Canon Formation

Criticism: Bloom’s defense of the canon and his preference for established literary traditions have been seen as elitist and exclusionary, often disregarding marginalized voices and alternative literary traditions.
Issue: By championing a Eurocentric literary canon, Bloom is criticized for neglecting the contributions of non-Western, minority, and women writers, reinforcing hierarchical structures in literature.

3. Dismissal of Modernism and Postmodernism

Criticism: Bloom’s claim that Modernism never existed as a literary movement, and his dismissive attitude towards Postmodernism, has been met with resistance by scholars who see both movements as critical to understanding 20th-century literature.
Issue: His critique of Modernism and Postmodernism as mere myths diminishes the significance of the literary innovations and thematic explorations brought forward by these movements, such as fragmentation, subjectivity, and the challenge to grand narratives.

4. Neglect of Social and Historical Contexts

Criticism: Bloom’s focus on tradition and the personal psychological struggle between authors neglects the role of historical and social contexts in shaping literary works and movements.
Issue: His theory of influence tends to abstract literature from its socio-political environment, ignoring how external factors such as class, race, and gender can profoundly shape literary creation and reception.

5. Resistance to Feminist and Multicultural Criticism

Criticism: Bloom has been resistant to feminist and multicultural critiques, which aim to expand the literary canon and include more diverse perspectives.
Issue: By dismissing movements like Woman’s Liberation and other identity-based literary movements, Bloom risks alienating critics and readers who seek a more inclusive and representative literary tradition.

6. Overreliance on Psychoanalytic Frameworks

Criticism: Bloom’s application of psychoanalytic ideas, particularly Freud’s Oedipal complex, to literary tradition has been critiqued for being overly reductive.
Issue: This reliance on psychoanalysis may obscure other literary, theoretical, and structural insights, limiting the scope of literary criticism to familial and psychological models of influence.

7. Limited Engagement with Contemporary Literary Forms

Criticism: Bloom’s preference for classical literature and established canonical figures leaves little room for contemporary literary experimentation, including newer forms like digital literature or genre fiction.
Issue: His reluctance to engage with these evolving literary forms creates a gap between traditional literary criticism and the current literary landscape, which increasingly incorporates diverse voices and innovative genres.

8. Idealization of the Literary Tradition

Criticism: Bloom’s idealization of literary tradition as a guiding force may romanticize the past, overlooking how tradition can also serve to oppress or marginalize innovative voices.
Issue: His view of tradition as both enabling and repressing new literary creation can be seen as overly deterministic, leaving little space for more fluid or collaborative approaches to literary development.

Representative Quotations from “The Dialectics of Literary Tradition” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Tradition is now valuable precisely because it partly blocks, because it stifles the weak, because it represses even the strong.”	Bloom argues that literary tradition serves as both an obstacle and a source of strength for writers, forcing them to contend with and overcome the influence of predecessors.
“The myth of Modernism has aged into a dogma, and Post-Modernism also has its canons and its canonizers.”	Bloom critiques the institutionalization of both Modernism and Postmodernism, suggesting that what was once revolutionary has become rigid and canonized, losing its original vitality.
“Nothing is now more salutary than such a sense [of belatedness]. Without it, we cannot distinguish between the energy of humanistic performance and merely organic energy.”	Bloom redefines belatedness as an essential part of literary creativity, where the awareness of coming after great predecessors spurs writers toward more deliberate innovation.
“The teacher of literature… is condemned to teach the presentness of the past, because history, philosophy, and religion have withdrawn as agents from the Scene of Instruction.”	This reflects Bloom’s view of literary instruction, where teachers must focus on how the past is ever-present in literature, as other disciplines have lost their central role in education.
“We are Alexandrians still, and we may as well be proud of it, for it is central to our profession.”	Bloom acknowledges the ongoing influence of Alexandrian scholarship, which set the precedent for canon formation and literary criticism, shaping how we classify and teach literature today.
“Romantic tradition is consciously late, and Romantic literary psychology is therefore necessarily a psychology of belatedness.”	Bloom describes Romanticism as a literary movement deeply aware of its place in history, burdened by a sense of coming after past greatness and haunted by the desire to transcend it.
“Tradition, the Latin traditio, is etymologically a handing-over or a giving-over, a delivery, a giving-up and so even a surrender or a betrayal.”	Bloom emphasizes the complex nature of tradition, suggesting that it involves both the transmission of knowledge and a form of surrender or betrayal of past literary achievements.
“Literary tradition appears powerless to justify its own selectivities… it moves from an idealized function to a stifling or blocking tendency.”	Bloom critiques the notion that literary tradition inherently justifies the inclusion of certain works, arguing that it often becomes a restrictive force rather than a liberating one.
“We cannot write or teach or think or even read, without imitation, and what you imitate is what another person has done.”	This underscores Bloom’s belief that all literary creation is influenced by imitation, with tradition acting as a continuous force that shapes new works, whether consciously or unconsciously.
“All continuities possess the paradox of being absolutely arbitrary in their origins, and absolutely inescapable in their teleologies.”	Bloom points out that literary traditions often arise arbitrarily, yet once established, they become inescapable forces, shaping how future generations engage with literature.

“Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom: Summary and Critique

“Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” by Harold Bloom appeared in the Fall 1976 issue of The Georgia Review (495-524).

Introduction: “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

“Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” by Harold Bloom appeared in the Fall 1976 issue of The Georgia Review (495-524). He explores the intricate relationship between rhetoric and psychology within the realm of poetry. Bloom argues that poets strategically employ language and figurative devices to manipulate the reader’s experience. The essay opens with a thought-provoking juxtaposition of quotes, hinting at the exploration of veiled aspects within the creative process of poetry. Bloom then utilizes Wallace Stevens’ poem “Domination of Black” as a springboard for his analysis. Through this example, he demonstrates how Stevens utilizes deceptively simple descriptions, imbued with figurative language and a psychological defense mechanism known as “reaction-formation,” to imbue the poem with profounder themes of mortality and the anxieties surrounding death.

Summary of “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

Rhetorical Foundations of Poetry:
- Bloom examines poetry through a blend of rhetoric and psychology, where tropes serve as a bridge between these disciplines.
- “The language of poetry… is overdetermined in its patternings and underdetermined in its meanings” (p. 497), emphasizing poetry’s layered complexity in both expression and understanding.
Presence and Absence in Poetry:
- A recurring theme is the dialectic of presence and absence, as poems often arise from the absence of something that needs to be depicted.
- “A poem begins because there is too strong a presence, which needs to be imaged as an absence” (p. 495), highlighting how poetry addresses what is missing by making it present in language.
Stevens’ “Domination of Black” as a Case Study:
- Wallace Stevens’ “Domination of Black” is used to illustrate the psychological and rhetorical mechanisms at work in poetry.
- Bloom notes how the poem creates a “reaction-formation,” where “Stevens is vulnerable to the black dominant of the hemlocks and that other cry of mortality, of the peacocks” (p. 497), linking the tropes of color and death.
Psychology of Tropes in Poetry:
- Bloom traces tropes to Freudian psychology, identifying how they serve as defense mechanisms.
- “It was left to Freud to discover how, in a scientific age, we still feel and think in figurative formations” (p. 496). This connects metaphors, synecdoche, and metonymy to psychological states.
The Role of Repetition in Stevens’ Work:
- Repetition plays a key role in Stevens’ poetry, with the idea of repeating oneself as a trope of survival.
- “The colors of the fallen leaves are repeating themselves” (p. 496). Stevens’ repeated use of repetition symbolizes the struggle with both life’s mutability and the permanence of death.
Romantic Imagery and the Role of Memory:
- Bloom explores the Romantic image through Wordsworth and Barfield, noting how memory serves to replace lost “participation” with nature.
- “Barfield’s high evaluation of Romanticism results from his conviction that the Romantic image was an idol-smashing weapon” (p. 499), reflecting the shift from experiencing nature directly to representing it through memory-images.
Crossing of Tropes and Psychological Defenses:
- Bloom introduces the concept of “crossing”, where a poet navigates figurative and psychological conflicts.
- “A crossing is a crucial point or turning point” (p. 519), which manifests as a trope moving between ethos (character) and pathos (passion) in a poet’s work.
The Crisis of Belatedness:
- One of the essay’s central insights is the crisis of belatedness in modern poetry, where poets must deal with the weight of tradition and their position in literary history.
- “Stevens is content to taste the defeat of belatedness” (p. 499), indicating that modern poets, including Stevens, feel the burden of following in the footsteps of earlier, great poets.
Rhetoric as the Bridge Between Thought and Will:
- The essay proposes that rhetoric is not merely a system of tropes but a mechanism for translating will into verbal action.
- “A trope is one of two possibilities: either the will translating itself into a verbal act or figure of ethos, or else the will failing to translate itself” (p. 520), illustrating how rhetoric and psychology intertwine in poetic creation.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Quotation/Reference
Trope	A figurative or metaphorical use of a word or expression; often involves substitution of one thing for another.	“Tropes are perverse; they are para-phusis, unnatural, deviant.” (p. 508)
Rhetoric	The art of effective or persuasive speaking or writing, often analyzed through figurative language and structure.	“Rhetoric is a text in that it allows for two incompatible, mutually self-destructive points of view and therefore puts an insurmountable obstacle in the way of any reading or understanding.” (p. 511)
Crossing	A point in a poem where rhetorical and psychological tensions meet, leading to a figurative or thematic shift.	“A crossing is a crucial point or turning point, going back to the Greek krisis, which derived from krinein, ‘to separate’ or ‘to decide.'” (p. 519)
Irony	A rhetorical device or situation where meaning is opposite to what is stated or expected.	“In poetry, a trope of action is always an irony, until it is further reduced to metonymy and metaphor.” (p. 520)
Metonymy	A figure of speech in which a thing is referred to by the name of something closely associated with it.	“This reduction as an obsessive undoing of that synecdoche.” (p. 497)
Synecdoche	A figure of speech in which a part is made to represent the whole, or vice versa.	“Stevens must give us a synecdoche for death in the domination of the black color of the heavy hemlocks.” (p. 497)
Metaphor	A figure of speech that makes a direct comparison between two unlike things.	“But the peacocks, like the leaves, are in the room only as colors or turnings…” (p. 497)
Hyperbole	Exaggerated statements or claims not meant to be taken literally.	“The peacocks, wonderfully caught up in the synaesthesia of ‘the loud fire.'” (p. 497)
Romantic Imagery	Visual or sensory descriptions in Romantic poetry aimed at expressing emotional experience or the sublime.	“Barfield’s high evaluation of Romanticism results from his conviction that the Romantic image was an idol-smashing weapon meant to return men to their original participation in the phenomena.” (p. 499)
Pathos	A quality in writing that evokes pity, sadness, or compassion.	“Pathos or recognition becomes a defect of response, or the survival of a will-to-representation after representation has been attained.” (p. 505)
Ethos	The character or spirit of a culture, era, or community as manifested in its beliefs and aspirations.	“Ethos has become limitation, a contraction or withdrawal of meaning, that opens the way for a re-thinking that is necessarily a re-meaning.” (p. 504)
Logos	A principle of order and knowledge; often associated with logic and reason.	“Rhetoric, conceived as a text or system of tropes, is an ethos, while rhetoric-as-persuasion falls under pathos, with an aporia between them as a logos.” (p. 503)
Reaction-Formation	A Freudian defense mechanism where one expresses the opposite of their repressed desires.	“Stevens had begun his poem with what the Freudians… call a ‘reaction-formation,’ a defensive movement of the spirit.” (p. 497)
Belatedness	A sense of coming after or being influenced by predecessors, common in modern poetry.	“The length of the oncoming night’s steps renders the blackness more vividly, because the tropic ‘striding’ itself undoes an earlier trope.” (p. 499)
Sublimation	A Freudian concept where socially unacceptable impulses are transformed into socially acceptable actions or art.	“Sublimation and introjection… between substituting some labor for one’s own prohibited instincts.” (p. 522)
Nachträglichkeit (“Aftering”)	A Freudian term for delayed emotional processing or deferred action.	“This is very akin… to the delayed signification that Freud calls Nachträglichkeit or ‘aftering.'” (p. 504)
Gnosis	Knowledge of spiritual mysteries, often associated with esoteric traditions like Kabbalah.	“A vision that is Gnostic and Kabbalistic, in its ultimate origins.” (p. 520)
Deconstruction	A critical approach that seeks to uncover the multiple meanings and contradictions within a text.	“Deconstruction… is to indicate the precise location of its figuration of doubt, its uncertain notice of that limit where persuasion yields to a dance or interplay of tropes.” (p. 506)
Aporia	A rhetorical or philosophical puzzle or state of doubt, often signaling an impasse in understanding.	“De Man’s achievement is to have defined, following Nietzsche, the aporia or figuration of doubt that the principle of rhetorical substitution always constitutes, in any poetic text.” (p. 511)

Contribution of “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Psychoanalytic Literary Theory

Contribution: Bloom expands on Freudian psychoanalysis, particularly the role of defense mechanisms like reaction-formation, sublimation, and introjection in poetry. He links these psychological defenses with rhetorical figures (tropes) in poetry, suggesting that poets use language as a form of psychic defense.

Reference: “Stevens had begun his poem with what the Freudians… call a ‘reaction-formation,’ a defensive movement of the spirit that is opposed to a repressed desire” (p. 497).
Significance: By treating tropes as psychological defenses, Bloom contributes to the understanding of how unconscious desires shape poetic language and imagery. This creates a link between Freudian defense mechanisms and poetic form, positioning poetry as a sublimation of repressed desires.

2. Romanticism and Post-Romanticism

Contribution: Bloom investigates Romantic imagery and its role in poetic representation, particularly through Wordsworth and Stevens. He argues that Romantic poets transformed the representation of nature from direct experience to the internal workings of the mind, reflecting a deeper engagement with consciousness and self-reflection.
Reference: “Barfield’s high evaluation of Romanticism results from his conviction that the Romantic image was an idol-smashing weapon meant to return men to their original participation in the phenomena” (p. 499).
Significance: This exploration of Romantic imagery contributes to the understanding of how nature in Romantic poetry is not simply a reflection of the world but an internalized, psychological reality. Bloom highlights the evolution of the Romantic image from physical to metaphysical, deepening the study of Romanticism in literary theory.

3. Deconstruction and Poststructuralism

Contribution: Bloom incorporates deconstructive methods by focusing on the aporia (gaps and contradictions) within poetry, where the tension between rhetoric-as-tropes and rhetoric-as-persuasion creates multiple, contradictory meanings. He links this to Paul de Man’s deconstruction of Nietzsche’s theory of rhetoric, which reveals the instability and self-undermining nature of language.
Reference: “Rhetoric is a text in that it allows for two incompatible, mutually self-destructive points of view and therefore puts an insurmountable obstacle in the way of any reading or understanding” (p. 511).

Significance: Bloom’s focus on the figurations of doubt and the impossibility of final meaning aligns with deconstruction, contributing to poststructuralist theories that question the stability of language and meaning. This challenges traditional approaches to textual analysis by emphasizing the fluidity of interpretation and meaning in poetic texts.

4. Rhetorical Theory

Contribution: Bloom emphasizes the centrality of rhetoric in poetry, suggesting that poetry is not only a system of tropes but also a psychological act of persuasion. He aligns rhetoric with the will to create meaning, proposing that tropes are not just figures of language but figures of will.

Reference: “What is a trope? It is one of two possibilities only — either the will translating itself into a verbal act or figure of ethos, or else the will failing to translate itself” (p. 520).
Significance: This interpretation expands rhetorical theory by linking it directly to psychological processes and the will. Bloom’s theory moves beyond seeing rhetoric as a tool for persuasion and instead views it as an expression of the self’s desires and conflicts, integrating rhetoric more deeply with psychological and existential concerns.

5. The Theory of Belatedness

Contribution: Bloom’s theory of belatedness (influence and anxiety) suggests that modern poets are burdened by the achievements of their predecessors, and their work involves overcoming this anxiety through figurative language. He connects this belatedness with the use of synecdoche, metalepsis, and irony in modern poetry.
Reference: “Stevens is content to taste the defeat of belatedness. The length of the oncoming night’s steps renders the blackness more vividly” (p. 499).
Significance: The theory of belatedness expands on Bloom’s earlier work on the anxiety of influence, offering insights into how poets respond to the pressure of tradition. This idea resonates with intertextuality in literary theory, showing how texts engage in a dialogue with past works.

6. Interplay Between Ethos, Pathos, and Logos

Contribution: Bloom reinterprets Aristotle’s classical triad of ethos, pathos, and logos by framing them in a poetic and psychological context. He argues that ethos represents limitation and action, pathos represents desire and emotional response, and logos is the dynamic interplay between the two.
Reference: “Rhetoric, conceived as a text or system of tropes, is an ethos, while rhetoric-as-persuasion falls under pathos, with an aporia between them as a logos” (p. 503).

Significance: This reinterpretation offers a new lens for understanding rhetorical strategies in poetry, as Bloom ties these classical rhetorical categories to psychological and emotional conflicts. His integration of ethos, pathos, and logos with poetic form deepens the relationship between rhetoric and poetic creation.

7. Kabbalistic and Gnostic Approaches to Rhetoric

Contribution: Bloom introduces Kabbalistic and Gnostic perspectives into rhetorical theory, suggesting that all language is imbued with semantic tension. He frames rhetoric as a spiritual endeavor, where tropes represent the struggle between will and language.

Reference: “Kabbalistic rhetorical theory… leads one to consider texts not as linguistic structures but as instances of the will to utter within a tradition of uttering” (p. 520).
Significance: By incorporating Kabbalistic and Gnostic frameworks, Bloom introduces a mystical dimension to literary theory, where language becomes a vehicle for spiritual conflict and transcendence. This contributes to a metaphysical understanding of rhetoric and poetry, challenging purely linguistic or structuralist views.

8. Romantic Dialectic (Ethos and Pathos)

Contribution: Bloom suggests that Wordsworth’s dialectic is driven by a tension between ethos (character, place) and pathos (emotion, passion), reflected in the relationship between the spirit of place and the voice of the dead in his poetry.
Reference: “We can analyze Wordsworth’s originality as a poet more fully than has been done, if we continue and expand the study of the interplay of ethos and pathos in his poetry” (p. 502).
Significance: This contribution highlights the interplay of ethos and pathos as central to Romantic poetry, providing a new framework for understanding how emotion and spatial imagery converge in the Romantic tradition. It offers a nuanced reading of Romantic dialectics, particularly regarding memory and place.

Examples of Critiques Through “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Author	Critique Through Bloom’s “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric and Psychology”	Concepts/References from Bloom
“The Waste Land”	T.S. Eliot	Belatedness: Eliot’s poem reflects a crisis of belatedness, where modern poets struggle under the burden of literary tradition. The fragmented structure reveals Eliot’s anxiety about following in the footsteps of his precursors, particularly the Romantics.	“Stevens is content to taste the defeat of belatedness” (p. 499), showing how modern poets acknowledge their lateness in the literary tradition, using tropes of fragmentation and irony to overcome their inheritance.
“Ode to a Nightingale”	John Keats	Crossing of Solipsism: Keats’ use of metonymy (nightingale as a symbol of escape) and hyperbole (idealized escape to immortality) reflects the poet’s inner conflict between wanting to transcend life and the impossibility of escaping mortality.	“The second crossing… struggles with the death of love… between metonymy and hyperbole” (p. 522). Bloom’s concept of crossings can be used to critique how Keats navigates between metonymy and hyperbole in his desire for escape from reality.
“Song of Myself”	Walt Whitman	Sublimation and Representation: Whitman’s expansive cataloging and sensory imagery reflect a sublimation of desires into language, transforming the individual into a universal figure. Whitman uses rhetorical excess to transcend individual experience.	“Sublimation and introjection… between substituting some labor for one’s own prohibited instincts” (p. 522). Whitman’s use of expansive tropes embodies sublimation, as he channels personal desires into a broader collective representation.
“To His Coy Mistress”	Andrew Marvell	Crossing of Identification: Marvell’s poem navigates between metaphor (the lover’s plea) and metalepsis (time’s constraints), reflecting a psychological conflict with mortality and unfulfilled desire. The poem’s urgency comes from the death drive.	“The dilemma here is the confrontation with mortality, with total death… the prohibited instinct is the drive towards death” (p. 522). Marvell’s metaphysical wit can be seen as navigating the tension between desire and the awareness of death’s limits.

Analysis of Critique Through Bloom’s Framework

T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land”:
- Concept Applied: Eliot’s fragmented style is interpreted through Bloom’s theory of belatedness. The poem reflects an anxiety about coming after the Romantics and the fragmentation symbolizes an inability to fully overcome that influence.
- Concept from Bloom: Bloom’s idea that modern poets feel a “defeat of belatedness” (p. 499) applies well to Eliot’s sense of fragmentation and disjunction, reflecting a crisis of inheritance from the literary past.

John Keats’ “Ode to a Nightingale”:
- Concept Applied: Keats’ desire to transcend reality through the nightingale is analyzed via the crossing of solipsism. The oscillation between metonymy and hyperbole reveals his internal struggle between staying grounded and escaping into immortality.
- Concept from Bloom: Keats’ poem represents Bloom’s second crossing, where the poet’s metonymy (symbolic language) meets his hyperbole (desire to transcend) in a confrontation with solipsism (p. 522).

Walt Whitman’s “Song of Myself”:
- Concept Applied: Whitman’s use of extensive imagery and cataloging is understood as an act of sublimation. He sublimates his individual desires into a broader, collective voice, thus merging the personal and universal.
- Concept from Bloom: Bloom’s idea of sublimation and representation (p. 522) captures Whitman’s transcendence of the personal self through the expansive language of “Song of Myself”, which is an act of self-transformation via poetry.

Andrew Marvell’s “To His Coy Mistress”:
- Concept Applied: Marvell’s manipulation of time, with its focus on impending death and the fleeting nature of life, is linked to Bloom’s crossing of identification, where the poet confronts mortality through metaphor and metalepsis.
- Concept from Bloom: Marvell’s urgent tone and focus on time reflect Bloom’s identification crossing, where the prohibited instinct of death drives the poem’s emotional intensity (p. 522). The tension between desire and mortality becomes a rhetorical trope.

Criticism Against “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom

Over-Reliance on Psychoanalysis:
- Bloom heavily relies on Freudian concepts like reaction-formation, sublimation, and introjection to explain poetic tropes, which can be seen as an overextension of psychoanalytic theory into literary analysis. Critics might argue that this limits his approach by forcing poetry into a psychological framework that not all poems may adhere to.
Obscurity and Complexity:
- The essay is often criticized for being overly complex and difficult to follow, with dense and intricate language. Bloom’s reliance on esoteric concepts from Gnosticism, Kabbalah, and psychoanalysis may alienate readers unfamiliar with these intellectual traditions. This complexity can make his arguments less accessible to broader audiences.
Lack of Historical and Cultural Context:
- While Bloom’s focus on rhetoric and psychology is insightful, critics may argue that he neglects the broader historical, social, and cultural contexts of the poems he analyzes. His approach sometimes overlooks the external factors influencing poets, such as political or social realities, in favor of an individualistic, internalized reading of poetic language.

Reduction of Poetic Language to Tropes:
- By framing poetic language almost exclusively in terms of tropes and psychological defenses, Bloom risks reducing the richness of poetry to a technical, mechanical process. Some critics argue that his model diminishes the emotional and aesthetic impact of poetry by focusing too much on structural and figurative analysis.
Narrow Focus on the Western Canon:
- Bloom’s framework is built around canonical Western poets, particularly the Romantics and modernists. Critics might argue that his theory is Eurocentric and doesn’t adequately account for non-Western literary traditions or marginalized voices. His focus on a limited literary tradition limits the application of his theory to global or diverse poetic forms.
Neglect of Feminist or Postcolonial Perspectives:
- Bloom’s work largely ignores feminist and postcolonial approaches to literature, which critique the power dynamics and patriarchal structures present in many canonical texts. Critics may argue that Bloom’s framework doesn’t engage with how gender, race, and colonialism shape poetic expression and interpretation.

Ambiguity in Defining Key Concepts:
- Some key concepts in Bloom’s essay, such as crossings and belatedness, are vaguely defined and left open to interpretation. This ambiguity can weaken the clarity of his arguments and leave readers unsure of how to apply his theoretical models to specific poems.
Overemphasis on Intertextuality and Influence:
- Critics might argue that Bloom’s theory, particularly his emphasis on belatedness and the anxiety of influence, places too much importance on how poets relate to their predecessors. This focus on intertextuality risks downplaying the originality and individual creativity of poets, implying that all poetry is merely a response to previous works.

Representative Quotations from “Poetic Crossing: Rhetoric And Psychology” By Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“A poem begins because there is too strong a presence, which needs to be imaged as an absence.” (p. 495)	Bloom suggests that poetry arises from a tension between presence and absence—a key psychological and rhetorical concept. A poem comes into existence to give form to what is absent or what is too present, reflecting the psychological struggle at the heart of poetic creation.
“Stevens is vulnerable to the black dominant of the hemlocks and that other cry of mortality, of the peacocks.” (p. 497)	This quote captures Wallace Stevens’ use of imagery to reflect the poet’s encounter with death and mortality. The “cry of mortality” symbolizes Stevens’ struggle with life’s transience, where rhetoric and psychological defense mechanisms (like reaction-formation) come into play.
“Ethos has become limitation, a contraction or withdrawal of meaning, that opens the way for a re-thinking that is necessarily a re-meaning.” (p. 504)	Bloom argues that ethos (character or spirit) in poetry signals a limitation of meaning, but this limitation allows for a reinterpretation, creating space for new meanings. This reflects his view that rhetoric works as a dynamic process of meaning and revision in poetry.
“Rhetoric is a text in that it allows for two incompatible, mutually self-destructive points of view.” (p. 511)	Bloom highlights the inherent contradictions within rhetorical structures, influenced by deconstruction. In poetry, tropes often contain opposing meanings, leading to tensions that prevent a stable, singular interpretation, contributing to the poem’s richness and complexity.
“Deconstruction… is to indicate the precise location of its figuration of doubt, its uncertain notice of that limit where persuasion yields to a dance of tropes.” (p. 506)	This quote aligns deconstruction with poetic interpretation. Bloom explains that deconstruction reveals the limits of persuasion within a poem, leading to a space where tropes take over, reflecting the uncertainties and ambiguities that form the heart of poetic language.
“A crossing is a crucial point or turning point, going back to the Greek krisis, which derived from krinein, ‘to separate’ or ‘to decide’.” (p. 519)	Bloom introduces the concept of crossing, a critical moment in poetry where rhetorical and psychological conflicts intersect. It marks a turning point that shapes the poem’s meaning, echoing the idea that poetry is a space of decision and transformation.
“A trope is one of two possibilities: either the will translating itself into a verbal act or figure of ethos, or else the will failing to translate itself.” (p. 520)	Bloom views tropes as acts of will, either successfully expressing a poet’s intent or failing to do so. This quote emphasizes his belief that poetic language is driven by the will to meaning, where tropes function as the medium through which the poet navigates personal conflicts.
“Stevens is content to taste the defeat of belatedness.” (p. 499)	Belatedness refers to a poet’s anxiety of being overshadowed by predecessors. Bloom suggests that Stevens accepts this defeat as part of the modern poetic condition, highlighting how poets must grapple with the weight of literary tradition and find new ways to create meaning.
“The aporia between system-of-tropes and persuasion as the logos, a valorization that audaciously redefines poetic thinking.” (p. 511)	Bloom addresses the aporia (or gap) between rhetorical tropes and persuasion, a central tension in poetry. He argues that this unresolved conflict defines poetic thinking, where meaning emerges through the interplay of logical structures and emotional persuasion.
“Pathos or recognition becomes a defect of response, or the survival of a will-to-representation after representation has been attained.” (p. 505)	Bloom describes pathos as an emotional excess or defective response that follows after the poet has achieved representation through language. This quote highlights the difficulty in fully capturing emotional depth, as language often falls short of communicating desire or feeling.

“Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom: Summary and Critique

“Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom first appeared in PMLA (Publications of the Modern Language Association) in December 1958 (Vol. 73, No. 5, Part 1, pp. 501-504).

Introduction: “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

“Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom first appeared in PMLA (Publications of the Modern Language Association) in December 1958 (Vol. 73, No. 5, Part 1, pp. 501-504). This article, published by the Modern Language Association, is a critical examination of William Blake’s The Marriage of Heaven and Hell and its dialectical structure. Bloom delves into Blake’s unique interplay of contraries, emphasizing the work’s intricate blend of theological and ethical oppositions, along with its satirical and prophetic tones. Bloom highlights how Blake’s rhetoric overtakes dialectic, asserting that true comprehension of the work demands engagement with the unresolved tension between opposing ideas. This piece is significant in literary theory as it contributes to the ongoing discussion of apocalyptic literature, irony, and the role of contraries in human existence. Bloom’s analysis also serves as a crucial touchstone in the interpretation of Blake’s poetic vision, influencing subsequent readings of Blake’s works, including their dialectical complexities in the context of Romanticism and modern literary criticism.

Summary of “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

1. The Central Conflict of Contraries

Bloom argues that Blake’s The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is built upon the tension between opposing forces, what Blake termed “contraries,” rather than “negations.”
- Quotation: “The Marriage compounds ethical and theological ‘contraries’; in form it mocks the categorical techniques that seek to make the contraries appear as ‘negations.'”

2. Dialectic as a Form of Prophetic Irony

The work is described as a dialectical apocalypse that blends prophecy and satire, challenging established institutions while reflecting on the abyss between aspiration and reality.
- Quotation: “The great difficulty of dialectical apocalypse is that it has got to present itself as prophetic irony, in which the abyss between aspiration and institution is both anticipated and denounced.”

3. The Role of Rhetoric in Blake’s Dialectic

Bloom highlights how Blake’s rhetoric subsumes the dialectic, making it difficult to determine when Blake speaks plainly and when he engages in irony.
- Quotation: “In Blake, rhetoric subsumes dialectic, and usurps its place of privilege.”

4. Visionary Satire and Northrop Frye’s ‘Anatomy’

Bloom connects Blake’s work to Northrop Frye’s concept of “anatomy,” a literary genre that mixes satire with vision, allowing the juxtaposition of serious philosophical content with mockery.
- Quotation: “The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is a miniature ‘anatomy,’ in Northrop Frye’s recently formulated sense of the term.”

5. Blake’s Critique of Christian Dualism

Blake’s work critiques traditional Christian dualism, rejecting the division of good and evil and emphasizing the necessary coexistence of contraries.
- Quotation: “Without Contraries is no progression. Attraction and Repulsion, Reason and Energy, Love and Hate, are necessary to Human existence.”

6. The Role of the Prolific and the Devouring

Bloom highlights Blake’s distinction between two forces: the Prolific, which creates, and the Devouring, which restrains and limits. These forces are vital to human existence and cannot be reconciled without destroying existence itself.
- Quotation: “Thus one portion of being is the Prolific, the other the Devouring… The Prolific would cease to be Prolific unless the Devourer, as a sea, received the excess of his delights.”

7. Blake’s Non-Theism and the Rejection of Transcendence

Blake’s nontheism is underscored, as Bloom notes that God exists only in human beings and not as an abstract, transcendent being. Blake embraces a reality grounded in human experience rather than metaphysics.
- Quotation: “If God only acts and is in Men, then God has become an unnecessary hypothesis, having no abstract being beyond our powers of visualization and confrontation.”

8. Irony and the Subversion of Christian Thought

The “Proverbs of Hell” are cited as Blake’s subversion of conventional Christian wisdom through irony, presenting radical antinomianism (rejection of moral law) and glorifying energy and action.
- Quotation: “The Proverbs of Hell… where dialectic and rhetoric come together combatively in what could be judged the most brilliant aphorisms written in English.”

9. Energy, Desire, and the Boundaries of Existence

Energy and desire are central to Blake’s worldview, with Bloom noting that for Blake, energy is “Eternal Delight,” and to stifle desire or action is a form of vice.
- Quotation: “Energy is Eternal Delight… Desire which does not lead to action is also ‘accident,’ vice, and is self-destructive.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

Literary Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation in Bloom’s Analysis	Quotation/Reference
Dialectic	A method of argument that involves a dialogue between opposing forces or ideas to reveal the truth.	Bloom emphasizes how Blake’s work is inherently dialectical, showcasing the tension between opposing forces (contraries).	“The Marriage compounds ethical and theological ‘contraries’; in form it mocks the categorical techniques that seek to make the contraries appear as ‘negations.'”
Contraries	Opposing forces or concepts that coexist without negating each other.	Central to Blake’s philosophy, contraries such as good and evil are necessary for human existence and progression.	“Without Contraries is no progression. Attraction and Repulsion, Reason and Energy, Love and Hate, are necessary to Human existence.”
Irony	A rhetorical device where the intended meaning is opposite of the literal meaning.	Blake uses prophetic irony in The Marriage of Heaven and Hell to challenge institutionalized systems of thought.	“The great difficulty of dialectical apocalypse is that it has got to present itself as prophetic irony, in which the abyss between aspiration and institution is both anticipated and denounced.”
Apocalypse	A literary genre involving the revelation of hidden truths, often associated with the end of the world.	Blake’s work is described as a dialectical apocalypse that combines visionary and satirical elements.	“Apocalypse is dialectical in the Marriage, as much so as in Shelley’s Prometheus or the poems by Yeats… in which the abyss between aspiration and institution is both anticipated and denounced.”
Rhetoric	The art of persuasive speaking or writing.	In Blake’s work, rhetoric often overtakes dialectic, making it difficult to determine when Blake speaks ironically.	“In Blake, rhetoric subsumes dialectic, and usurps its place of privilege.”
Antinomianism	A belief that rejects established moral laws, particularly in the context of religion.	The “Proverbs of Hell” embody Blake’s antinomian stance, rejecting Christian dualism and embracing rebellious energy.	“The Proverbs of Hell… where dialectic and rhetoric come together combatively in what could be judged the most brilliant aphorisms written in English.”
Satire	A genre of literature that uses humor, irony, or ridicule to criticize societal flaws or institutions.	Blake’s work contains satirical elements, especially in its critique of religious and philosophical institutions.	“The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is a miniature ‘anatomy,’ in Northrop Frye’s recently formulated sense of the term, and reserves to itself the anatomy’s peculiar right to mingle satire with vision.”
Prophetic Poetry	A form of visionary poetry that conveys predictions or warnings about the future.	Blake’s poem is considered prophetic, warning against the limitations of institutionalized religion and thought.	“The poem is a prelude, establishing the tone of prophetic fury which is to run beneath the Marriage; the indignation of Rintrah presages the turning over of a cycle.”
Dualism	The division of something into two opposing aspects.	Blake critiques traditional Christian dualism by presenting contraries as necessary and complementary forces.	“This is a dialectic without transcendence, in which heaven and hell are to be married but without becoming altogether one flesh or one family.”
Anatomy (Literary Genre)	A work that mixes philosophical ideas with satire, often presenting a broad survey of human knowledge.	Bloom associates The Marriage of Heaven and Hell with this genre, citing Northrop Frye’s use of the term “anatomy.”	“The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is a miniature ‘anatomy,’ in Northrop Frye’s recently formulated sense of the term, and reserves to itself the anatomy’s peculiar right to mingle satire with vision.”
Phenomenology	A philosophical approach that emphasizes the study of consciousness and human experience.	Bloom connects Blake’s vision to phenomenology, noting that Blake explores human existence and sensory experience.	“Blake gives a definitive statement of the phenomenology of existence, the ceaseless dialectic of daily appearance.”

Contribution of “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Contribution to Dialectical Criticism

Explanation: Bloom’s analysis of Blake’s work adds depth to the theory of dialectics in literature by emphasizing the coexistence and tension of contraries rather than their reconciliation. His interpretation broadens the understanding of dialectical relationships in literary texts, especially in their treatment of philosophical and theological themes.
- Quotation: “The Marriage compounds ethical and theological ‘contraries’; in form it mocks the categorical techniques that seek to make the contraries appear as ‘negations.’”
- Contribution: Bloom shows that The Marriage of Heaven and Hell uses dialectic to express complex philosophical ideas without necessarily resolving them into a final synthesis. This challenges the more traditional view of dialectics as a system that aims for resolution, adding nuance to the critical theory by stressing the value of unresolved tension.

2. Contribution to Deconstruction

Explanation: By highlighting Blake’s use of irony and the difficulty of determining when he speaks “straight,” Bloom anticipates the concerns of deconstructionist theory. This theory emphasizes the instability of meaning and the interplay of opposites within a text, a concept that Bloom aligns with Blake’s complex treatment of contraries.
- Quotation: “The specific difficulty in reading The Marriage of Heaven and Hell is to mark the limits of its irony: where does Blake speak straight?”
- Contribution: Bloom’s analysis supports a deconstructive reading of Blake’s work, where meaning is never fixed but constantly in flux due to the play between opposing concepts like good and evil, energy and reason. This contributes to literary theories that focus on the fluidity and indeterminacy of textual meaning.

3. Contribution to Romantic Criticism

Explanation: Bloom’s reading situates The Marriage of Heaven and Hell within the broader tradition of Romantic literature, which values imagination, visionary experience, and the critique of institutionalized religion and reason. He connects Blake’s work to other Romantic texts, such as Shelley’s Prometheus and Yeats’ A Vision, showing how these works share a dialectical approach to apocalypse and prophetic vision.
- Quotation: “Apocalypse is dialectical in the Marriage, as much so as in Shelley’s Prometheus or the poems by Yeats written out of A Vision.”
- Contribution: By framing Blake’s work as a dialectical apocalypse, Bloom deepens the understanding of Romantic literature’s philosophical engagement with societal and theological questions. His analysis underscores the role of visionary imagination in Romantic criticism and its reliance on unresolved tension between contraries.

4. Contribution to Phenomenology in Literature

Explanation: Bloom discusses how Blake’s work can be seen through a phenomenological lens, which focuses on human experience and consciousness as opposed to metaphysical transcendence. Blake’s rejection of abstract concepts in favor of the “hard given of this world” aligns with phenomenological approaches that prioritize lived experience over speculative philosophy.
- Quotation: “Blake gives a definitive statement of the phenomenology of existence, the ceaseless dialectic of daily appearance.”
- Contribution: Bloom’s analysis situates The Marriage of Heaven and Hell within phenomenological theory by emphasizing the importance of human experience and sensory perception. His reading contributes to theories that focus on the concrete and experiential aspects of existence, as opposed to abstract, metaphysical ideals.

5. Contribution to Satirical Criticism

Explanation: Bloom links Blake’s work to the genre of satire, particularly through his discussion of the “Memorable Fancies” and the “Proverbs of Hell.” He connects Blake’s satire to the tradition of using humor and irony to critique societal and religious norms, situating The Marriage of Heaven and Hell within the framework of satirical literature.
- Quotation: “The ‘Memorable Fancies,’ brilliant exercises in satire and humanism, form the bulk of the Marriage, and tend to evade Blake’s own dialectic.”
- Contribution: Bloom’s emphasis on the satirical elements of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell contributes to the understanding of how satire functions within literary texts. His analysis reveals how satire and irony work in tandem with dialectic to challenge and critique established ideas, enriching the critical conversation around satire as a form of social and philosophical commentary.

6. Contribution to Antinomianism and Religious Criticism

Explanation: Bloom identifies Blake’s antinomian stance (the rejection of moral laws, especially religious ones) as central to The Marriage of Heaven and Hell. By rejecting traditional Christian dualism and embracing energy and desire, Blake contributes to literary theories that critique religious orthodoxy.
- Quotation: “Blake does not build truth by dialectic, being neither a rational mystic like Plato nor a mystic rationalist like Hegel.”
- Contribution: Bloom’s focus on Blake’s antinomianism highlights his radical rejection of institutional religion and its moral constraints. This contributes to literary theories that explore the relationship between literature and religion, particularly those that question established religious doctrines and advocate for individual freedom.

7. Contribution to Reader-Response Theory

Explanation: Bloom’s analysis suggests that Blake’s work demands an active, interpretive engagement from readers, who must navigate the irony, rhetoric, and dialectical oppositions to uncover meaning. This aligns with reader-response theory, which emphasizes the role of the reader in constructing meaning from a text.
- Quotation: “The unity of the Marriage is in itself dialectical, and cannot be grasped except by the mind in motion, moving between the Blakean contraries of discursive irony and mythical visualization.”
- Contribution: By emphasizing the reader’s active role in making sense of Blake’s complex dialectical structure, Bloom’s analysis aligns with reader-response theory. This suggests that the text does not have a single, fixed meaning but instead requires readers to participate in the creation of meaning through their engagement with its contradictions.

Examples of Critiques Through “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

Literary Work	Critique Through Bloom’s Framework	Key Concept from Bloom’s Analysis	Quotation from Bloom’s Article
John Milton’s Paradise Lost	Bloom suggests Blake read Paradise Lost “in its infernal or poetic sense,” seeing Satan as a tragic hero, subverting traditional readings of Satan as purely evil.	Blake’s dialectic challenges Christian dualism, viewing “evil” as necessary for progression.	“When, in another turn of the critical wheel, we go back to reading Paradise Lost in its infernal or poetic sense… we will have to condemn a generation of critical dogmatists.”
Percy Bysshe Shelley’s Prometheus Unbound	Similar to Blake’s apocalyptic vision, Shelley’s work reflects a dialectical apocalypse that critiques societal and religious structures.	Bloom connects Blake’s work to other apocalyptic Romantic works, showing how they embody dialectical tensions.	“Apocalypse is dialectical in the Marriage, as much so as in Shelley’s Prometheus or the poems by Yeats written out of A Vision.”
William Butler Yeats’ A Vision	Bloom critiques Yeats’ complex visionary system, seeing it as an extension of Blake’s dialectical method, but with more systematic elements.	Bloom suggests that Blake’s epics and visionary works, while dialectical, defy systems imposed by critics such as Frye.	“The schemata of those epics, though dialectical, are yet systematic; the local life in them maddeningly (but gratefully) defies the system.”
D.H. Lawrence’s Women in Love	Bloom contrasts Lawrence’s vision of sexual energy and human conflict with Blake’s dialectic, noting that Blake doesn’t fully accept the cyclical recurrence that Lawrence embraces.	Blake’s rejection of purely cyclical views of human existence, emphasizing instead the potential for progression through contraries.	“Blake is as earnest as Lawrence, and will not tolerate the vision of recurrence, as Nietzsche and Yeats do.”
Friedrich Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra	Nietzsche’s concept of eternal recurrence is rejected by Blake’s dialectic. While both embrace contraries, Blake denies that these cycles are eternal or static.	Bloom shows how Blake’s dialectic offers a more fluid progression, rejecting Nietzschean recurrence as restrictive.	“The altogether human escapes cycle, evades irony, cannot be categorized discursively.”
John Keats’ Ode to a Nightingale	Through Bloom’s lens, Keats’ dialectic between life and death in the poem reflects Blake’s emphasis on the necessity of contraries for human experience.	The tension between opposites, such as joy and sorrow or life and death, mirrors Blake’s idea that contraries drive human existence.	“Without Contraries is no progression. Attraction and Repulsion, Reason and Energy, Love and Hate, are necessary to Human existence.”
James Joyce’s Ulysses	Bloom’s critique can be extended to Joyce’s stream-of-consciousness technique, which embodies a dialectical interplay between chaos and order in human experience.	Blake’s rejection of rigid forms and reliance on the interplay of contraries can be seen in Joyce’s modernist narrative technique.	“Blake does not build truth by dialectic, being neither a rational mystic like Plato nor a mystic rationalist like Hegel.”
Franz Kafka’s The Trial	Bloom’s framework can be applied to Kafka’s vision of the absurd, where the dialectic between justice and injustice is never resolved, reflecting the tensions in Blake’s work.	Kafka’s existential view of authority and law echoes Blake’s critique of institutional systems, showing how both writers leave tensions unresolved.	“The Marriage preaches the risen body breaking bounds, exploding upwards into psychic abundance… the altogether human escapes cycle.”
T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land	The fragmented structure and tension between hope and despair in The Waste Land can be critiqued using Blake’s dialectic of contraries.	Eliot’s juxtaposition of spiritual desolation and potential rebirth mirrors the dialectical tensions in Blake’s vision of apocalypse.	“Blake seeks reality in appearances, though he rejects appearance as it is perceived by the lowest-common-denominator kind of observer.”

Summary of Key Concepts:

Contraries vs. Negations: Blake’s contraries, unlike negations, coexist and are necessary for human experience and progression.

Dialectical Apocalypse: Literary works that challenge institutional structures and present visionary or apocalyptic tensions can be critiqued using Blake’s dialectical approach.
Irony and Rhetoric: Bloom’s focus on the limits of irony in Blake’s work allows for critiques of modernist and postmodernist texts that emphasize indeterminacy and unresolved tensions.
Satirical Critique of Institutions: Blake’s work critiques religious and societal norms through satire, offering a framework for analyzing works that critique authority.

Criticism Against “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom

1. Overemphasis on Blake’s Dialectic at the Expense of Other Themes

Bloom focuses heavily on the dialectical structure of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, which may lead to an underappreciation of other thematic elements such as Blake’s mysticism, spiritual vision, and social critiques.
- Criticism: Bloom’s analysis may marginalize aspects of Blake’s work that extend beyond dialectical oppositions, such as his personal religious vision and critique of political tyranny.

2. Neglect of Historical and Cultural Context

Bloom’s interpretation is primarily concerned with Blake’s philosophical and poetic frameworks, but it lacks sufficient engagement with the historical and political context in which Blake was writing (e.g., the French Revolution, Enlightenment thought).
- Criticism: By focusing on abstract dialectical analysis, Bloom may neglect the specific historical and political circumstances that influenced Blake’s work.

3. Ambiguity in Defining Dialectic and Contraries

While Bloom discusses the role of contraries in Blake’s work, he doesn’t always clarify the distinction between dialectic as a formal method of argument and Blake’s more poetic, fluid use of contraries.
- Criticism: The ambiguity in Bloom’s explanation of Blake’s dialectic might leave readers unclear on how Blake’s contraries function differently from traditional philosophical dialectics (e.g., Hegelian dialectic).

4. Overreliance on Northrop Frye’s Anatomy Framework

Bloom uses Northrop Frye’s concept of “anatomy” to interpret The Marriage of Heaven and Hell, but some critics might argue that this framework is imposed rather than inherent to Blake’s text.
- Criticism: Bloom’s reliance on Frye’s anatomy might limit alternative interpretations of Blake’s work that do not fit neatly into Frye’s categories.

5. Neglect of Blake’s Visual Art

Bloom’s critique of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell primarily focuses on the textual and poetic elements, overlooking Blake’s visual art, which is inseparable from his poetic work.
- Criticism: Ignoring the visual aspect of Blake’s illuminated works diminishes the full scope of his artistic intentions, which combine both image and text to convey meaning.

6. Insufficient Exploration of Blake’s Religious Mysticism

Blake’s unique mystical and religious views are central to his work, but Bloom’s focus on dialectic might downplay the more mystical, transcendental elements that are critical to understanding Blake’s vision.
- Criticism: Bloom does not sufficiently explore how Blake’s religious mysticism influences the dialectic, leaving out vital spiritual dimensions that are key to Blake’s philosophy.

7. Reduction of Blake’s Complexity to a Single Theoretical Lens

By focusing so intently on the concept of contraries and dialectical tensions, Bloom may reduce the complexity of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell to a single theoretical lens, limiting a more holistic interpretation.
- Criticism: Bloom’s focus on dialectic may oversimplify the broader metaphysical, social, and poetic complexities of Blake’s work.

8. Lack of Engagement with Later Critical Developments

Since the essay was published in 1958, it does not engage with later critical developments such as poststructuralism, gender theory, or postcolonial theory, which could offer new insights into Blake’s work.
- Criticism: Bloom’s analysis may feel dated or limited by its lack of engagement with more contemporary critical frameworks that could enrich the interpretation of Blake’s texts.

Representative Quotations from “Dialectic in the Marriage of Heaven and Hell” by Harold Bloom with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
1. “Without Contraries is no progression. Attraction and Repulsion, Reason and Energy, Love and Hate, are necessary to Human existence.”	This quotation encapsulates Blake’s core philosophy, emphasizing the necessity of contraries (opposing forces) for growth and human experience. Bloom uses this as the foundation for his analysis of Blake’s dialectical worldview.
2. “The Marriage compounds ethical and theological ‘contraries’; in form it mocks the categorical techniques that seek to make the contraries appear as ‘negations.’”	Here, Bloom explains how The Marriage of Heaven and Hell contrasts opposites like good and evil, but does not resolve them into a single truth. Instead, Blake mocks the tendency to simplify these contraries into mere negations.
3. “The unity of the Marriage is in itself dialectical, and cannot be grasped except by the mind in motion, moving between the Blakean contraries of discursive irony and mythical visualization.”	Bloom highlights the difficulty of interpreting Blake’s work, arguing that readers must engage with its dialectical complexity, constantly shifting between different perspectives. The “mind in motion” reflects the active nature of understanding.
4. “Apocalypse is dialectical in the Marriage, as much so as in Shelley’s Prometheus or the poems by Yeats written out of A Vision.”	This quotation links Blake’s apocalyptic vision with other Romantic and visionary writers, suggesting that Blake’s portrayal of apocalyptic transformation is deeply dialectical, like those in works by Shelley and Yeats.
5. “The great difficulty of dialectical apocalypse is that it has got to present itself as prophetic irony, in which the abyss between aspiration and institution is both anticipated and denounced.”	Bloom emphasizes that Blake’s apocalyptic vision includes irony, wherein societal aspirations and institutions are both critiqued and anticipated. This highlights the duality of Blake’s vision, which foresees change while mocking institutions.
6. “Blake seeks reality in appearances, though he rejects appearance as it is perceived by the lowest-common-denominator kind of observer.”	This quotation shows Blake’s rejection of simplistic views of reality. According to Bloom, Blake values appearances, but only when they are interpreted through imaginative and intellectual lenses rather than through surface-level perception.
7. “Blake does not build truth by dialectic, being neither a rational mystic like Plato nor a mystic rationalist like Hegel.”	Bloom distances Blake from traditional dialectical thinkers like Plato and Hegel, arguing that Blake’s approach is neither purely mystical nor purely rational. Blake’s vision resists easy categorization and creates a unique approach to dialectic.
8. “The ‘Memorable Fancies,’ brilliant exercises in satire and humanism, form the bulk of the Marriage, and tend to evade Blake’s own dialectic.”	Bloom points out that Blake’s satirical passages, known as the “Memorable Fancies,” often escape the dialectical structure of the work. These passages playfully critique established systems, while not being bound by Blake’s own philosophical approach.
9. “Blake is as earnest as Lawrence, and will not tolerate the vision of recurrence, as Nietzsche and Yeats do.”	Bloom contrasts Blake with Nietzsche and Yeats, arguing that while all three explore the cycle of contraries, Blake rejects the idea of eternal recurrence. Blake sees human progression as capable of transcending cyclical limitations.
10. “Religion seeks to end the warfare of contraries because it claims to know a reality beyond existence; Blake wants the warfare to continue because he seeks a reality within existence.”	This quotation contrasts Blake’s view with religious orthodoxy. Bloom explains that while religion seeks to resolve or end the tension between opposites, Blake embraces the ongoing struggle of contraries as essential to human existence and experience.

“Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” By Edna St. Vincent Millay: A Critical Analysis

“Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” by Edna St. Vincent Millay first appeared in 1923 in her collection The Harp-Weaver and Other Poems.

Introduction: “Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” By Edna St. Vincent Millay

“Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” by Edna St. Vincent Millay first appeared in 1923 in her collection The Harp-Weaver and Other Poems. The poem is characteristic of Millay’s intricate balance of emotional intensity and restraint, typical of her lyrical style. In it, she grapples with the paradoxical nature of love and human attachment. The speaker reflects on their deep affection for another, while acknowledging the transient and fallible aspects of that love. Millay’s use of clear, poignant language, combined with her introspective tone, captures the tension between desire and limitation, portraying love as both profound and bounded by life’s fragility. The main idea centers on the realization that while love is cherished, it is not all-encompassing, leaving room for other priorities, including self-preservation and the passage of time.

Text: “Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” By Edna St. Vincent Millay

Loving you less than life, a little less

Than bitter-sweet upon a broken wall

Or brush-wood smoke in autumn, I confess

I cannot swear I love you not at all.

For there is that about you in this light—

A yellow darkness, sinister of rain—

Which sturdily recalls my stubborn sight

To dwell on you, and dwell on you again.

And I am made aware of many a week

I shall consume, remembering in what way

Your brown hair grows about your brow and cheek

And what divine absurdities you say:

Till all the world, and I, and surely you,

Will know I love you, whether or not I do.

Annotations: “Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” By Edna St. Vincent Millay

Line	Annotation
Loving you less than life, a little less	The speaker expresses a complex love for the addressee, suggesting it’s intense but not all-consuming.
Than bitter-sweet upon a broken wall	This simile compares the speaker’s love to the bittersweet taste of something found on a broken wall, suggesting a bittersweet, nostalgic quality.
Or brush-wood smoke in autumn	Another simile, comparing the love to the comforting but fleeting warmth of brushwood smoke in autumn, emphasizing its temporary nature.
I confess I cannot swear I love you not at all.	The speaker admits that despite their reservations, they cannot deny having feelings for the addressee.
For there is that about you in this light—	The speaker begins to describe a specific quality about the addressee that draws them in.
A yellow darkness, sinister of rain—	This evocative phrase suggests a mood or atmosphere created by the addressee, perhaps one of melancholy or foreboding.
Which sturdily recalls my stubborn sight	The addressee’s presence or aura compels the speaker to focus on them, even against their will.
To dwell on you, and dwell on you again.	The speaker emphasizes their constant thoughts and preoccupation with the addressee.
And I am made aware of many a week	The speaker acknowledges the significant amount of time they’ll spend thinking about the addressee.
I shall consume, remembering in what way	The speaker anticipates dwelling on specific details about the addressee’s appearance and personality.
Your brown hair grows about your brow and cheek	The speaker focuses on a physical detail of the addressee’s appearance, suggesting a deep familiarity and appreciation.
And what divine absurdities you say:	The speaker highlights the addressee’s unique and charming qualities, using the term “divine absurdities” to suggest something both wonderful and unexpected.
Till all the world, and I, and surely you,	The speaker imagines a future where their feelings for the addressee become universally known.
Will know I love you, whether or not I do.	The speaker expresses a sense of inevitability, suggesting that their love will be revealed, regardless of their own conscious awareness.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” By Edna St. Vincent Millay

Device	Definition	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	The repetition of the same initial sound in words that are close together.	“She sells seashells by the seashore.”	The repetition of the “s” sound creates a musical and memorable effect.
Allusion	A reference to a famous person, place, thing, or event.	“He’s as strong as Hercules.”	This allusion references the Greek mythological hero known for his immense strength.
Anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.	“I have a dream… I have a dream… I have a dream…”	This anaphora, from Martin Luther King Jr.’s famous speech, emphasizes the speaker’s key point.
Antithesis	The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas or images.	“To err is human; to forgive divine.”	This antithesis contrasts the common human flaw of making mistakes with the divine quality of forgiveness.
Assonance	The repetition of vowel sounds within words that are close together.	“The woods are full of winnowing wings.”	The repetition of the “i” sound creates a sense of rhythm and harmony.
Hyperbole	An exaggeration used for effect.	“I’ve told you a million times!”	This hyperbole emphasizes the speaker’s frustration.
Imagery	The use of vivid language to create mental images.	“The sun was a ball of fire, setting the sky ablaze with orange and red.”	This imagery paints a picture of a dramatic sunset.
Irony	A figure of speech in which what is said is the opposite of what is meant.	“It’s raining cats and dogs.”	This is an example of verbal irony, as it’s not literally raining animals.
Metaphor	A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“He is a lion in battle.”	This metaphor compares the man’s bravery and fierceness to that of a lion.
Metonymy	The use of the name of something to represent something else closely associated with it.	“The White House announced a new policy.”	“The White House” is used to represent the U.S. government.
Onomatopoeia	The use of words that imitate sounds.	“The bee buzzed around the flower.”	The word “buzzed” imitates the sound a bee makes.
Oxymoron	A figure of speech combining contradictory terms.	“Bittersweet chocolate”	This oxymoron combines the ideas of bitterness and sweetness.
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but is actually true.	“The only way to find yourself is to lose yourself in the service of something greater than yourself.”	This paradox suggests that personal growth can come from selflessness.
Personification	Giving human qualities to non-human things.	“The wind whispered through the trees.”	This personification gives the wind the human quality of whispering.
Pun	A play on words based on the different meanings of a word or the similarity in sound between different words.	“I tried starting a hot air balloon business, but it never took off.”	The pun is based on the double meaning of “took off” (to become successful or to leave the ground).
Simile	A comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as.”	“She is as brave as a lion.”	This simile compares the woman’s bravery to that of a lion.
Symbolism	The use of objects, characters, or events to represent something else.	The dove often symbolizes peace.	A dove can be used to represent peace in literature or art.
Synecdoche	A figure of speech in which a part is used to represent the whole or vice versa.	“All hands on deck!”	“Hands” is used to represent the entire crew of a ship.
Understatement	A statement that presents something as less important or significant than it really is.	“It’s a bit chilly outside.”	This understatement is used to describe a very cold day.

Themes: “Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” By Edna St. Vincent Millay

Ambiguity of Love: One of the central themes in “Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” is the ambiguity and uncertainty of love. The speaker admits a conflicted emotional state by comparing their love to fleeting, transitory experiences, such as “bitter-sweet upon a broken wall” and “brush-wood smoke in autumn.” These comparisons reflect how love is neither all-encompassing nor entirely absent, illustrating the speaker’s internal struggle to define their feelings. The line “I cannot swear I love you not at all” captures this ambivalence, as the speaker admits that despite their hesitations, they are unable to completely deny their affection.
Transience and Fleeting Nature of Emotions: The poem emphasizes the transitory nature of emotions, comparing love to ephemeral experiences found in nature. Describing love as “bitter-sweet” and likening it to “brush-wood smoke in autumn” reinforces its impermanence. These metaphors suggest that while love may leave a lasting impression, it is ultimately fleeting and subject to change, much like the passing of seasons. This theme speaks to the speaker’s awareness of the impermanence of their emotions and suggests that love, while significant in the moment, may not endure over time.
Memory and the Persistence of Thought: Another key theme in the poem is the persistence of memory and thought. The speaker acknowledges that even if their love fades, the memory of their beloved will linger: “I shall consume, remembering in what way / Your brown hair grows about your brow and cheek.” This idea is reinforced by the speaker’s admission that they are repeatedly drawn to dwell on the beloved, even against their will. The poem suggests that while love may waver, memories have a way of sustaining emotional connections long after the passion has diminished, keeping the beloved present in the speaker’s mind.

The Power of Perception: The poem also explores the theme of perception, particularly how the speaker’s perception of the beloved shapes their feelings. The speaker mentions how a specific moment of seeing the beloved in “a yellow darkness, sinister of rain” reinforces their fixation on them, underscoring the power of visual imagery and mood to evoke feelings. Additionally, the speaker reflects on the “divine absurdities” the beloved says, suggesting that their words and actions, however trivial or whimsical, have a lasting impact. The closing line, “Will know I love you, whether or not I do,” hints at the idea that perception may blur the line between genuine emotion and mere appearance, leaving love as something subject to interpretation rather than an absolute truth.

Literary Theories and “Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” By Edna St. Vincent Millay

Literary Theory	Application to the Poem	References from the Poem
Psychoanalytic Criticism	This theory explores the speaker’s internal conflict and unconscious emotions. The ambivalence the speaker feels about their love reflects a deep-seated emotional struggle. The comparison of love to transient natural elements like “brush-wood smoke in autumn” hints at the fleeting nature of desire and human emotions, suggesting a conflict between the conscious and unconscious mind. The speaker’s inability to fully reject or embrace their love can be interpreted as a manifestation of repressed feelings.	The line “I cannot swear I love you not at all” shows the speaker’s internal conflict about their feelings, implying the presence of unresolved emotional tension.
Feminist Criticism	Feminist criticism can be applied by examining how Millay, a prominent female poet, challenges traditional notions of romantic love. The speaker’s refusal to idealize love, acknowledging its imperfections and limitations, contrasts with conventional depictions of love as all-consuming. Millay subverts the stereotype of women being overly sentimental or wholly devoted to their lovers, presenting a nuanced, critical reflection on love that reflects independence and personal agency.	The lines “I shall consume, remembering in what way / Your brown hair grows about your brow and cheek” demonstrate how the speaker remains in control of their emotions.
Reader-Response Criticism	This theory focuses on how individual readers interpret the poem’s ambiguity regarding love. Different readers may interpret the speaker’s feelings either as conflicted love or as a detachment from an overly romanticized emotion. The poem’s vagueness allows the reader to project their own experiences of love and emotional ambivalence onto the text, making the poem highly personal and subjective.	The closing line, “Will know I love you, whether or not I do,” allows readers to interpret the speaker’s true feelings, fostering various interpretations based on personal context.

Critical Questions about “Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” By Edna St. Vincent Millay

· How does the speaker’s attitude toward love evolve throughout the poem?

The speaker initially presents a complex and ambivalent attitude toward love, expressing that it is less than life but still significant. However, as the poem progresses, the speaker’s feelings become more intense and consuming. The lines “For there is that about you in this light— / A yellow darkness, sinister of rain—” suggest a growing obsession and fascination with the addressee. The final lines, “Till all the world, and I, and surely you, / Will know I love you, whether or not I do,” convey a sense of inevitability and a deepening of the speaker’s love.

· What is the significance of the natural imagery used in the poem?

The natural imagery, such as “bitter-sweet upon a broken wall” and “brush-wood smoke in autumn,” serves to create a mood of nostalgia and transience. These images suggest that the speaker’s love, like the natural world, is subject to change and decay. Additionally, the natural imagery helps to establish a connection between the speaker’s emotions and the larger cycles of nature.

· How does the speaker’s use of paradoxes and contradictions contribute to the poem’s overall meaning?

The speaker’s use of paradoxes, such as “Loving you less than life, a little less,” and contradictions, such as “I confess I cannot swear I love you not at all,” creates a sense of ambiguity and complexity. These devices highlight the speaker’s internal conflict and the difficulty of expressing their true feelings. By juxtaposing contradictory ideas, the speaker conveys the nuanced nature of their love.

· What is the ultimate message or theme of the poem?

The poem’s ultimate message seems to be that love is a complex and powerful force that can be both exhilarating and overwhelming. The speaker’s struggle to define and express their feelings highlights the enigmatic nature of love. Ultimately, the poem suggests that love can transcend words and understanding, and that its true power lies in its ability to shape our lives and experiences.

Literary Works Similar to “Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” By Edna St. Vincent Millay

“Sonnet 18” by William Shakespeare: Both poems explore the complexities of love and the passage of time.
“I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud” by William Wordsworth: Both poems use nature imagery to convey emotional states and experiences.
“To an Athlete Dying Young” by A.E. Housman: Both poems explore themes of mortality and the fleeting nature of life.

“When We Two Parted” by George Gordon Byron: Both poems express the pain of separation and the enduring nature of love.
“Dover Beach” by Matthew Arnold: Both poems evoke a sense of melancholy and disillusionment, exploring the darker aspects of human experience.

Representative Quotations of “Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” By Edna St. Vincent Millay

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Loving you less than life, a little less”	The speaker opens with a paradox, stating that their love is less than life but still substantial.	Psychoanalytic Criticism: Reflects the speaker’s internal conflict about the depth of their love, hinting at suppressed emotions or uncertainty.
“Than bitter-sweet upon a broken wall”	The speaker compares love to something fleeting and bittersweet, suggesting the transience and imperfection of love.	Reader-Response Criticism: Readers can interpret this metaphor differently, associating it with their own experiences of love as fleeting or bittersweet.
“Or brush-wood smoke in autumn”	Another comparison of love to something ephemeral, reinforcing the idea of impermanence.	Psychoanalytic Criticism: The use of transient imagery implies unconscious fears or doubts about the lasting nature of emotions.
“I cannot swear I love you not at all”	The speaker acknowledges the complexity of their feelings, admitting that while love is uncertain, it cannot be entirely denied.	Feminist Criticism: Challenges the idealized notion of love by presenting a speaker who resists fully committing to traditional romantic sentiments.
“There is that about you in this light”	The speaker reflects on the beloved’s physical presence, which evokes feelings despite their emotional uncertainty.	Reader-Response Criticism: The description of the beloved in a specific light can be interpreted in different ways, depending on the reader’s perspective on love and beauty.
“A yellow darkness, sinister of rain”	The imagery here adds a darker, more complex tone to the speaker’s feelings, suggesting that love is not purely joyful or idealized.	Psychoanalytic Criticism: The “yellow darkness” can be seen as a projection of the speaker’s ambivalence, blending attraction with a sense of foreboding.
“I shall consume, remembering in what way”	The speaker anticipates spending time remembering the beloved, even if the love is not entirely fulfilling.	Feminist Criticism: Shows the speaker’s autonomy in controlling how they reflect on love, rather than being entirely consumed by it.
“Your brown hair grows about your brow and cheek”	A detailed observation of the beloved’s appearance, symbolizing the persistence of memory.	Reader-Response Criticism: Different readers may interpret this line as representing fondness or obsession, depending on their own experiences with memory and love.
“What divine absurdities you say”	The speaker notes the beloved’s charming but trivial remarks, indicating a playful and endearing aspect of the relationship.	Feminist Criticism: Highlights the speaker’s ability to recognize the imperfections in the beloved, rejecting the notion of idealized, perfect love.
“Will know I love you, whether or not I do”	The poem closes with a statement of inevitability, suggesting that love, even when ambiguous, becomes a shared perception.	Reader-Response Criticism: The final line invites readers to interpret the nature of love in the poem, leaving room for personal interpretation of whether love is real or illusory.

Suggested Readings: “Loving You Less Than Life, a Little Less” By Edna St. Vincent Millay

St. Vincent Millay, Edna, and John Tomarchio. “Edna St. Vincent Millay.” A Sourcebook for English Lyric Poetry, Catholic University of America Press, 2023, pp. 89–95. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.14203785.24. Accessed 7 Oct. 2024.
SAUNDERS, JUDITH P. “Female Sexual Strategies in the Poetry of Edna St. Vincent Millay.” American Classics: Evolutionary Perspectives, Academic Studies Press, 2018, pp. 175–203. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv4v3226.14. Accessed 7 Oct. 2024.
Elissa Zellinger. “Edna St. Vincent Millay and the Poetess Tradition.” Legacy, vol. 29, no. 2, 2012, pp. 240–62. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.5250/legacy.29.2.0240. Accessed 7 Oct. 2024.

McCLATCHY, J. D. “Feeding on Havoc: The Poetics of Edna St. Vincent Millay.” The American Scholar, vol. 72, no. 2, 2003, pp. 45–52. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41221118. Accessed 7 Oct. 2024.

“Fletcher McGee” by Edgar Lee Masters: A Critical Analysis

“Fletcher McGee” by Edgar Lee Masters first appeared in 1915 in the poetry collection Spoon River Anthology.

Introduction: “Fletcher McGee” by Edgar Lee Masters

“Fletcher McGee” by Edgar Lee Masters, first appeared in 1915 in the poetry collection Spoon River Anthology, is characterized by its sardonic tone and ironic perspective, reflecting the disillusionment and cynicism that permeated American society in the early 20th century. The main idea of the poem centers around the tragic irony of a man who, despite his success as a lawyer, finds himself haunted by a sense of emptiness and unfulfillment.

Text: “Fletcher McGee” by Edgar Lee Masters

She took my strength by minutes,

She took my life by hours,

She drained me like a fevered moon

That saps the spinning world.

The days went by like shadows,

The minutes wheeled like stars.

She took the pity from my heart,

And made it into smiles.

She was a hunk of sculptor’s clay,

My secret thoughts were fingers:

They flew behind her pensive brow

And lined it deep with pain.

They set the lips, and sagged the cheeks,

And drooped the eyes with sorrow.

My soul had entered in the clay,

Fighting like seven devils.

It was not mine, it was not hers;

She held it, but its struggles

Modeled a face she hated,

And a face I feared to see.

I beat the windows, shook the bolts.

I hid me in a corner–

And then she died and haunted me,

And hunted me for life.

Annotations: “Fletcher McGee” by Edgar Lee Masters

Line	Annotation
She took my strength by minutes,	The speaker’s lover, a woman, slowly drains his vitality.
She took my life by hours,	The lover’s draining effect is accelerating, leading to the speaker’s decline.
She drained me like a fevered moon	The lover is compared to a celestial body, the moon, that saps energy.
That saps the spinning world.	The moon’s influence is universal, affecting the entire world.
The days went by like shadows,	Time passes quickly and meaninglessly for the speaker.
The minutes wheeled like stars.	The speaker feels overwhelmed and dizzy, as if time is spinning out of control.
She took the pity from my heart,	The lover’s actions have hardened the speaker’s heart.
And made it into smiles.	The speaker forces himself to smile, despite his inner pain.
She was a hunk of sculptor’s clay,	The speaker views his lover as a malleable material, capable of being shaped.
My secret thoughts were fingers:	The speaker’s thoughts are compared to fingers, shaping the lover’s character.
They flew behind her pensive brow	The speaker’s thoughts delve into the lover’s mind.
And lined it deep with pain.	The speaker’s thoughts cause the lover pain.
They set the lips, and sagged the cheeks,	The speaker’s thoughts physically alter the lover’s appearance.
And drooped the eyes with sorrow.	The speaker’s thoughts instill sadness in the lover.
My soul had entered in the clay,	The speaker’s identity becomes intertwined with the lover.
Fighting like seven devils.	The speaker’s soul struggles to maintain its individuality within the lover.
It was not mine, it was not hers;	The speaker’s identity is lost, neither fully his nor the lover’s.
She held it, but its struggles	The lover controls the speaker’s identity, but the speaker resists.
Modeled a face she hated,	The speaker’s struggles shape the lover into a person she dislikes.
And a face I feared to see.	The speaker is afraid of the person he has become.
I beat the windows, shook the bolts.	The speaker expresses his frustration and anger.
I hid me in a corner–	The speaker retreats from the world, seeking solitude.
And then she died and haunted me,	The lover’s death does not provide relief, but instead haunts the speaker.
And hunted me for life.	The lover’s memory continues to torment the speaker.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Fletcher McGee” by Edgar Lee Masters

Literary Device	Definition	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.	“She took my strength by minutes”	The repetition of the “s” sound creates rhythm and emphasis, giving the poem a smooth, flowing effect.
Allusion	An indirect reference to something well-known.	“Fighting like seven devils”	Refers to the biblical or mythological idea of demons or devils, symbolizing the intense struggle the speaker feels inside, emphasizing the torment and chaos.
Anaphora	Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of clauses.	“She took my strength…She took my life…”	The repetition of “She took” at the beginning of lines emphasizes how the subject’s actions systematically drained the speaker’s life and energy.
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds within words.	“She drained me like a fevered moon”	The long “e” and “oo” sounds in “drained” and “fevered moon” contribute to the somber, almost lethargic tone of the speaker’s decline.
Consonance	Repetition of consonant sounds within words or phrases.	“And lined it deep with pain”	The repeated “d” and “p” sounds create a heavy, plodding rhythm, reflecting the weight of the speaker’s emotional burden.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond a line.	“They flew behind her pensive brow/And lined it deep…”	The sentence flows from one line to the next without a break, emphasizing the uncontrollable and continuous nature of the speaker’s thoughts and emotions.
Hyperbole	Exaggeration for emphasis or effect.	“She drained me like a fevered moon”	This is an exaggeration that conveys the speaker’s feeling of being completely exhausted and drained of energy, emphasizing the overwhelming impact the woman had on his life.
Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.	“The minutes wheeled like stars”	This creates a vivid mental image, comparing the passing minutes to distant, eternal stars, reflecting the speaker’s feelings of time slipping away in an uncontrollable, cosmic way.
Metaphor	A direct comparison between two unlike things.	“She was a hunk of sculptor’s clay”	The woman is compared to clay, implying that the speaker molded her and shaped her emotions and expressions, symbolizing control and influence over her.
Mood	The emotional atmosphere of a text.	The somber, haunting tone of the poem	The mood is melancholic and eerie, created through the description of the woman’s draining effect and the haunting, oppressive imagery of the speaker’s soul being trapped and manipulated.
Onomatopoeia	A word that imitates the natural sound of something.	“I beat the windows, shook the bolts”	The words “beat” and “shook” imitate the sounds of violent movement, enhancing the imagery of frustration and desperation as the speaker attempts to escape.
Oxymoron	A figure of speech where two contradictory terms appear together.	“Pensive brow”	The word “pensive” implies thoughtfulness, while the brow is described in such a way that it suggests sadness or pain, highlighting the inner conflict between thought and emotion.
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but may reveal a truth.	“It was not mine, it was not hers”	This phrase presents a paradox about the speaker’s soul, suggesting that although neither fully owned it, both had a claim on it, symbolizing the complex relationship between the speaker and the woman.
Personification	Giving human traits to non-human things.	“The minutes wheeled like stars”	Time is personified by giving it agency to “wheel” like stars, suggesting that it moves beyond the speaker’s control and adds a sense of cosmic inevitability to the passage of time.
Repetition	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis.	“She took…She took…”	The repetition of “She took” underscores how much the speaker feels he has lost, reinforcing the sense of depletion and despair.
Simile	A comparison using “like” or “as.”	“She drained me like a fevered moon”	The simile compares the woman’s effect on the speaker to the moon draining the energy of the spinning world, implying that she slowly but powerfully drained his vitality.
Symbolism	Using an object or action to represent something beyond itself.	“A hunk of sculptor’s clay”	The clay symbolizes the woman as something malleable and passive, shaped by the speaker’s thoughts, but it also represents the speaker’s attempt to control her emotions and identity.
Tone	The attitude or approach the author takes toward the subject.	Dark, brooding, and melancholic tone	The tone reflects the speaker’s deep regret, bitterness, and emotional pain caused by the relationship, emphasized by haunting imagery and heavy metaphors.
Visual Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to sight.	“They set the lips, and sagged the cheeks”	This vivid description of the woman’s facial expressions creates a powerful visual image that conveys her suffering and the speaker’s sense of responsibility for it.
Symbolic Metaphor	A metaphor that stands for something beyond its literal meaning.	“My soul had entered in the clay”	The metaphor of the speaker’s soul entering the clay symbolizes his deep emotional involvement in shaping the woman’s identity, suggesting a transfer of control and a blending of their identities.

Themes: “Fletcher McGee” by Edgar Lee Masters

· Manipulation and Control: A prominent theme in “Fletcher McGee” is the idea of manipulation and control within relationships. The speaker describes how he has influenced and shaped the woman, symbolized by the metaphor of sculptor’s clay: “She was a hunk of sculptor’s clay, / My secret thoughts were fingers.” Here, he envisions himself molding her emotions and expressions, as if she is passive material in his hands. His thoughts “flew behind her pensive brow” and “lined it deep with pain,” indicating how his internal struggles left a visible mark on her. This theme suggests that he exercised a psychological control over her, but the results were not what he intended, leaving both of them emotionally scarred.

· Destruction and Loss: The poem also reflects a theme of destruction and loss, both of identity and vitality. The speaker feels as though his life force has been drained by the woman, conveyed through metaphors of time and energy: “She took my strength by minutes, / She took my life by hours.” This slow erosion of his energy symbolizes the draining nature of their relationship, culminating in the metaphor of the “fevered moon / That saps the spinning world,” which suggests a parasitic force taking away his vitality. His soul is said to have “entered in the clay,” a powerful image of how his inner self was lost in his attempts to control and shape her.

· Emotional Conflict and Torment: Emotional conflict is central to the speaker’s experience, as he feels trapped between love, fear, and resentment. He describes his soul as “fighting like seven devils,” indicating an internal battle, a sense of being trapped within both his own emotions and the woman’s influence. His fear and pain manifest in the repeated idea that neither his soul nor her face belongs to them anymore: “It was not mine, it was not hers.” The relationship becomes a site of torment, with the speaker’s inner life consumed by this unresolved tension. Even after her death, the speaker is haunted and hunted by her, indicating a continuing emotional turmoil that extends beyond life itself.

· Death and Haunting: Death, both literal and metaphorical, plays a key role in the poem, especially in how it affects the speaker’s psyche. The woman’s death does not free him from her influence; instead, she haunts him: “And then she died and haunted me, / And hunted me for life.” This haunting is not just the presence of a ghost, but the lingering emotional and psychological impact she has on his life. Her death does not signify an end, but a continuation of the speaker’s torment, implying that emotional scars from their relationship are permanent. This theme suggests that death does not bring resolution, but instead deepens the speaker’s sense of loss and entrapment.

Literary Theories and “Fletcher McGee” by Edgar Lee Masters

Literary Theory	Application to “Fletcher McGee”	Reference
Psychoanalysis	The poem explores the speaker’s internal conflict and psychological turmoil, particularly his obsession with the lover and the destructive nature of their relationship.	“She took my strength by minutes, She took my life by hours,” “My soul had entered in the clay, Fighting like seven devils.”
Feminism	The poem could be interpreted as a critique of patriarchal societal norms, where women are often objectified and seen as property. The speaker’s possessive and controlling behavior towards the lover reflects these harmful attitudes.	“She was a hunk of sculptor’s clay,” “She held it, but its struggles Modeled a face she hated, And a face I feared to see.”
New Criticism	The poem’s focus on the speaker’s internal experience and the exploration of themes such as love, loss, and identity aligns with New Criticism’s emphasis on close textual analysis and the intrinsic value of the text.	“The days went by like shadows, The minutes wheeled like stars,” “I beat the windows, shook the bolts.”

Critical Questions about “Fletcher McGee” by Edgar Lee Masters

· What is the significance of the speaker’s obsession with the lover?

The speaker’s obsession with the lover is central to the poem, revealing a destructive cycle of codependency and control. His intense emotional attachment becomes a source of both pain and pleasure, ultimately leading to his downfall. The speaker’s obsession is evident in his constant thoughts about her, his fear of losing her, and his willingness to sacrifice his own identity for her.

· How does the speaker’s relationship with the lover contribute to his sense of self?

The speaker’s relationship with the lover is deeply intertwined with his sense of self. He becomes so consumed by her that his own identity becomes blurred, leading to a loss of autonomy and a feeling of emptiness. The lover’s influence is so pervasive that the speaker’s thoughts and actions are dictated by her, resulting in a distorted and unhealthy self-perception.

· What is the role of time in the poem?

Time plays a significant role in “Fletcher McGee,” serving as a metaphor for the speaker’s deteriorating condition. As the speaker’s relationship with the lover progresses, time seems to accelerate, reflecting his growing desperation and the rapid decline of his vitality. The passage of time also emphasizes the inevitability of loss and the fleeting nature of human existence.

· How does the poem’s setting contribute to its overall theme?

While the setting of “Fletcher McGee” is not explicitly stated, the poem’s atmosphere of isolation and despair suggests a bleak and unforgiving environment. The speaker’s internal world, characterized by obsession, fear, and loss, mirrors the external world’s harshness and indifference. This setting reinforces the poem’s overarching theme of the human condition, highlighting the struggles and limitations of individuals in a world that often feels overwhelming and indifferent.

Literary Works Similar to “Fletcher McGee” by Edgar Lee Masters

“Porphyria’s Lover” by Robert Browning
Both poems explore themes of control, possession, and the destructive consequences of obsessive love within a relationship.
“Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe
Similar to “Fletcher McGee,” this poem deals with loss, haunting, and the lingering presence of a deceased loved one, reflecting on love that endures beyond death.

“The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe
Like “Fletcher McGee,” this poem conveys a haunting sense of psychological torment and grief, with a focus on a speaker who cannot escape the shadow of a past relationship.
“My Last Duchess” by Robert Browning
Both poems feature a male speaker reflecting on a relationship marked by manipulation and control, where the woman’s life and identity are deeply affected by the man’s desires.
“The Second Coming” by W.B. Yeats
While more abstract, this poem shares with “Fletcher McGee” a sense of chaos, internal struggle, and the uncontrollable forces that shape human lives, reflecting themes of destruction and loss.

Representative Quotations of “Fletcher McGee” by Edgar Lee Masters

Quotation	Context	Perspective
“She took my strength by minutes, She took my life by hours,”	The speaker’s lover is draining his vitality at an alarming rate.	Despair and helplessness
“She drained me like a fevered moon That saps the spinning world.”	The lover’s influence is compared to a celestial body, suggesting a universal power.	Fatalistic and overwhelming
“The days went by like shadows, The minutes wheeled like stars.”	Time passes quickly and meaninglessly for the speaker.	Loss of control and disorientation
“She took the pity from my heart, And made it into smiles.”	The speaker hides his pain behind a forced facade.	Emotional repression and self-deception
“She was a hunk of sculptor’s clay, My secret thoughts were fingers:”	The speaker views the lover as a malleable object, subject to his control.	Possessive and controlling
“They set the lips, and sagged the cheeks, And drooped the eyes with sorrow.”	The speaker’s thoughts physically alter the lover’s appearance.	Manipulative and destructive
“My soul had entered in the clay, Fighting like seven devils.”	The speaker’s identity becomes intertwined with the lover, leading to a struggle for individuality.	Conflict and internal struggle
“It was not mine, it was not hers; She held it, but its struggles Modeled a face she hated, And a face I feared to see.”	The speaker’s identity is lost, neither fully his nor the lover’s.	Loss of self and fear
“I beat the windows, shook the bolts. I hid me in a corner–“	The speaker expresses his frustration and anger, seeking refuge from the pain.	Desperation and isolation
“And then she died and haunted me, And hunted me for life.”	The lover’s death does not provide relief but continues to torment the speaker.	Obsession and haunting

“Harlem Shadows” by Claude McKay: A Critical Analysis

“Harlem Shadows” by Claude McKay, first appeared in 1922 in the poetry collection “Songs of Jamaica” is known for its vivid imagery and powerful language.

Introduction: “Harlem Shadows” by Claude McKay

“Harlem Shadows” by Claude McKay, first appeared in 1922 in the poetry collection “Songs of Jamaica” is known for its vivid imagery and powerful language. This poem is a poignant portrayal of the marginalized African American community in Harlem. The central theme explores the themes of poverty, alienation, and despair experienced by the residents of the neighborhood. McKay’s use of stark contrasts between light and shadow, as well as his depiction of the “longing faces of the women” and the “men with hats pulled down,” effectively conveys the sense of hopelessness and disillusionment that pervades the community.

Text: “Harlem Shadows” by Claude McKay

I hear the halting footsteps of a lass

In Negro Harlem when the night lets fall

Its veil. I see the shapes of girls who pass

To bend and barter at desire’s call.

Ah, little dark girls who in slippered feet

Go prowling through the night from street to street!

Through the long night until the silver break

Of day the little gray feet know no rest;

Through the lone night until the last snow-flake

Has dropped from heaven upon the earth’s white breast,

The dusky, half-clad girls of tired feet

Are trudging, thinly shod, from street to street.

Ah, stern harsh world, that in the wretched way

Of poverty, dishonor and disgrace,

Has pushed the timid little feet of clay,

The sacred brown feet of my fallen race!

Ah, heart of me, the weary, weary feet

In Harlem wandering from street to street.

Annotations: “Harlem Shadows” by Claude McKay

Line	Annotation
I hear the halting footsteps of a lass	Introduces the subject: a young woman in Harlem, her “halting footsteps” suggest exhaustion or hesitation.
In Negro Harlem when the night lets fall	Establishes the setting: Harlem, a predominantly Black neighborhood, during nighttime.
Its veil. I see the shapes of girls who pass	The night is personified as a “veil,” cloaking the figures of the girls passing through the streets.
To bend and barter at desire’s call.	Suggests the girls may be engaging in survival through prostitution, “bartering” themselves for survival.
Ah, little dark girls who in slippered feet	“Little dark girls” emphasizes innocence, vulnerability; “slippered feet” suggests fragility and poverty.
Go prowling through the night from street to street!	“Prowling” suggests a sense of danger and desperation as they move through Harlem.
Through the long night until the silver break	Describes the long, tiring journey of the girls, waiting until dawn, the “silver break” of day.
Of day the little gray feet know no rest;	“Little gray feet” signifies exhaustion and weariness, emphasizing their ceaseless movement.
Through the lone night until the last snow-flake	Imagery of “lone night” and “last snow-flake” conveys isolation and coldness, both literal and emotional.
Has dropped from heaven upon the earth’s white breast,	Contrast between “heaven” and the harsh reality of earth; the whiteness of snow vs. the girls’ darker skin.
The dusky, half-clad girls of tired feet	“Dusky” refers to their skin color; “half-clad” emphasizes poverty and vulnerability.
Are trudging, thinly shod, from street to street.	“Trudging” reinforces their weariness, and “thinly shod” suggests inadequate clothing or shoes.
Ah, stern harsh world, that in the wretched way	The speaker laments the cruel, unforgiving world that has led to their suffering.
Of poverty, dishonor and disgrace,	Identifies the oppressive forces—poverty and social stigma—that entrap these girls.
Has pushed the timid little feet of clay,	“Feet of clay” symbolizes human vulnerability and fragility.
The sacred brown feet of my fallen race!	The speaker elevates the girls, calling their feet “sacred,” representing the struggles of the Black race.
Ah, heart of me, the weary, weary feet	Personalizes the pain, expressing deep empathy for their weariness.
In Harlem wandering from street to street.	Returns to the image of wandering, reinforcing the cyclical, never-ending struggle.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Harlem Shadows” by Claude McKay

Device	Definition	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	The repetition of initial consonant sounds in closely positioned words.	Ah, heart of me, the weary, weary feet	Repetition of the “w” sound emphasizes the slow, tired movement of the girl.
Allusion	An indirect reference to a person, event, or literary work.	“feet of clay”	References the biblical idea of human fragility, underscoring the vulnerability of the girls.
Anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.	“Through the long night…Through the lone night”	Repetition of “Through the” emphasizes the enduring nature of the girls’ suffering.
Assonance	The repetition of vowel sounds within closely placed words.	“little gray feet know no rest”	The “e” sound is repeated, creating a mournful, drawn-out tone that reflects the girls’ exhaustion.
Connotation	The associated or secondary meaning of a word beyond its literal meaning.	“dusky, half-clad girls”	“Dusky” connotes both physical darkness and the societal marginalization of the girls due to race and poverty.
Consonance	The repetition of consonant sounds within words, often at the end of words.	“wandering from street to street”	Repetition of the “t” sound reflects the rhythmic movement of the girls through the streets.
Diction	The choice of words and style of expression in a poem or text.	“Ah, stern harsh world”	The use of “stern” and “harsh” sets a serious, judgmental tone toward the world’s treatment of the girls.
End Rhyme	The repetition of similar sounds at the ends of lines in poetry.	“feet / street”	The end rhyme gives a musical quality to the poem, reinforcing the cyclical nature of the girls’ movements.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence or phrase from one line of poetry to the next.	“I hear the halting footsteps of a lass / In Negro Harlem”	The sentence runs across multiple lines, which mimics the ongoing, relentless movement of the girls.
Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.	“half-clad girls of tired feet”	Creates a vivid image of exhausted, poorly clothed girls, appealing to the reader’s visual and emotional senses.
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality.	“sacred brown feet”	It is ironic that these girls, who are sacred to the speaker, are dishonored and pushed into poverty by society.
Metaphor	A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“The night lets fall / Its veil”	The night is compared to a veil, symbolizing secrecy and obscurity, hiding the girls’ suffering.
Mood	The atmosphere or emotional setting created by a text.	The poem’s mood is somber and reflective.	The tone of weariness and sadness pervades the entire poem, evoking empathy for the girls.
Personification	Attributing human characteristics to non-human things.	“night lets fall / Its veil”	The night is personified as having a veil, giving it a mysterious, almost sinister quality.
Repetition	The repeating of a word or phrase to emphasize an idea.	“street to street”	Repeats “street to street” to emphasize the continuous, repetitive nature of the girls’ journey through Harlem.
Rhetorical Question	A question asked for effect rather than an answer.	None explicitly in this poem, but the lamenting tone feels like a plea.	While not directly present, the tone suggests a questioning of society’s treatment of the girls.
Simile	A comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as.”	“feet of clay”	While more metaphorical, this could be interpreted as a simile comparing the fragility of the girls to clay.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or qualities.	“feet of clay”	“Feet” symbolize both the literal movement of the girls and their fragile, vulnerable existence.
Tone	The poet’s attitude toward the subject of the poem.	The tone is sympathetic and critical.	McKay’s tone shows deep empathy for the girls and anger toward the world that forces them into such a harsh existence.
Visual Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to the sense of sight.	“The little gray feet know no rest”	Evokes a powerful visual of tired, worn feet, helping the reader to imagine the physical toll the streets take on the girls.

Themes: “Harlem Shadows” by Claude McKay

Marginalization and Poverty: McKay’s poem vividly depicts the plight of African American women in Harlem, who are forced into a life of poverty and marginalization. The lines “In Negro Harlem when the night lets fall its veil. I see the shapes of girls who pass to bend and barter at desire’s call” highlight the desperation and exploitation faced by these women. The constant “trudging” and “wandering” from street to street symbolize their endless search for sustenance and their inability to escape their circumstances.
Sexual Exploitation: The poem also addresses the issue of sexual exploitation faced by the women of Harlem. The lines “To bend and barter at desire’s call” suggest that these women are forced to engage in prostitution to survive. This theme is further reinforced by the imagery of the “little gray feet” that “know no rest” and the “dusky, half-clad girls of tired feet.” McKay’s use of these images emphasizes the physical and emotional toll that this exploitation takes on these women.

Racial Inequality: “Harlem Shadows” is a powerful indictment of racial inequality. The lines “Ah, stern harsh world, that in the wretched way of poverty, dishonor and disgrace, has pushed the timid little feet of clay, the sacred brown feet of my fallen race!” express McKay’s anger and frustration at the systemic forces that have marginalized and oppressed African Americans. The poem suggests that these women’s suffering is a direct result of their race and the discriminatory practices that they face.
Despair and Hopelessness: The overall tone of the poem is one of despair and hopelessness. The repetition of the phrase “from street to street” creates a sense of endlessness and futility. The women’s “tired feet” and the “long night” symbolize the exhaustion and despair that they experience. McKay’s use of dark imagery and bleak language further reinforces the sense of hopelessness that pervades the poem.

Literary Theories and “Harlem Shadows” by Claude McKay

Literary Theory	Key Concepts	Application to “Harlem Shadows”	References
Feminist Criticism	Examines how gender is represented in literature, often focusing on the experiences of women.	This theory can be applied to “Harlem Shadows” to analyze the portrayal of women as marginalized and exploited due to their gender. The poem highlights the challenges faced by African American women, such as poverty, sexual exploitation, and racial discrimination.	“I see the shapes of girls who pass to bend and barter at desire’s call”
Marxist Criticism	Examines how economic and class structures influence literature.	This theory can be used to analyze “Harlem Shadows” as a critique of capitalist society. The poem portrays the poverty and hardship experienced by the working class, particularly African Americans, who are often exploited for their labor.	“Ah, stern harsh world, that in the wretched way of poverty, dishonor and disgrace, has pushed the timid little feet of clay”
New Historicism	Examines literature within its historical and cultural context.	This theory can be applied to “Harlem Shadows” to understand the poem’s significance within the Harlem Renaissance. The poem reflects the social and political conditions of the time, including the struggles for racial equality and the experiences of African Americans in urban environments.	“In Negro Harlem when the night lets fall its veil”

Critical Questions about “Harlem Shadows” by Claude McKay

How does McKay portray the intersection of race, gender, and poverty in “Harlem Shadows”?

McKay powerfully connects the themes of race, gender, and poverty throughout the poem, particularly through his focus on the “little dark girls” of Harlem. The repeated references to their “tired feet” and the description of them as “half-clad” emphasize the physical and emotional toll of their lives. These young women, likely engaging in prostitution out of necessity, are depicted as vulnerable and worn down by a harsh, “stern harsh world” that offers them little in the way of protection or opportunity. The imagery of “the sacred brown feet of my fallen race” ties the suffering of these women to the broader struggles of the Black community, suggesting that their exploitation is a reflection of systemic racial and gender-based oppression.
What role does imagery play in conveying the theme of exhaustion and suffering in the poem?
Imagery is central to McKay’s portrayal of exhaustion and suffering in “Harlem Shadows.” The repetition of “little gray feet” and “tired feet” throughout the poem creates a vivid image of physical weariness, emphasizing the ceaseless nature of the girls’ nighttime wandering. The contrast between the cold, white snowflakes falling on “the earth’s white breast” and the “dusky, half-clad girls” trudging through the streets further highlights their vulnerability and exhaustion. The images of night and coldness not only paint a bleak picture of the girls’ external environment but also reflect their inner desolation and hopelessness.

In what ways does McKay use the night as a metaphor in “Harlem Shadows”?
McKay uses the night as a powerful metaphor for both concealment and danger in “Harlem Shadows.” The night “lets fall its veil,” cloaking the figures of the girls as they “go prowling through the night from street to street.” This veil of darkness symbolizes how society overlooks or ignores the suffering of these young women, their struggles hidden away under the cover of night. At the same time, the night is a space of peril, where they must navigate poverty and exploitation. The relentless progression of the “long night” suggests the inescapability of their hardship, as they continue to walk until “the silver break of day” offers only temporary relief.
How does McKay use repetition to emphasize the themes of the poem?

Repetition is a key device McKay employs to reinforce the poem’s themes of struggle and cyclical suffering. The phrase “from street to street” is repeated in several stanzas, underscoring the monotonous and unending nature of the girls’ nightly journeys. The recurrence of words like “feet” and “night” creates a rhythm that mirrors the girls’ continuous, wearisome movement. The poem’s repetition of “weary” and “tired” further drives home the point that these girls are trapped in a cycle of physical and emotional fatigue. This structural repetition reflects the broader societal cycles of poverty and exploitation that the girls are forced to endure, with little hope of escape.

Literary Works Similar to “Harlem Shadows” by Claude McKay

“The Weary Blues” by Langston Hughes
This poem shares Harlem Shadows’ focus on the struggles of African Americans in Harlem, particularly through its depiction of weariness and emotional exhaustion.
“Mother to Son” by Langston Hughes
Like Harlem Shadows, this poem emphasizes the themes of perseverance and hardship, with the mother offering a metaphorical journey through life that echoes the difficult lives of the girls in McKay’s poem.

“The Souls of Black Folk” by W.E.B. Du Bois (Poetic passages within)
Though part of an essay collection, the poetic prose here reflects similar themes of racial struggle and resilience seen in Harlem Shadows, addressing the broader social issues facing African Americans.
“A Black Man Talks of Reaping” by Arna Bontemps
This poem, like McKay’s, explores the themes of racial injustice, labor, and the unequal rewards that Black people face for their hard work, symbolizing unrecognized contributions and struggles.
“The Lynching” by Claude McKay
Another of McKay’s works, “The Lynching”, similarly addresses the brutal realities faced by African Americans, focusing on violence, racial oppression, and the collective suffering of the Black community.

Representative Quotations of “Harlem Shadows” by Claude McKay

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“I hear the halting footsteps of a lass”	Opening line, introducing the speaker’s empathetic observation of the young women.	Empathy and Social Realism: McKay immediately positions the speaker as a witness to the hardships of Black women.
“In Negro Harlem when the night lets fall / Its veil.”	Describes the setting of Harlem at night, shrouded in darkness.	Harlem Renaissance and Racial Identity: Highlights Harlem as a significant cultural and racial space for Black people.
“Ah, little dark girls who in slippered feet”	Addresses the young girls directly, emphasizing their innocence and vulnerability.	Intersectionality (Race and Gender): McKay underscores both race and gender oppression experienced by these women.
“Go prowling through the night from street to street!”	Describes the restless, cyclical movement of the girls, possibly engaging in prostitution to survive.	Marxist Criticism: Reflects the economic exploitation and commodification of marginalized women in a capitalist society.
“The little gray feet know no rest”	Continues the description of the girls’ weary, constant movement, emphasizing their exhaustion.	Existentialism: Suggests a sense of endless struggle and fatigue in the human condition, particularly for the oppressed.
“Through the lone night until the last snow-flake”	Describes the unrelenting hardship the girls endure through the night, into the coldness of winter.	Naturalism: Highlights the impact of environment and circumstance on individuals, with nature as a harsh force.
“The sacred brown feet of my fallen race!”	The speaker elevates the girls’ plight, tying their struggle to that of the entire Black race.	Black Nationalism: Asserts the dignity and sacredness of Black people, despite societal degradation.
“Ah, stern harsh world, that in the wretched way”	Lamenting society’s role in pushing the young women into lives of hardship and dishonor.	Critical Race Theory: Critiques the systemic structures that force marginalized Black women into poverty and disgrace.
“Of poverty, dishonor, and disgrace”	Reflects the degrading social circumstances that the young women face due to poverty and racism.	Feminist Criticism: Addresses the specific intersection of class, race, and gender that compounds the girls’ suffering.
“In Harlem wandering from street to street.”	The poem ends where it begins, with the image of the girls wandering through Harlem, symbolizing endless toil.	Cyclical Time (Postcolonial Theory): Reflects a continuous cycle of oppression for colonized and marginalized people.

“Delilah” by Carol Ann Duffy: A Critical Analysis

“Delilah” by Carol Ann Duffy, first appeared in her 1996 collection, Rapture, is popular for its exploration of biblical themes.

Introduction: “Delilah” by Carol Ann Duffy

“Delilah” by Carol Ann Duffy, first appeared in her 1996 collection, Rapture, is popular for its exploration of biblical themes. It explores the complex relationship between Samson and Delilah. Duffy presents Delilah as a figure misunderstood and exploited, challenging traditional portrayals of her as a femme fatale. The poem highlights the power dynamics at play, suggesting that Delilah’s actions may have been driven by desperation or a desire for agency, rather than mere malice.

Text: “Delilah” by Carol Ann Duffy

Teach me, he said—

we were lying in bed—

how to care.

I nibbled the purse of his ear.

What do you mean?

Tell me more.

He sat up and reached for his beer

I can rip out the roar

from the throat of a tiger,

or gargle with fire

or sleep one whole night in the Minotaur’s lair,

or flay the bellowing fur

from a bear,

all for a dare.

There’s nothing I fear.

Put your hand here—

he guided my fingers over the scar

over his heart,

a four-medal wound from the war—

but I cannot be gentle, or loving, or tender.

I have to be strong.

What is the cure?

He f**ked me again

until he was sore,

then we both took a shower.

Then he lay with his head on my lap

for a darkening hour;

his voice, for a change, a soft burr

I could just about hear.

And, yes, I was sure

that he wanted to change,

my warrior.

I was there.

So when I felt him soften and sleep,

when he started, as usual, to snore,

I let him slip and slide and sprawl, handsome and huge,

on the floor.

And before I fetched and sharpened my scissors—

snipping first at the black and biblical air—

I fastened the chain to the door.

That’s the how and the why and the where.

Then with deliberate, passionate hands

I cut every lock of his hair.

Annotations: “Delilah” by Carol Ann Duffy

Line	Text	Annotation
1	Teach me, he said—	Samson requests to be taught by Delilah.
2	we were lying in bed—	Setting of their intimate moment.
3	how to care.	Samson desires tenderness and affection.
4	I nibbled the purse of his ear.	A playful, intimate gesture.
5	What do you mean?	Delilah seeks clarification.
6	Tell me more.	Delilah expresses interest in learning.
7	He sat up and reached for his beer	Samson’s response, perhaps seeking comfort or distraction.
8	I can rip out the roar	Delilah’s declaration of her strength and abilities.
9	from the throat of a tiger,	A hyperbolic example of her power.
10	or gargle with fire	Another exaggerated claim.
11	or sleep one whole night in the Minotaur’s	Reference to the mythical creature, symbolizing danger.
12	lair,	Continuation of the reference to the Minotaur.
13	or flay the bellowing fur	Another example of her physical prowess.
14	from a bear,	Continuation of the example.
15	all for a dare.	Delilah’s willingness to perform dangerous acts.
16	There’s nothing I fear.	A statement of her boldness and confidence.
17	Put your hand here—	Delilah gestures to a physical mark.
18	he guided my fingers over the scar	Samson reveals a personal wound.
19	over his heart,	The location of the scar, suggesting emotional depth.
20	a four-medal wound from the war—	A symbol of Samson’s past and experiences.
21	but I cannot be gentle, or loving, or tender.	Samson’s acknowledgment of his own limitations.
22	I have to be strong.	Samson’s belief in the necessity of strength.
23	What is the cure?	Samson seeks a solution to his emotional dilemma.
24	He f**ked me again	A physical act, perhaps a temporary escape or release.
25	until he was sore,	A sign of intensity or exhaustion.
26	then we both took a shower.	A cleansing act, possibly symbolizing renewal or purification.
27	Then he lay with his head on my lap	A gesture of vulnerability and trust.
28	for a darkening hour;	A peaceful moment of connection.
29	his voice, for a change, a soft burr	A shift in Samson’s demeanor.
30	I could just about hear.	A subtle indication of Delilah’s attentiveness.
31	And, yes, I was sure	Delilah’s belief in Samson’s desire for change.
32	that he wanted to change,	A hope for a positive transformation.
33	my warrior.	A term of endearment or respect.
34	I was there.	Delilah’s assertion of her presence and support.
35	So when I felt him soften and sleep,	A moment of vulnerability.
36	when he started, as usual, to snore,	A mundane, everyday occurrence.
37	I let him slip and slide and sprawl, handsome	A description of Samson’s relaxed state.
38	and huge,	Emphasizing Samson’s physical stature.
39	on the floor.	A symbol of his vulnerability or helplessness.
40	And before I fetched and sharpened my scissors—	A foreshadowing of Delilah’s actions.
41	snipping first at the black and biblical air—	A symbolic gesture, perhaps representing a break from tradition or religious norms.
42	I fastened the chain to the door.	A practical action, securing the room.
43	That’s the how and the why and the where.	A summary of the events.
44	Then with deliberate, passionate hands	A description of Delilah’s actions.
45	I cut every lock of his hair.	The climax of the poem, symbolizing the loss of Samson’s strength and power.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Delilah” by Carol Ann Duffy

Literary/Poetic Device	Definition	Example from “Delilah”	Explanation
Alliteration	Repetition of the same initial consonant sounds in nearby words.	“snipping first at the black and biblical air”	The repetition of the “b” sound in “black” and “biblical” emphasizes the action and creates a rhythmical flow.
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words.	“sleep, when he started, as usual, to snore”	The repetition of the “e” sound in “sleep” and “snore” creates a sense of fluidity, mimicking the sound of soft breathing or snoring.
Metaphor	A figure of speech where something is described as if it were something else.	“I can rip out the roar from the throat of a tiger”	The speaker is not literally ripping a roar from a tiger’s throat but uses this metaphor to express bravery and power.
Simile	A comparison using “like” or “as.”	“like his head on my lap for a darkening hour”	Compares the resting of his head on her lap to the idea of time darkening, suggesting emotional heaviness.
Personification	Attributing human characteristics to non-human things.	“gargle with fire”	Fire is given human-like behavior by saying it can be gargled, adding a surreal, heroic quality.
Hyperbole	Deliberate exaggeration for emphasis or effect.	“I can rip out the roar from the throat of a tiger”	An exaggerated claim of strength and bravery to emphasize the character’s sense of invincibility.
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality.	“I let him slip and slide and sprawl, handsome and huge, on the floor.”	The ironic contrast between his strength and masculinity, and his vulnerability as he lies helplessly on the floor.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line.	“he guided my fingers over the scar / over his heart”	The lack of pause between these lines mimics the fluid motion of her fingers moving over his scar.
Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.	“I nibbled the purse of his ear”	This vivid image appeals to the sense of touch and taste, drawing the reader into the intimate moment.
Symbolism	Using symbols to signify ideas and qualities beyond their literal sense.	“I cut every lock of his hair”	His hair symbolizes his strength, masculinity, and perhaps control, which she takes away by cutting it.
Internal Rhyme	Rhyme within a single line of poetry.	“there’s nothing I fear / Put your hand here”	The rhyme between “fear” and “here” within a single line emphasizes the connection between his bravado and his vulnerability.
Tone	The attitude or approach the author takes towards the subject.	Throughout the poem	The tone shifts from playful and intimate to somber and even vengeful, reflecting the complexity of the relationship.
Juxtaposition	Placing two contrasting elements side by side.	“But I cannot be gentle, or loving, or tender. I have to be strong.”	The juxtaposition of tenderness and strength highlights the conflict within the male character’s emotions and identity.
Consonance	Repetition of consonant sounds in the middle or end of words.	“Put your hand here—he guided my fingers over the scar”	The repetition of the “r” sound in “scar” and “here” connects the two ideas of physical pain and emotional vulnerability.
Anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses.	“I can rip… I can gargle… I can sleep”	The repetition of “I can” emphasizes the character’s strength and capability.
Repetition	Repeated use of sounds, words, or ideas for effect and emphasis.	“Teach me, he said… Tell me more”	The repetition of his request for teaching emphasizes his desire for emotional understanding.
Allusion	A brief reference to a person, place, or event, often historical or mythological.	“sleep one whole night in the Minotaur’s lair”	References the Greek myth of the Minotaur, symbolizing danger, bravery, and fearlessness.
Caesura	A strong pause within a line of poetry.	“Put your hand here—he guided my fingers”	The pause after “here” creates a dramatic moment, allowing the reader to reflect on the action.
Oxymoron	A combination of contradictory terms.	“soft burr”	Combines softness (gentleness) with “burr,” which suggests something rough, indicating a contradiction in the character’s personality.

Themes: “Delilah” by Carol Ann Duffy

Power and Control: The theme of power dynamics is central to “Delilah”, with references to physical strength and dominance, particularly from the male character. He boasts of his ability to perform heroic acts such as ripping the “roar from the throat of a tiger” or “gargling with fire.” These exaggerated claims of power highlight his obsession with physical strength and invincibility. However, the moment Delilah cuts his hair, she symbolically seizes control, stripping him of his strength and undermining his masculinity. The act of cutting his hair while he is vulnerable underscores the transfer of power from him to her.

Love and Intimacy: The poem explores the complex nature of love and intimacy, which are often juxtaposed with power and control. The intimate moments between Delilah and the man—such as when she “nibbled the purse of his ear” and when he lays his head in her lap for “a darkening hour”—contrast with his inability to express tenderness. He admits, “I cannot be gentle, or loving, or tender,” emphasizing the conflict between his emotional desires and the rigid masculinity he feels compelled to uphold. This tension between love and emotional vulnerability reflects the difficulty of genuine connection in the relationship.
Gender Roles and Masculinity: Duffy’s poem critiques traditional notions of masculinity, showing how the male character is trapped by societal expectations of strength and invulnerability. His self-proclaimed feats of daring reflect an exaggerated form of masculine bravado, yet he confesses his inability to express tenderness, revealing a deeper vulnerability. The scar “over his heart” symbolizes both his emotional and physical wounds, representing the burden of living up to these masculine ideals. Delilah’s act of cutting his hair—an emasculating gesture—challenges these gender norms, suggesting that true strength may lie in vulnerability rather than brute force.
Betrayal and Transformation: The theme of betrayal echoes the biblical story of Samson and Delilah, but Duffy gives it a modern twist. Delilah’s actions can be interpreted as an act of betrayal when she cuts the man’s hair, rendering him powerless. The betrayal is deliberate and calculated—she even “fastened the chain to the door” before carrying out the act. However, this betrayal is not purely malicious; it can be seen as a transformative moment for both characters. The man’s loss of strength signals a shift in their relationship and perhaps a step toward self-realization. Delilah, too, transforms from a passive lover to an active agent in reclaiming her own power.

Literary Theories and “Delilah” by Carol Ann Duffy

Literary Theory	Key Concepts	References from “Delilah”
Feminist Criticism	Examines how gender is represented in literature, often focusing on the portrayal of women and their experiences.	– Delilah’s agency and decision-making: “I fastened the chain to the door.” – The subversion of traditional gender roles: Delilah as a powerful figure, not merely a victim.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Analyzes the unconscious mind and its influence on behavior, often drawing on Freud’s theories.	– Samson’s desire for control and power: “I have to be strong.” – Delilah’s possible motivations: a need for love, revenge, or self-preservation.
Deconstruction	Challenges the idea of a fixed meaning in texts, focusing on contradictions and ambiguities.	– The ambiguous nature of Delilah’s actions: are they motivated by love or betrayal? – The questioning of traditional interpretations of the biblical story.

Critical Questions about “Delilah” by Carol Ann Duffy

How does the poem challenge traditional gender roles, particularly in the depiction of masculinity?
The poem “Delilah” challenges traditional gender roles by presenting a male character who is outwardly strong but inwardly conflicted. The man boasts about his physical prowess, claiming he can “rip out the roar from the throat of a tiger” or “gargle with fire.” These exaggerated assertions reflect stereotypical masculine ideals of strength and fearlessness. However, despite this bravado, he reveals his emotional vulnerability by admitting that he cannot be “gentle, or loving, or tender.” This contrast exposes the limitations of rigid masculinity, showing that it suppresses emotional expression. Delilah’s act of cutting his hair—symbolic of taking away his power—reverses the gender dynamic, as she becomes the one in control. This challenges the notion that masculinity is inherently linked to dominance and strength, suggesting that vulnerability and emotional openness might be stronger qualities.
In what ways does the poem depict power dynamics within the relationship between Delilah and the male character?

Power dynamics play a central role in the poem, shifting between Delilah and the man. At the start, the man appears to hold the power, boasting about his physical feats and his ability to endure hardship. However, as the poem progresses, it becomes clear that his emotional strength does not match his physical prowess. He asks Delilah, “Teach me… how to care,” revealing his inability to connect on an emotional level. In contrast, Delilah’s quiet patience, highlighted by her care and attentiveness (“he lay with his head on my lap for a darkening hour”), suggests that she possesses a different kind of power—one rooted in emotional awareness. The ultimate shift in power comes when Delilah cuts his hair while he sleeps, a deliberate act that robs him of his physical strength. This act symbolizes her ability to control him and subverts the typical power dynamic of a relationship where the man is physically dominant.
How does the poem reflect the complexities of love and intimacy?
Delilah explores the complexities of love and intimacy through the juxtaposition of physical and emotional connection. The man seeks affection and comfort from Delilah, as seen when he lays his head in her lap and speaks in a “soft burr.” However, his inability to be “gentle, or loving, or tender” reflects an emotional disconnect despite his physical closeness. The repeated acts of sex (“He f**ked me again until he was sore”) further highlight this disconnect, as the physical act of love becomes a substitute for the emotional connection he struggles to express. Delilah’s response to his vulnerability—cutting his hair—can be interpreted as an attempt to free him (and herself) from this cycle of emotional repression. The poem suggests that love is not just about physical closeness but requires emotional honesty and tenderness, which the man is unable to provide.

What role does betrayal play in the poem, and how does it relate to the theme of transformation?
Betrayal is a key theme in Delilah, but it is portrayed as more complex than a simple act of treachery. Delilah’s decision to cut the man’s hair while he sleeps echoes the biblical betrayal of Samson, yet in Duffy’s version, it feels less malicious and more transformative. The moment of betrayal is premeditated—Delilah “fastened the chain to the door” before cutting his hair, suggesting that she has taken control of the situation. However, this act of betrayal could also be seen as an attempt to initiate change. The man’s obsession with physical strength has left him emotionally stunted, and by removing his hair, Delilah symbolically strips away his reliance on external power, forcing him to confront his vulnerabilities. The betrayal, therefore, serves as a catalyst for transformation, not only for the man but also for Delilah, who seizes power in the relationship and possibly frees herself from his emotional demands.

Literary Works Similar to “Delilah” by Carol Ann Duffy

“Medusa” by Carol Ann Duffy: Both poems are modern retellings of mythological women, focusing on themes of power, betrayal, and transformation through the lens of a female perspective.

“My Last Duchess” by Robert Browning: Like “Delilah”, this dramatic monologue explores themes of control, power, and the complexities of relationships, highlighting the destructive consequences of dominance.
“Salome” by Carol Ann Duffy: Another poem by Duffy, it reimagines a biblical female figure, much like “Delilah”, and examines themes of manipulation, power, and sexual politics.
“The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot: Both poems explore inner conflict and vulnerability in male characters, revealing their struggle with emotional intimacy and societal expectations of masculinity.

“Porphyria’s Lover” by Robert Browning: Similar to “Delilah”, this poem delves into a destructive relationship where one partner exercises control and power, leading to an ultimate act of dominance and transformation.

Representative Quotations of “Delilah” by Carol Ann Duffy

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Teach me, he said— we were lying in bed— how to care.”	The male character expresses his emotional incapacity and seeks guidance from Delilah on how to feel and express tenderness.	Psychoanalytic Theory: This quote explores the internal emotional conflict and repression often discussed in psychoanalysis, particularly the male character’s struggle with emotional vulnerability.
“I nibbled the purse of his ear.”	A moment of intimacy between Delilah and the male character, emphasizing their physical closeness.	Feminist Theory: This quote can be viewed through the lens of female agency and control over intimacy, as Delilah actively engages in the physical dynamic of the relationship.
“I can rip out the roar from the throat of a tiger, or gargle with fire.”	The male character boasts about his physical prowess, exaggerating his strength.	Masculinity Studies: This quote highlights the traditional construction of masculinity, which prioritizes physical strength and heroic feats while suppressing emotional vulnerability.
“but I cannot be gentle, or loving, or tender. I have to be strong.”	The male character admits his emotional limitations, acknowledging the societal pressure to maintain strength.	Gender Theory: This line critiques toxic masculinity and societal expectations that force men to prioritize strength over emotional expression.
“He fked me again until he was sore, then we both took a shower.”**	This stark, blunt description of their sexual encounter emphasizes the physical aspect of their relationship, devoid of tenderness.	Postmodernism: The raw, unromantic language reflects postmodernist rejection of idealized love, revealing the physicality and emotional detachment within their relationship.
“And before I fetched and sharpened my scissors— snipping first at the black and biblical air—”	Delilah prepares to cut his hair, evoking the biblical story of Samson and Delilah.	Intertextuality: This moment alludes to the biblical narrative of Samson and Delilah, offering a modern reworking of the tale with a feminist twist.
“he guided my fingers over the scar over his heart, a four-medal wound from the war—”	The male character shows Delilah his war wound, symbolizing both physical and emotional scars.	Trauma Theory: This line touches on the lasting impacts of trauma, particularly war trauma, and how it shapes emotional and relational dynamics.
“I fastened the chain to the door.”	Delilah locks the door before cutting the man’s hair, signifying her control over the situation.	Feminist Theory: This act symbolizes Delilah’s power and autonomy, challenging traditional gender roles and expectations of passivity in women.
“I let him slip and slide and sprawl, handsome and huge, on the floor.”	The male character, once strong, now lies helpless and vulnerable after Delilah cuts his hair.	Deconstruction: This line deconstructs the idea of the male as powerful, showing the reversal of power dynamics and exposing the fragility of masculinity.
“Then with deliberate, passionate hands I cut every lock of his hair.”	Delilah deliberately and decisively removes his hair, symbolically stripping him of his strength and control.	Feminist Theory: This act of cutting his hair is symbolic of reclaiming power and rejecting patriarchal dominance, as Delilah becomes the agent of his downfall.

“As from a Quiver of Arrows” by Carl Phillips: A Critical Analysis

“As from a Quiver of Arrows” by Carl Phillips first appeared in the 2006 collection Quiver of Arrows: Selected Poems, 1986-2006.

Introduction: “As from a Quiver of Arrows” by Carl Phillips

“As from a Quiver of Arrows” by Carl Phillips first appeared in the 2006 collection Quiver of Arrows: Selected Poems, 1986-2006. Renowned for its poignant exploration of grief and loss, the poem is a powerful meditation on the aftermath of a friend’s death. Phillips employs a series of questions and images to convey the speaker’s profound sense of loss and confusion. The poem’s central themes include the fragility of life, the enduring nature of love, and the struggle to find meaning in the face of tragedy.

Text: “As from a Quiver of Arrows” by Carl Phillips

What do we do with the body, do we

burn it, do we set it in dirt or in

stone, do we wrap it in balm, honey,

oil, and then gauze and tip it onto

and trust it to a raft and to water?

What will happen to the memory of his

body, if one of us doesn’t hurry now

and write it down fast? Will it be

salt or late light that it melts like?

Floss, rubber gloves, and a chewed cap

to a pen elsewhere —how are we to

regard his effects, do we throw them

or use them away, do we say they are

relics and so treat them like relics?

Does his soiled linen count? If so,

would we be wrong then, to wash it?

There are no instructions whether it

should go to where are those with no

linen, or whether by night we should

memorially wear it ourselves, by day

reflect upon it folded, shelved, empty.

Here, on the floor behind his bed is

a bent photo—why? Were the two of

them lovers? Does it mean, where we

found it, that he forgot it or lost it

or intended a safekeeping? Should we

attempt to make contact? What if this

other man too is dead? Or alive, but

doesn’t want to remember, is human?

Is it okay to be human, and fall away

from oblation and memory, if we forget,

and can’t sometimes help it and sometimes

it is all that we want? How long, in

dawns or new c**ks, does that take?

What if it is rest and nothing else that

we want? Is it a findable thing, small?

In what hole is it hidden? Is it, maybe,

a country? Will a guide be required who

will say to us how? Do we fly? Do we

swim? What will I do now, with my hands?

Annotations: “As from a Quiver of Arrows” by Carl Phillips

Line	Text	Annotation
1	What do we do with the body, do we	The poem opens with a reflective question about what to do with the body after death, setting a contemplative tone.
2	burn it, do we set it in dirt or in	This line presents options for dealing with the dead: cremation (burn) or burial (dirt). It contrasts different funeral practices.
3	stone, do we wrap it in balm, honey,	“Stone” refers to entombment; “balm, honey” evokes ancient embalming techniques, suggesting preservation of the body and memory.
4	oil, and then gauze and tip it onto	Continues the imagery of ritualistic body preparation, symbolizing care and reverence for the dead.
5	and trust it to a raft and to water?	Shifts to the idea of water burial, suggesting themes of transition, purification, and passage to the afterlife.
6	What will happen to the memory of his	The focus moves from the body to the memory, expressing concern over how memories of the deceased will be preserved.
7	body, if one of us doesn’t hurry now	Introduces urgency in preserving memory before it fades, emphasizing the fleeting nature of life and remembrance.
8	and write it down fast? Will it be	Writing is posed as a way to immortalize the body, preventing it from being forgotten.
9	salt or late light that it melts like?	Metaphors of salt and light suggest that memory could dissolve or fade away, highlighting its fragility.
10	Floss, rubber gloves, and a chewed cap	The introduction of mundane objects contrasts with the earlier focus on the body, questioning the significance of personal effects.
11	to a pen elsewhere—how are we to	Scattered belongings evoke the sense of disarray and the difficulty of knowing how to handle them.
12	regard his effects, do we throw them	The speaker questions whether to discard or keep the deceased’s belongings, reflecting emotional conflict.
13	or use them away, do we say they are	Suggests using the belongings in daily life as a way to honor the deceased, raising questions about memory and practicality.
14	relics and so treat them like relics?	The objects may be treated as sacred relics, highlighting the tension between attachment and moving forward.
15	Does his soiled linen count? If so,	The speaker considers even the most mundane items (soiled linen) as potentially sacred, questioning their value.
16	would we be wrong then, to wash it?	Washing the linen might erase part of the deceased’s memory, suggesting an ethical dilemma around cleansing and forgetting.
17	There are no instructions whether it	Expresses the lack of clear guidance on how to handle the dead’s possessions, reinforcing the sense of confusion.
18	should go to where are those with no	Raises the possibility of donating the linen, reflecting the practical considerations of handling the belongings.
19	linen, or whether by night we should	Suggests a more intimate act of remembrance, where the living wear the deceased’s clothing as a memorial.
20	memorially wear it ourselves, by day	Wearing the linen would create a direct connection to the deceased, contrasting public and private modes of remembrance.
21	reflect upon it folded, shelved, empty.	If not worn, the linen could be kept as a symbol, folded and empty, signifying the absence of the deceased.
22	Here, on the floor behind his bed is	Shifts attention to a bent photo found behind the bed, evoking a sense of forgotten or hidden memories.
23	a bent photo—why? Were the two of	The speaker speculates about the relationship between the deceased and the person in the photo, possibly lovers.
24	them lovers? Does it mean, where we	Questions the significance of the photo’s location and condition, adding ambiguity to the deceased’s life and relationships.
25	found it, that he forgot it or lost it	Continues the uncertainty about the photo’s meaning, reflecting broader themes of memory and loss.
26	or intended a safekeeping? Should we	The speaker considers whether the photo was intentionally placed for safekeeping, symbolizing care and intention.
27	attempt to make contact? What if this	Considers reaching out to the person in the photo, suggesting the possibility of closure or connection.
28	other man too is dead? Or alive, but	Raises the possibility that the other man might also be dead, deepening the sense of loss and isolation.
29	doesn’t want to remember, is human?	Acknowledges that the person may not want to remember, reflecting on the human tendency to avoid painful memories.
30	Is it okay to be human, and fall away	The speaker questions whether it is acceptable to let go of memory, suggesting a conflict between obligation and emotional survival.
31	from oblation and memory, if we forget,	“Oblation” (offering) connects to religious duty, asking whether forgetting is a failure or part of being human.
32	and can’t sometimes help it and sometimes	Acknowledges that forgetting is sometimes involuntary, reflecting the complexity of grief and memory.
33	it is all that we want? How long, in	The speaker wonders how long it takes to move on from grief, introducing uncertainty about the passage of time.
34	dawns or new **cks, does that take?	Uses the natural cycles of dawn and roosters to question how time affects memory and healing.
35	What if it is rest and nothing else that	Introduces the idea that rest, rather than memory, may be the ultimate desire in the face of grief.
36	we want? Is it a findable thing, small?	The speaker wonders if rest is something tangible that can be found, suggesting it may be elusive.
37	In what hole is it hidden? Is it, maybe,	Rest is metaphorically hidden, suggesting difficulty in accessing peace after loss.
38	a country? Will a guide be required who	Considers whether rest is a destination (country) and whether external guidance is needed to find it.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “As from a Quiver of Arrows” by Carl Phillips

Device	Definition	Explanation in the Poem
Alliteration	The repetition of initial consonant sounds.	we want? Is it a findable thing, small?
Anaphora	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses or sentences.	“What do we do with the body, do we burn it…”
Antithesis	The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas or images.	“or late light that it melts like?”
Apostrophe	Addressing a person or thing not present.	“What will happen to the memory of his body…”
Assonance	The repetition of vowel sounds within words.	“body, if one of us doesn’t hurry now and”
Connotation	The emotional or associative meaning of a word.	“relics” suggests sacred or valuable objects
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence or thought beyond the end of a line of poetry.	“What will happen to the memory of his body…”
Imagery	The use of vivid language to create images in the reader’s mind.	“Floss, rubber gloves, and a chewed cap”
Metaphor	A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“What if it is rest and nothing else that we want?”
Metonymy	The use of the name of one thing to represent something closely associated with it.	“his soiled linen” represents the deceased person
Oxymoron	A figure of speech combining contradictory terms.	“safekeeping” suggests both security and uncertainty
Personification	Giving human qualities to non-human things.	“What will I do now, with my hands?”
Rhetorical Question	A question asked for effect, not expecting an answer.	“What do we do with the body, do we burn it…”
Simile	A comparison between two unlike things using “like” or “as.”	“or late light that it melts like?”
Symbolism	The use of objects or events to represent ideas or qualities.	“linen” may symbolize mortality and decay
Synecdoche	A figure of speech in which a part represents the whole or vice versa.	“hands” represent the speaker’s entire self
Tone	The writer’s attitude toward the subject matter.	Reflective, contemplative, and mournful
Verbal Irony	A figure of speech in which what is said is the opposite of what is meant.	Not directly present in the poem, but could be inferred if the speaker’s actions contradict their words

Themes: “As from a Quiver of Arrows” by Carl Phillips

Mortality and Loss: Phillips’ poem is a poignant exploration of mortality and the profound impact of loss. The central question of what to do with a deceased friend’s body serves as a metaphor for the broader question of how to cope with the absence of a loved one. The speaker’s ruminations on memory, relics, and the fragility of life highlight the inevitability of death and the challenges of coming to terms with it. Lines such as “What do we do with the body, do we burn it…” and “What will happen to the memory of his body…” underscore the theme of mortality.

Memory and Remembrance: The poem delves into the complexities of memory and the role it plays in preserving the presence of the deceased. The speaker grapples with the question of whether to write down the details of the friend’s body, suggesting a desire to capture and preserve a tangible memory. The poem also explores the idea that memory can be both a source of comfort and a source of pain. Lines such as “Will it be salt or late light that it melts like?” and “Does his soiled linen count?” reflect the speaker’s struggle to reconcile the past with the present.
The Human Condition: Phillips’ poem offers a meditation on the human condition, exploring themes of love, loss, and the search for meaning. The speaker’s questions about the deceased’s relationships and the motivations behind his actions reveal the complexities of human nature. The poem also raises questions about the nature of grief and the ways in which individuals cope with loss. Lines such as “Were the two of them lovers?” and “Is it okay to be human, and fall away from oblation and memory…” explore the intricacies of human experience.
The Passage of Time: The poem is a reflection on the passage of time and the ways in which it shapes our experiences. The speaker’s questions about the duration of grief and the possibility of finding rest highlight the temporal nature of life. The poem also suggests that time can both heal and wound, as evidenced by the speaker’s desire to escape from the pain of memory. Lines such as “How long, in dawns or new c**ks, does that take?” and “Is it a findable thing, small?” explore the role of time in shaping our lives.

Literary Theories and “As from a Quiver of Arrows” by Carl Phillips

Literary Theory	Line(s) from the Poem	Explanation/Analysis
Psychoanalytic Theory	“What will happen to the memory of his / body, if one of us doesn’t hurry now / and write it down fast?” (Lines 6-8)	This theory, rooted in Freudian psychology, focuses on the human psyche, unconscious desires, and emotional conflicts. The speaker’s anxiety over the memory of the deceased suggests a deeper fear of loss and forgetting. The urgency to “write it down fast” can be seen as an attempt to control the uncontrollable fear of mortality and loss.
Post-Structuralism	“Does his soiled linen count? If so, / would we be wrong then, to wash it?” (Lines 15-16)	Post-structuralism challenges fixed meanings, highlighting ambiguity and the instability of language. The poem’s recurring questions, such as whether the soiled linen counts and if it should be washed, create ambiguity around memory, value, and ritual. These uncertainties emphasize how meaning and significance are constructed and subjective.
New Historicism	“Floss, rubber gloves, and a chewed cap / to a pen elsewhere — how are we to / regard his effects, do we throw them / or use them away” (Lines 10-13)	New Historicism emphasizes the influence of historical and cultural context on literature. The mention of mundane objects like “rubber gloves” and “floss” invites readers to consider how contemporary rituals around death and remembrance are influenced by social norms, materialism, and practical concerns. This reflects a modern, possibly consumerist approach to memory.

Critical Questions about “As from a Quiver of Arrows” by Carl Phillips

· How does the poem grapple with the tension between physical objects and memory?

The poem explores the tension between the physical remnants of the deceased and the intangible nature of memory. In lines such as, “Does his soiled linen count? If so, / would we be wrong then, to wash it?” (lines 15-16), the speaker questions whether these physical objects hold any meaningful connection to the person who has died. The linen, mundane and “soiled,” represents the material reality of death, but the speaker wonders if preserving or cleaning it would alter its significance. This tension reveals the emotional struggle to find meaning in the physical traces left behind, while simultaneously grappling with the ephemeral nature of memory and whether these objects truly help preserve the essence of the deceased.

· How does the poem reflect on the limitations of human memory and the desire to preserve it?

Throughout the poem, the speaker demonstrates a sense of urgency about preserving the memory of the deceased. In the lines, “What will happen to the memory of his / body, if one of us doesn’t hurry now / and write it down fast?” (lines 6-8), there is an implicit fear that memory will fade if not captured quickly. The use of the word “hurry” suggests the fleeting nature of human memory and the anxiety surrounding its loss. The act of writing down the memory becomes a metaphor for an attempt to solidify the transient and ensure that it endures beyond the body’s physical absence. However, the repeated questions throughout the poem reflect the limitations of this endeavor, suggesting that no matter how quickly or earnestly we try to preserve memory, it may still fade like “salt or late light” (line 9).

· How does the poem question the role of rituals and traditions in dealing with death?

The poem frequently questions traditional practices surrounding death, asking what the proper way to handle a body or the deceased’s belongings is. In the opening lines, “What do we do with the body, do we / burn it, do we set it in dirt or in / stone” (lines 1-3), the speaker contemplates burial, cremation, and entombment—rituals steeped in tradition. However, the poem is filled with uncertainty about the appropriateness of these customs, as seen in questions about how to handle personal effects: “how are we to / regard his effects, do we throw them / or use them away, do we say they are / relics and so treat them like relics?” (lines 11-14). This questioning suggests a deeper critique of the limitations of ritual in making sense of death and grief. The poem implies that these practices may be inadequate in addressing the personal, emotional weight of loss.

· What does the poem suggest about the human desire for closure, and is closure ever truly attainable?

The speaker’s many questions throughout the poem indicate a search for closure that remains elusive. For instance, the lines “What if it is rest and nothing else that / we want? Is it a findable thing, small?” (lines 35-36) express a yearning for peace or resolution after loss. The reference to “rest” suggests the speaker’s desire to move on, to achieve a state of finality. However, the poem’s structure—built entirely on unanswered questions—suggests that closure may be unattainable or at least ambiguous. The speaker’s ongoing uncertainty about how to remember the deceased, how to handle their possessions, and even whether it’s acceptable to forget, reflects the human struggle to find a definitive way to deal with grief. The final question, “What will I do now, with my hands?” (line 40), leaves the speaker in a state of unresolved grief, highlighting the impossibility of true closure.

Literary Works Similar to “As from a Quiver of Arrows” by Carl Phillips

“Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden
Similar in its contemplation of grief and mourning, this poem also expresses the struggle to cope with loss and the desire to memorialize the deceased.

“One Art” by Elizabeth Bishop
This poem explores themes of loss, especially personal and emotional, similar to how Phillips navigates the tension between memory and forgetting.
“Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” by Dylan Thomas
Thomas’ poem, like Phillips’, reflects on death, the body’s fate, and the emotional challenge of dealing with the finality of loss.
“The Emperor of Ice-Cream” by Wallace Stevens
Both poems share a preoccupation with the physical and ephemeral aspects of death, with Stevens focusing on the rituals surrounding death, much like Phillips questions them.

“Because I could not stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson
Dickinson’s meditation on death and the journey of the soul parallels Phillips’ exploration of death’s rituals and the uncertain handling of the dead’s memory

Representative Quotations of “As from a Quiver of Arrows” by Carl Phillips

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“What do we do with the body, do we / burn it, do we set it in dirt or in / stone”	The speaker questions how to handle the deceased’s body, grappling with traditional burial practices.	New Historicism: The line reflects on cultural and historical rituals around death, questioning their relevance in modern times.
“What will happen to the memory of his / body, if one of us doesn’t hurry now / and write it down fast?”	Expresses fear of losing the memory of the deceased if it’s not quickly preserved.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Reflects the speaker’s anxiety over the fleeting nature of memory and the unconscious fear of forgetting.
“salt or late light that it melts like?”	The metaphor compares the dissolution of memory to salt or fading light, emphasizing impermanence.	Deconstruction/Post-Structuralism: Challenges stable meaning, emphasizing the ephemeral and mutable nature of memory and language.
“Floss, rubber gloves, and a chewed cap / to a pen elsewhere”	Mundane items are listed as remnants of the deceased, prompting reflection on the value of personal effects.	Material Culture Studies: Highlights how everyday objects are imbued with emotional meaning after death, questioning the boundary between the personal and the trivial.
“Does his soiled linen count? If so, / would we be wrong then, to wash it?”	The speaker questions the value of seemingly insignificant belongings like soiled linen.	Post-Structuralism: Raises ambiguity about the significance of objects and the subjectivity of meaning, challenging binary notions of sacred vs. mundane.
“how are we to / regard his effects, do we throw them / or use them away, do we say they are / relics?”	The speaker ponders whether to treat the belongings as sacred relics or discard them, emphasizing the conflict in handling the dead’s possessions.	Cultural Criticism: Reflects on the tension between commodification of memory and the sacred treatment of personal items in modern society.
“There are no instructions whether it / should go to where are those with no / linen”	The absence of guidance for how to distribute or deal with the deceased’s belongings adds to the confusion.	New Historicism: Reflects the lack of prescriptive cultural traditions in contemporary society, where death rituals are less clearly defined.
“memorially wear it ourselves, by day / reflect upon it folded, shelved, empty.”	The speaker contemplates wearing the deceased’s linen or keeping it as a folded reminder of absence.	Phenomenology: Explores how the presence of objects (the linen) evokes reflection on the absence of the person, engaging with how memory is lived and felt through physical things.
“What if it is rest and nothing else that / we want?”	The speaker wonders if rest, rather than remembrance or ritual, is the true desire after loss.	Existentialism: Raises questions about the human need for rest and peace in the face of grief, reflecting existential anxieties about the search for meaning and resolution.
“What will I do now, with my hands?”	The final line leaves the speaker in uncertainty, unsure of how to proceed after death and grief.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Highlights the speaker’s unresolved grief and the unconscious desire for direction or action in the face of existential uncertainty.