Day: October 16, 2024

Introduction: “A Late Walk” by Robert Frost

“A Late Walk” by Robert Frost, first appeared in 1915 as part of his poetry collection A Boy’s Will, reflects many of the key qualities that define Frost’s early work, including its simple, natural imagery and melancholic tone. The poem vividly portrays a late autumn walk through a barren, desolate landscape, symbolizing the end of life or a period of decline. Through imagery of dying leaves, frost-covered fields, and the arrival of winter, Frost evokes a sense of inevitability and the passage of time. The main idea of the poem revolves around the themes of loss, aging, and the melancholic beauty of nature’s cycles, showing Frost’s deep connection to the natural world and his ability to draw emotional resonance from its changing seasons.

Text: “A Late Walk” by Robert Frost

When I go up through the mowing field,
     The headless aftermath,
Smooth-laid like thatch with the heavy dew,
     Half closes the garden path.

And when I come to the garden ground,
     The whir of sober birds
Up from the tangle of withered weeds
     Is sadder than any words.

A tree beside the wall stands bare,
     But a leaf that lingered brown,
Disturbed, I doubt not, by my thought,
     Comes softly rattling down.

I end not far from my going forth
     By picking the faded blue
Of the last remaining aster flower
     To carry again to you.

Annotations: “A Late Walk” by Robert Frost

Stanza/Lines	Annotations
1st Stanza
“When I go up through the mowing field,”	The speaker begins a walk through a field that has been harvested (“mowing field”), suggesting a scene that is post-harvest and post-growth, setting the tone of lateness or end of season.
“The headless aftermath,”	The “aftermath” refers to the cut grass or hay left behind after the harvest. “Headless” suggests something that is decayed or has lost its vitality, continuing the theme of decline or the end of life.
“Smooth-laid like thatch with the heavy dew,”	The remnants of the field are covered in dew, which weighs down the cut grass, symbolizing heaviness or the passage of time as nature transitions from life to decay.
“Half closes the garden path.”	The garden path is partially overgrown or obstructed, suggesting neglect or the gradual encroachment of nature, which aligns with the sense of a fading or forgotten place.
2nd Stanza
“And when I come to the garden ground,”	The speaker arrives at a garden, which, in contrast to its usual association with life and growth, is now a place of decay, emphasizing the themes of loss and change.
“The whir of sober birds”	The “sober birds” evoke a somber and serious mood, with their subdued movement and sound (“whir”) contributing to the melancholic atmosphere of the scene.
“Up from the tangle of withered weeds”	The garden is described as overgrown with “withered weeds,” reinforcing the imagery of decline, with nature’s vibrancy replaced by tangled and lifeless growth.
“Is sadder than any words.”	The scene is so melancholy that no words can adequately capture its sadness. The use of auditory imagery (“whir”) heightens the emotional impact, emphasizing the silence and emptiness of the landscape.
3rd Stanza
“A tree beside the wall stands bare,”	A solitary tree is described as bare, suggesting the arrival of winter or the end of life. This image symbolizes emptiness and desolation, as the tree has lost its leaves, much like the fading season.
“But a leaf that lingered brown,”	Despite the barrenness, one brown leaf still clings to the tree, representing something that remains in the midst of decay. The color “brown” suggests something that is dying or near the end of its life.
“Disturbed, I doubt not, by my thought,”	The speaker suggests that the leaf’s fall is linked to their own presence or internal thoughts, introducing a subtle connection between the external world and the speaker’s emotional state or influence over nature.
“Comes softly rattling down.”	The leaf finally falls with a gentle, rattling sound, symbolizing the quiet end of life or a slow decline. The soft fall of the leaf reinforces the themes of inevitability and quiet resignation.
4th Stanza
“I end not far from my going forth”	The speaker reflects that their walk ends close to where it began, implying a cyclical journey or the circular nature of life and death. The phrase suggests that little has changed despite the passage of time.
“By picking the faded blue”	The speaker picks a faded blue aster, a late-blooming flower, which is one of the last remnants of beauty in the fading season. The “faded blue” represents something that is still alive but has lost its original vibrancy.
“Of the last remaining aster flower”	The aster is a symbol of endurance and survival, as it blooms late into autumn, yet its being the “last remaining” emphasizes the theme of scarcity and the end of growth.
“To carry again to you.”	The speaker plucks the flower to give to someone, which introduces a personal element to the poem. This act could represent a gesture of memory, love, or sentiment, connecting the external scene to the speaker’s inner emotional world.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Late Walk” by Robert Frost

Literary Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“Smooth-laid like thatch”	Repetition of the initial consonant sound “l” in “laid” and “like” creates a rhythm and musical quality to the line, emphasizing the calm, smoothness of the scene.
Allusion	The garden imagery	The image of a decaying garden could allude to the biblical Garden of Eden, symbolizing loss, mortality, and the fall from grace, connecting human life to natural decline.
Assonance	“headless aftermath”	Repetition of the “a” sound in “aftermath” adds to the musical quality of the poem, softening the tone while emphasizing the aftermath of the harvest as something final and empty.
Caesura	“Disturbed, I doubt not, by my thought,”	The use of commas introduces a natural pause, or caesura, in the line, reflecting the speaker’s thought process and creating a reflective, introspective tone.
Consonance	“Softly rattling down”	The repetition of the “t” and “l” sounds within the words “rattling” and “down” emphasizes the quiet, light sound of the falling leaf, mirroring the soft movement.
Enjambment	“By picking the faded blue / Of the last remaining aster flower”	The sentence continues across lines without pause, mimicking the flow of the speaker’s movement and thoughts as they proceed without interruption, highlighting the flow of time.
Imagery	“The whir of sober birds / Up from the tangle of withered weeds”	The visual and auditory imagery of “whir” and “withered weeds” conveys a vivid picture of the garden in decay and the melancholy sounds of nature in late autumn.
Irony	Picking a flower to bring to someone	The act of picking a dying flower to bring to someone as a gift is ironic, as flowers are typically symbols of life and beauty, yet the speaker selects one that is faded and withering.
Metaphor	“The headless aftermath”	The phrase “headless aftermath” metaphorically compares the cut grass to a body that has lost its head, suggesting lifelessness and reinforcing the theme of the end of growth and harvest.
Mood	Melancholy and reflective	The mood of the poem is created through the use of imagery and diction that evoke sadness and reflection on the end of life or a passing season, as nature slowly withers and dies.
Onomatopoeia	“whir of sober birds”	The word “whir” mimics the sound of birds’ wings flapping, adding an auditory layer to the imagery and enhancing the atmosphere of the poem.
Oxymoron	“Sober birds”	The pairing of “sober” (serious or grave) with “birds” (which are often associated with lightness and freedom) creates a contrast, reflecting the somber mood of the scene.
Personification	“Disturbed, I doubt not, by my thought”	The speaker personifies the leaf, suggesting that it has been disturbed by his thoughts, giving it human-like qualities and deepening the emotional connection between the speaker and nature.
Repetition	“Not far from my going forth”	The phrase “not far” is repeated in a different context (“going forth” and “I end”), emphasizing the cyclical nature of the walk and the journey from beginning to end.
Rhyme Scheme	ABAB in each stanza	The poem follows a consistent ABAB rhyme scheme, which creates a sense of structure and flow, mirroring the progression of the speaker’s walk and thoughts.
Simile	“Smooth-laid like thatch”	The field is compared to thatch, a material made of straw or reeds, emphasizing the neat, flattened appearance of the grass after being cut and covered in dew.
Symbolism	The aster flower	The “last remaining aster flower” symbolizes the lingering traces of life and beauty in the midst of decline, representing endurance, memory, or a final gesture in the face of decay.
Synecdoche	“Headless aftermath”	The “headless aftermath” uses the part (aftermath of harvest) to represent the whole (the state of the field after harvest), emphasizing the sense of incompletion and barrenness.
Tone	Sadness and resignation	The tone is one of sadness and quiet resignation, as the speaker reflects on the natural decline of the landscape and, implicitly, life, without bitterness or struggle.
Visual Imagery	“A tree beside the wall stands bare”	The image of a bare tree standing alone beside a wall is stark and evokes a visual representation of the desolation and emptiness that comes with late autumn.

Themes: “A Late Walk” by Robert Frost

1. The Passage of Time and Seasons: One of the central themes in “A Late Walk” is the inevitable passage of time, marked by the changing seasons. The poem is set in late autumn, a time when nature transitions from life to death. The imagery of “the mowing field” and “the headless aftermath” emphasizes that the harvest is over, and the landscape is now barren and desolate. Frost uses these natural images to reflect the cycle of life, showing that just as the seasons change, so does life, moving inevitably toward its end.
2. Decay and Death: The theme of decay and death is evident throughout the poem as Frost depicts a world in decline. The garden, once a place of growth, is now filled with “withered weeds,” and a “tree beside the wall stands bare.” These images symbolize the loss of vitality and the approach of death. The “faded blue” of the aster flower, the last bloom of the season, further emphasizes the idea that life is nearing its end, and beauty fades over time.
3. Loss and Sadness: Frost imbues the poem with a deep sense of loss and melancholy. The speaker’s journey through the dying landscape reflects an emotional journey as well. The “whir of sober birds” and the “sadder than any words” mood of the poem suggest that the speaker feels a profound sadness as they witness the fading of nature. The picking of the “last remaining aster flower” to give to someone conveys a poignant act of remembrance, underscoring the theme of personal loss amidst the larger theme of nature’s decline.
4. Connection Between Nature and Human Emotion: Frost often links the natural world to human emotions, and in “A Late Walk,” the decaying landscape mirrors the speaker’s inner emotional state. The fall of a single “leaf that lingered brown” is described as being “disturbed, I doubt not, by my thought,” suggesting that the speaker’s presence and thoughts influence the environment around them. This connection between the external world of nature and the internal world of emotion reflects the idea that human feelings are intertwined with the cycles of nature, and the melancholy of autumn mirrors the speaker’s own sadness and contemplation.

Literary Theories and “A Late Walk” by Robert Frost

Literary Theory	Application to “A Late Walk”	References from the Poem
Ecocriticism	Ecocriticism explores the relationship between literature and the environment, focusing on how nature is depicted and the human connection to the natural world. “A Late Walk” can be analyzed through this lens, as Frost uses the changing seasons and decaying landscape to symbolize broader themes of life, death, and human emotion.	The description of the “mowing field,” the “withered weeds,” and the “last remaining aster flower” reflects Frost’s deep engagement with nature. The bare landscape and fading beauty represent the vulnerability of nature, and the speaker’s interaction with the natural world highlights the interconnectedness of human emotion and nature.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	This theory focuses on the unconscious mind, emotions, and internal conflicts. “A Late Walk” can be examined from a psychoanalytic perspective, interpreting the speaker’s journey through the autumn landscape as a metaphor for an internal emotional state, such as loss, mourning, or contemplation of mortality.	The speaker’s interaction with the natural world—especially the moment when the leaf falls, seemingly “disturbed… by my thought”—suggests that the landscape mirrors the speaker’s inner emotional turmoil. The melancholy tone and act of picking the “faded blue” aster flower to give to someone suggest a subconscious processing of loss or memory.
New Criticism	New Criticism emphasizes close reading and the internal structure of the text, focusing on the literary devices, form, and language without considering the author’s biography or external context. “A Late Walk” can be analyzed through its rhyme scheme, imagery, and tone to understand its meaning solely based on the text itself.	The poem’s consistent ABAB rhyme scheme and use of devices like alliteration, personification, and imagery (e.g., “Smooth-laid like thatch” and “whir of sober birds”) reflect careful craftsmanship. These elements work together to create a melancholic and reflective tone, which conveys the themes of decay, loss, and the passage of time.

Critical Questions about “A Late Walk” by Robert Frost

• How does the changing landscape reflect the speaker’s emotional state?
• The changing landscape in “A Late Walk” mirrors the speaker’s inner emotional state, characterized by melancholy and reflection on loss. As the speaker walks through the “mowing field,” the cut grass, described as “headless aftermath,” symbolizes the end of a cycle, much like a period of life coming to an inevitable close. The imagery of the “withered weeds” and “sober birds” contributes to the overall sadness of the scene, suggesting that the speaker feels a deep sense of sorrow. Additionally, the act of picking the “faded blue” aster flower as a final gesture suggests the speaker is grappling with feelings of emotional attachment, loss, or perhaps a longing to preserve something beautiful in the face of decay. The barren landscape thus reflects the speaker’s feelings of decline, resignation, and quiet mourning.
• What is the significance of the aster flower in the poem?
• The “last remaining aster flower” holds significant symbolic weight in the poem, representing the persistence of life and beauty amidst the overall decay of the landscape. As the speaker picks the “faded blue” flower, it becomes a gesture that stands in stark contrast to the rest of the autumnal imagery of withered weeds and bare trees. The aster flower, which blooms late in the season, is a symbol of endurance and hope, even in a time of decline. However, its faded color also emphasizes that this beauty is temporary and fragile, mirroring the transient nature of life itself. The speaker’s decision to “carry again” the flower to someone else adds a personal and emotional dimension to this symbol, suggesting an effort to hold on to something meaningful, even as time and nature move toward inevitable endings.
• How does Frost use nature to explore the theme of mortality?
• Nature in “A Late Walk” serves as a powerful metaphor for mortality, with the autumn setting representing the twilight of life. The “bare” tree and the “headless aftermath” of the field both evoke images of death and barrenness, highlighting the inevitability of decay and the end of life’s cycle. The falling leaf, which is “disturbed” by the speaker’s presence, further underscores the idea that death is a natural and unavoidable part of existence. The melancholic tone created by the imagery of withered weeds and faded flowers suggests that nature, like human life, is subject to decline. However, by focusing on the quiet beauty of the final aster flower, Frost also implies that there is dignity and meaning in the end, even as life fades away.
• What role does the speaker’s journey play in the structure of the poem?
• The speaker’s journey in “A Late Walk” provides a framework for the poem’s structure, moving from the beginning of the walk in the “mowing field” to its end near the garden. This journey symbolizes not only physical movement through a changing landscape but also an emotional progression toward understanding and acceptance of loss. The cyclical nature of the walk—”I end not far from my going forth”—suggests that the journey through life, much like the changing of the seasons, follows a predictable pattern of growth, decline, and renewal. The act of picking the last aster flower at the end of the walk ties together the themes of transience and memory, as the speaker carries the faded flower to someone else, hinting at a continuity of emotional connection, even in the face of inevitable decay. Thus, the journey is both literal and symbolic, reflecting the passage through life and the acceptance of its finite nature.

Literary Works Similar to “A Late Walk” by Robert Frost

1. “To Autumn” by John Keats – Both poems use autumn as a metaphor for the passage of time and the transition from life to death.
2. “The Wild Swans at Coole” by W.B. Yeats – Like Frost’s poem, Yeats reflects on the themes of aging, loss, and the changing of the seasons.
3. “Spring and Fall” by Gerard Manley Hopkins – This poem, similar to “A Late Walk,” explores the inevitability of decay and mortality through natural imagery.
4. “When I Have Fears” by John Keats – Keats contemplates the fleeting nature of life and beauty, much like Frost’s reflection on loss and change in nature.
5. “After Apple-Picking” by Robert Frost – Another of Frost’s poems that, like “A Late Walk,” uses rural imagery to reflect on life, labor, and the approach of death.

Representative Quotations of “A Late Walk” by Robert Frost

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“When I go up through the mowing field”	The speaker begins a walk through a field after the harvest, signaling the end of growth and the start of nature’s decline.	Ecocriticism – Highlights the relationship between the speaker and the post-harvest environment, symbolizing decay.
“The headless aftermath”	Describes the leftover cut grass from mowing, symbolizing lifelessness and the aftermath of labor or growth.	New Criticism – The use of metaphor captures the theme of decline and the inevitable passage of time.
“Smooth-laid like thatch with the heavy dew”	The grass, covered in dew, is compared to thatch, emphasizing the weight of time and the stillness of the scene.	Formalism – Focuses on the simile and the rhythmic quality of the language, contributing to the melancholic tone.
“Half closes the garden path”	The path is partially obstructed, symbolizing neglect and the encroachment of nature in its dying phase.	Symbolism – Represents the closing of opportunities or the fading of life’s paths.
“The whir of sober birds”	The birds fly up from the weeds, their movement marked by a somber tone, enhancing the poem’s sense of sadness and reflection.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – The melancholic mood reflects the speaker’s internal emotional state of sadness.
“Up from the tangle of withered weeds”	The weeds, no longer alive, symbolize decay and the entanglement of life’s struggles, enhancing the theme of death.	Ecocriticism – Illustrates the decay of nature as part of the natural cycle of life and death.
“A tree beside the wall stands bare”	The barren tree reinforces the imagery of death and emptiness as autumn transitions into winter.	Structuralism – Represents the binary opposition between life (full tree) and death (bare tree).
“Disturbed, I doubt not, by my thought”	The speaker suggests that the leaf’s fall is connected to their own internal thoughts, indicating a link between nature and personal emotions.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – The speaker projects inner emotions onto the natural world, suggesting subconscious turmoil.
“By picking the faded blue / Of the last remaining aster flower”	The act of picking the last flower represents a final attempt to hold on to beauty and life before winter’s arrival.	Deconstruction – The flower’s fading beauty challenges traditional associations of flowers with life and vitality.
“To carry again to you”	The speaker picks the flower to give to someone, suggesting an emotional connection and perhaps a gesture of remembrance.	Reader-Response Theory – The significance of the flower and its emotional weight may vary based on the reader’s interpretation of this personal gesture.

Suggested Readings: “A Late Walk” by Robert Frost

1. THOMPSON, LAWRANCE. “Robert Frost.” Robert Frost – American Writers 2: University of Minnesota Pamphlets on American Writers, NED-New edition, University of Minnesota Press, 1959, pp. 5–44. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.ctttv874.2. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
2. Thompson, Lawrance. “ROBERT FROST.” Seven Modern American Poets: An Introduction, edited by LEONARD UNGER, NED-New edition, University of Minnesota Press, 1967, pp. 9–44. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5749/j.ctttscss.4. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
3. Sheehy, Donald G. “Robert Frost and the Lockless Door.” The New England Quarterly, vol. 56, no. 1, 1983, pp. 39–59. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/365310. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
4. Gilbert, Roger. “ROBERT FROST: THE WALK AS PARABLE.” Walks in the World: Representation and Experience in Modern American Poetry, Princeton University Press, 1991, pp. 49–74. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7zvxkm.5. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
5. Ladin, Jay. “What to Make of a Diminished Thing: Robert Frost and the Decline of Literary Language.” The Robert Frost Review, no. 16, 2006, pp. 89–116. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43897237. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Brahma” by Ralph Waldo Emerson

“Brahma” by Ralph Waldo Emerson, first appeared in 1857 in his poetry collection titled The Atlantic Monthly, reflects Emerson’s deep engagement with transcendental philosophy and Hindu spiritual ideas. Drawing on the concept of Brahman, the universal spirit in Hinduism, Emerson explores themes of unity, paradox, and the interconnectedness of all existence. The poem’s qualities include its mystical tone and complex layering of opposites, such as life and death, good and evil, suggesting that all dualities dissolve in the absolute, eternal reality of Brahma. The main idea emphasizes that the divine spirit pervades everything, transcending human understanding, and that through this realization, individuals can achieve spiritual harmony.

Text: “Brahma” by Ralph Waldo Emerson

If the red slayer think he slays, 
  Or if the slain think he is slain, 
They know not well the subtle ways 
  I keep, and pass, and turn again. 

Far or forgot to me is near;
  Shadow and sunlight are the same; 
The vanished gods to me appear; 
  And one to me are shame and fame. 

They reckon ill who leave me out; 
  When me they fly, I am the wings;
I am the doubter and the doubt, 
  And I the hymn the Brahmin sings. 

The strong gods pine for my abode, 
  And pine in vain the sacred Seven; 
But thou, meek lover of the good!
  Find me, and turn thy back on heaven.

Annotations: “Brahma” by Ralph Waldo Emerson

Stanza	Line	Literary/Poetic Devices	Explanation/Meaning
Stanza 1
	“If the red slayer think he slays,”	Irony, Allusion (to Hindu concept of reincarnation)	The “red slayer” refers to a warrior or death itself, who thinks they kill, but they don’t truly end life.
	“Or if the slain think he is slain,”	Irony, Paradox	The dead believe they are dead, but from a spiritual standpoint, life continues.
	“They know not well the subtle ways”	Mysticism, Paradox	People are unaware of the deeper spiritual truths and the cycle of existence.
	“I keep, and pass, and turn again.”	Repetition, Cyclical imagery	Brahma, the universal spirit, remains constant but also moves through the cycles of life, death, and rebirth.
Stanza 2
	“Far or forgot to me is near;”	Paradox, Mysticism	Spatial and temporal opposites collapse in Brahma’s understanding; near and far are the same.
	“Shadow and sunlight are the same;”	Juxtaposition, Symbolism (shadow and light)	Good and evil, dark and light are unified in the divine perspective.
	“The vanished gods to me appear;”	Allusion (to forgotten gods), Paradox	Even the forgotten or dead gods are present and known to Brahma.
	“And one to me are shame and fame.”	Paradox, Antithesis (shame/fame)	Success and failure are indistinguishable from Brahma’s point of view.
Stanza 3
	“They reckon ill who leave me out;”	Cautionary Tone, Direct Address	Those who ignore Brahma do not understand the truth of the universe.
	“When me they fly, I am the wings;”	Paradox, Metaphor	Even when people try to escape Brahma, he is the very means of their flight; they cannot escape.
	“I am the doubter and the doubt,”	Paradox, Identity	Brahma embodies both the skeptical mind and the skepticism itself, showing unity in contradictions.
	“And I the hymn the Brahmin sings.”	Cultural Allusion (Brahmin), Mysticism	Brahma is the object of worship and the act of worship itself in Hindu traditions.
Stanza 4
	“The strong gods pine for my abode,”	Allusion (to Hindu deities), Personification	Even powerful gods long for the divine state that Brahma represents.
	“And pine in vain the sacred Seven;”	Allusion (to the Seven Sages), Mysticism	The seven sages, revered in Hindu mythology, also long for Brahma’s presence but cannot reach him.
	“But thou, meek lover of the good!”	Apostrophe, Address to the Reader	Emerson addresses the humble seeker of truth and virtue.
	“Find me, and turn thy back on heaven.”	Paradox, Irony	True spiritual fulfillment is found in embracing Brahma, even if it means rejecting conventional ideas of heaven.

Summary of Structural and Poetic Devices:

1. Irony and Paradox: Emerson frequently employs paradoxes to suggest the unity of opposites in the spiritual realm, which confounds ordinary understanding (e.g., life and death, shame and fame).
2. Allusions: The poem draws heavily on Hindu philosophy, referencing Brahma (the universal spirit), the Brahmin (priestly class), and the sacred Seven Sages.
3. Metaphors: Brahma is metaphorically the doubter and the doubt, as well as the wings of those who try to escape. These metaphors highlight the all-encompassing nature of the divine.
4. Repetition: The poem’s cyclical structure, seen in phrases like “I keep, and pass, and turn again,” mirrors the idea of reincarnation and the eternal flow of life.
5. Juxtaposition and Antithesis: The poem presents opposing concepts (shadow and sunlight, shame and fame) to demonstrate how these distinctions disappear in the presence of Brahma.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Brahma” by Ralph Waldo Emerson

Literary/Poetic Device	Example	Explanation
1. Irony	“If the red slayer think he slays”	This line is ironic because the slayer believes they have killed, but in the context of Brahma’s spiritual knowledge, no one can truly be killed.
2. Paradox	“Or if the slain think he is slain”	The paradox lies in the idea that the slain person thinks they are dead, but Emerson suggests that life transcends physical death, creating an apparent contradiction.
3. Allusion (Hinduism)	“I am the hymn the Brahmin sings”	This refers to the Brahmin priest, an allusion to Hindu rituals and philosophies, grounding the poem in Hindu spiritualism.
4. Metaphor	“I am the doubter and the doubt”	Brahma is both the skeptical person and the doubt they experience, symbolizing the unity of opposites within the divine essence.
5. Symbolism	“Shadow and sunlight are the same”	Shadow and sunlight symbolize dualities like good and evil, but Brahma perceives them as indistinguishable, representing spiritual transcendence.
6. Apostrophe	“But thou, meek lover of the good!”	The poem addresses an imagined reader directly, encouraging them to seek Brahma. This personalizes the narrative, creating a dialogue.
7. Personification	“The strong gods pine for my abode”	The gods are given human-like emotions (pining), emphasizing their longing for Brahma’s divine presence, even though they are deities.
8. Antithesis	“And one to me are shame and fame”	The antithesis between shame and fame highlights the collapse of moral and social distinctions in the face of the divine unity that Brahma represents.
9. Juxtaposition	“Shadow and sunlight are the same”	Juxtaposition of opposites (shadow and sunlight) conveys how Brahma transcends human concepts of duality.
10. Repetition	“I keep, and pass, and turn again”	Repetition in this line emphasizes the cyclical nature of life and the eternal presence of Brahma in all processes of existence.
11. Mysticism	“Far or forgot to me is near”	The line reflects the mystical theme by expressing that Brahma transcends normal spatial relations, making far and near indistinguishable.
12. Direct Address	“But thou, meek lover of the good!”	The poem directly addresses the reader, urging them to recognize and follow Brahma, enhancing the spiritual and instructive tone of the poem.
13. Oxymoron	“The vanished gods to me appear”	This oxymoron suggests that gods who are considered lost or forgotten still exist and are present to Brahma, emphasizing the concept of eternal existence.
14. Cultural Allusion	“The sacred Seven”	Refers to the Seven Sages in Hindu mythology, deepening the connection between the poem’s themes and Eastern spirituality.
15. Anaphora	“I keep, and pass, and turn again.”	The repeated use of “I” at the start of phrases reinforces Brahma’s omnipresence and cyclical nature, highlighting the divine speaker’s endless motion.
16. Metonymy	“I am the hymn the Brahmin sings”	“Hymn” stands for the entire spiritual ritual, using metonymy to suggest the presence of Brahma in all aspects of religious worship.
17. Hyperbole	“The strong gods pine for my abode”	Hyperbole is used to exaggerate the longing of the gods for Brahma, indicating how even the most powerful beings seek divine union.
18. Inversion (Anastrophe)	“Far or forgot to me is near”	The inversion of typical word order (placing “to me” in an unusual position) draws attention to Brahma’s unconventional perception of reality.
19. Allegory	The entire poem	“Brahma” can be read as an allegory of the transcendental journey of the soul, illustrating the unity of all existence and the role of the divine spirit.
20. Imagery	“When me they fly, I am the wings”	Vivid imagery of flying and wings conveys how Brahma is present even in attempts to escape the divine, representing omnipresence and spiritual paradox.

Themes: “Brahma” by Ralph Waldo Emerson

• Unity of Opposites: One of the central themes in “Brahma” is the idea that opposites, which humans usually see as separate or distinct, are actually unified in the spiritual realm. Emerson reflects this in lines such as “Shadow and sunlight are the same” and “And one to me are shame and fame.” These lines emphasize that concepts like light and darkness or success and failure have no real distinction in the eyes of Brahma, the universal spirit. This theme of unity aligns with the transcendental belief in the interconnectedness of all things, suggesting that human perceptions of duality are illusions.
• Transcendence of Life and Death: Another theme is the transcendence of life and death, rooted in the spiritual philosophy that existence is eternal and cyclical. In the lines “If the red slayer think he slays, / Or if the slain think he is slain,” Emerson challenges the idea that death is the end, suggesting that the soul continues beyond the physical body. This reflects Hindu beliefs in reincarnation and the eternal nature of the soul, where the physical aspects of life and death are superficial, and the true essence of life lies in the spirit, which transcends these boundaries.
• Divine Omnipresence: The poem conveys the theme of divine omnipresence, showing that Brahma exists in all things, including contradictory elements. The lines “When me they fly, I am the wings” and “I am the doubter and the doubt” illustrate Brahma’s all-encompassing presence. Whether in those who seek to flee from him or in those who question his existence, Brahma is always present. This theme underscores the idea that the divine spirit cannot be escaped or excluded, as it permeates everything in the universe, including thought, emotion, and action.
• Spiritual Enlightenment: Spiritual enlightenment, the realization of higher truths, is another significant theme in “Brahma.” Emerson invites the reader to seek a deeper understanding of existence beyond conventional ideas of heaven and earthly success. In the final stanza, “But thou, meek lover of the good! / Find me, and turn thy back on heaven,” the speaker encourages the pursuit of spiritual wisdom over conventional religious or moral goals. This suggests that true fulfillment comes not from traditional religious salvation, but from recognizing the unity of all things in Brahma, thereby achieving a state of spiritual awareness and harmony.

Literary Theories and “Brahma” by Ralph Waldo Emerson

Literary Theory	Application to “Brahma”	References from the Poem	Explanation
1. Transcendentalism	Emerson’s philosophy of transcendentalism is the core of “Brahma.” It emphasizes the unity of all existence, spiritual enlightenment, and the transcendence of physical reality.	“Shadow and sunlight are the same;” “And one to me are shame and fame”	Transcendentalism asserts that all aspects of existence are interconnected, and the poem reflects this through its themes of unity and overcoming human-made distinctions like good and evil.
2. Eastern Philosophy (Hinduism)	The poem heavily draws on Hindu concepts such as Brahma, the universal spirit, and the cyclical nature of life and death, aligning with Eastern spiritual ideas.	“If the red slayer think he slays, / Or if the slain think he is slain”	These lines directly reference the Hindu belief in reincarnation and the illusion of death. The poem conveys the Hindu idea that life is cyclical, and death is not the end.
3. Deconstruction	Deconstruction focuses on the collapse of binary oppositions and challenges fixed meanings, which is central to “Brahma.”	“I am the doubter and the doubt;” “Shadow and sunlight are the same”	The poem deconstructs dualities like light/dark, doubt/belief, showing how these opposites are false distinctions in the context of Brahma’s unity, aligning with deconstructionist ideas.

Critical Questions about “Brahma” by Ralph Waldo Emerson

• How does Emerson challenge the concept of duality in “Brahma”?
• Emerson challenges the traditional understanding of duality by presenting opposites as inherently unified in the spiritual realm. In the lines, “Shadow and sunlight are the same” and “And one to me are shame and fame,” Emerson suggests that what humans perceive as opposites—light and dark, success and failure—are, from Brahma’s perspective, part of a larger, unified reality. This reflects the transcendentalist belief that distinctions we make in life are superficial, and true spiritual understanding lies in recognizing the interconnectedness of all things. The poem calls into question the validity of moral and existential dualities, suggesting that the divine view transcends these human constructs.
• What role does the concept of the self play in relation to Brahma?
• In “Brahma,” the concept of the self is dissolved into the larger idea of Brahma, the universal spirit. In the line, “I am the doubter and the doubt,” Emerson indicates that Brahma embodies both the individual and their thoughts or doubts. This suggests that the self is not a separate, autonomous entity but part of a greater divine whole. Brahma encompasses all contradictions and aspects of existence, including the individual self. This challenges the notion of personal identity and autonomy, suggesting that all aspects of thought, action, and existence are manifestations of the divine. The poem raises a deeper question about the transcendentalist idea of self-reliance, as it implies that true understanding of the self comes from acknowledging its unity with the divine.
• How does “Brahma” reflect Eastern philosophical ideas, particularly from Hinduism?
• “Brahma” heavily reflects Hindu philosophical concepts, particularly the idea of Brahman as the ultimate, all-encompassing reality and the cyclical nature of life and death. In the lines, “If the red slayer think he slays, / Or if the slain think he is slain,” Emerson draws on the Hindu belief that life and death are illusions, and that the soul is eternal, merely passing through different forms in a cycle of reincarnation. This illustrates the idea that what humans perceive as finality in death is actually a transition within the infinite cycle of existence. Emerson integrates these Eastern ideas into his transcendentalist philosophy, presenting a universal vision of spiritual interconnectedness that transcends Western dualistic thought. The poem invites readers to consider how these Eastern spiritual views complement or challenge their own beliefs about life and death.
• What is the significance of the call to “turn thy back on heaven” in the final stanza?
• The final lines, “But thou, meek lover of the good! / Find me, and turn thy back on heaven,” contain a provocative call to reject conventional notions of heaven. In traditional religious belief, heaven represents the ultimate spiritual goal. However, Emerson suggests that true spiritual enlightenment comes not from seeking heaven, but from embracing a deeper understanding of Brahma. This implies that conventional religious teachings may limit spiritual growth, as they often focus on external rewards (like heaven) rather than internal, transcendent understanding. By urging the reader to “turn thy back on heaven,” Emerson seems to advocate for a personal journey toward spiritual enlightenment that transcends institutionalized religion and embraces the divine unity within all existence.

Literary Works Similar to “Brahma” by Ralph Waldo Emerson

1. “Song of Myself” by Walt Whitman
   Shares the theme of the unity of all life and the celebration of the individual self as part of the universal whole.
2. “The World-Soul” by Ralph Waldo Emerson
   Explores similar transcendentalist ideas of the soul’s connection to the universal spirit and the divine presence in nature.
3. “Auguries of Innocence” by William Blake
   Examines the mystical connection between the material and spiritual worlds, aligning with Emerson’s themes of unity and transcendence.
4. “Kubla Khan” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
   Touches on mystical visions and the intersection of the material and divine realms, much like Emerson’s treatment of Brahma.
5. “Ode: Intimations of Immortality” by William Wordsworth
   Reflects on the eternal nature of the soul and the spiritual unity of all existence, akin to the ideas in “Brahma.”

Representative Quotations of “Brahma” by Ralph Waldo Emerson

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“If the red slayer think he slays”	Refers to the illusion of death and the eternal nature of the soul.	Hindu philosophy – Reflects the concept of the soul’s immortality and the illusory nature of physical death.
“Or if the slain think he is slain”	Continues the idea that both the slayer and the slain misunderstand death.	Transcendentalism – Challenges conventional views on life and death, emphasizing spiritual continuity.
“They know not well the subtle ways / I keep, and pass, and turn again.”	Expresses Brahma’s control over the cycles of existence and reincarnation.	Eastern philosophy – Reflects the cyclical nature of life and death in Hinduism, such as reincarnation.
“Shadow and sunlight are the same”	Suggests that opposites like light and dark are unified in Brahma’s view.	Deconstruction – Demonstrates the collapse of binary oppositions, emphasizing the illusion of duality.
“The vanished gods to me appear”	Even forgotten gods remain present to Brahma, showing his omnipresence.	Transcendentalism – Suggests the enduring presence of all things in the universe, beyond human perception.
“And one to me are shame and fame”	Indicates that moral distinctions between success and failure are irrelevant.	Transcendentalism – Emphasizes the unity and equality of all human experiences in the eyes of the divine.
“When me they fly, I am the wings”	Even in escape attempts, Brahma is the force that enables flight.	Divine omnipresence – Illustrates the idea that the divine spirit exists within all actions and movements.
“I am the doubter and the doubt”	Brahma embodies both skepticism and belief, showing the unity of opposites.	Deconstruction – Reveals the interconnectedness of seemingly opposite ideas like doubt and belief.
“The strong gods pine for my abode”	Even powerful gods long for union with Brahma, the ultimate reality.	Eastern philosophy – Alludes to the limitations of even deities, emphasizing the supremacy of Brahma.
“Find me, and turn thy back on heaven”	Encourages spiritual seekers to reject conventional religious ideals.	Transcendentalism – Criticizes institutionalized religion and promotes personal spiritual enlightenment.

Suggested Readings: “Brahma” by Ralph Waldo Emerson

1. Chandrasekharan, K. R. “Emerson’s Brahma: An Indian Interpretation.” The New England Quarterly, vol. 33, no. 4, 1960, pp. 506–12. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/362679. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
2. Mclean, Andrew M. “Emerson’s Brahma as an Expression of Brahman.” The New England Quarterly, vol. 42, no. 1, 1969, pp. 115–22. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/363504. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
3. Emerson, Ralph Waldo. “Brahma.” Books Abroad, vol. 29, no. 1, 1955, pp. 41–41. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/40093807. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
4. Carpenter, Frederick I. “Immortality from India.” American Literature, vol. 1, no. 3, 1929, pp. 233–42. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2920134. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Life’s Tragedy” by Paul Laurence Dunbar

“Life’s Tragedy” by Paul Laurence Dunbar first appeared in his 1913 collection titled The Complete Poems of Paul Laurence Dunbar. This poem captures the poignant qualities of regret, longing, and the universal sorrow associated with unfulfilled desires. In it, Dunbar reflects on the sorrow of missed opportunities, where even those who come close to attaining happiness can feel a deeper tragedy, realizing that life often withholds full satisfaction. The main idea centers around the notion that the most painful tragedy of life is not just the absence of joy, but the fleeting, incomplete nature of it, leaving individuals in a perpetual state of yearning.

Text: “Life’s Tragedy” by Paul Laurence Dunbar

Annotations: “Life’s Tragedy” by Paul Laurence Dunbar

Stanza	Line(s)	Annotation
Stanza 1	“It may be misery not to sing at all, / And to go silent through the brimming day; / It may be misery never to be loved, / But deeper griefs than these beset the way.”	Themes: Unfulfilled desires, emotional isolation. Literary Devices: Metaphor in “misery not to sing” (self-expression as song) and “brimming day” (full of opportunity). Sound Devices: Alliteration in “misery” and “may,” “brimming” and “beset.” Rhetorical Strategy: Parallelism in “It may be misery” to emphasize common struggles, then contrasts with “deeper griefs.”
Stanza 2	“To sing the perfect song, / And by a half-tone lost the key, / There the potent sorrow, there the grief, / The pale, sad staring of Life’s Tragedy.”	Themes: Imperfection, missed perfection. Literary Devices: Symbolism in “perfect song” (the ideal or achievement) and “half-tone” (a small misstep leading to failure). Sound Devices: Consonance in “sorrow” and “grief.” Structural Devices: Juxtaposition between perfection and imperfection (perfect song vs. lost key). Poetic Devices: Visual imagery in “pale, sad staring.”
Stanza 3	“To have come near to the perfect love, / Not the hot passion of untempered youth, / But that which lies aside its vanity, / And gives, for thy trusting worship, truth.”	Themes: Idealized love, contrast between youthful and mature love. Literary Devices: Contrast between “hot passion” and “perfect love” (passionate, impulsive vs. mature, selfless love). Rhetorical Strategy: Use of antithesis to distinguish vanity from truth. Poetic Devices: Personification of love as something that “gives” truth.
Stanza 4	“This, this indeed is to be accursed, / For if we mortals love, or if we sing, / We count our joys not by what we have, / But by what kept us from that perfect thing.”	Themes: Human dissatisfaction, unattainable ideals. Literary Devices: Repetition of “this” to highlight the curse of human yearning. Sound Devices: Alliteration in “what we have” and “what kept.” Rhetorical Strategy: Paradox in finding sorrow in near-perfection. Poetic Devices: Abstract imagery in “perfect thing” representing unreachable ideals.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Life’s Tragedy” by Paul Laurence Dunbar

Device	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	“What we have” (Stanza 4), “misery” and “may” (Stanza 1)	Repetition of initial consonant sounds in nearby words. In this case, the “w” in “What we have” and “m” in “misery” and “may” create a rhythmic flow, emphasizing the concepts of possession and suffering.
Antithesis	“Hot passion of untempered youth” vs. “perfect love” (Stanza 3)	The juxtaposition of opposing ideas—youthful, impulsive passion versus mature, enduring love—emphasizes the contrast between superficial and meaningful relationships.
Assonance	“Sing” and “thing” (Stanza 4)	Repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words. The “i” sound in “sing” and “thing” creates internal rhyme, contributing to the poem’s musicality and reinforcing the connection between music and life’s desires.
Consonance	“Sorrow” and “grief” (Stanza 2)	Repetition of consonant sounds in the middle or end of words. The “r” sound in “sorrow” and “grief” emphasizes the weight and depth of emotions expressed in the poem.
Enjambment	“And by a half-tone lost the key, / There the potent sorrow…”	The continuation of a sentence from one line to the next without a pause. This structure reflects the idea of something being incomplete or interrupted, mirroring the theme of lost potential and imperfection.
Imagery	“The pale, sad staring of Life’s Tragedy” (Stanza 2)	Vivid description appealing to sight, creating a mental image. The “pale, sad staring” evokes the sorrowful gaze of someone reflecting on life’s disappointments, enhancing the melancholic tone of the poem.
Irony	“But deeper griefs than these beset the way” (Stanza 1)	The expectation is that not being loved or expressing oneself is the greatest sorrow, but the poem ironically suggests that there are worse griefs, such as the tragedy of coming close to, but not achieving, one’s dreams.
Juxtaposition	“Hot passion” vs. “perfect love” (Stanza 3)	Placing two contrasting ideas side by side to highlight their differences. The youthful, fleeting passion contrasts with the mature, lasting love, deepening the exploration of different types of human emotions.
Metaphor	“Misery not to sing” (Stanza 1)	A direct comparison without using “like” or “as.” Here, “singing” represents the expression of one’s true self or potential. Not being able to “sing” symbolizes the pain of not realizing one’s full potential.
Mood	Reflective and melancholic tone throughout	The emotional atmosphere created by Dunbar’s word choices and themes of missed opportunities. The mood evokes sorrow and introspection, inviting readers to contemplate their own experiences with unfulfilled desires.
Parallelism	“It may be misery not to sing at all, / It may be misery never to be loved” (Stanza 1)	The repetition of similar grammatical structures. The parallel phrasing emphasizes different forms of human suffering, connecting them thematically and highlighting the universality of these feelings.
Paradox	“We count our joys not by what we have, / But by what kept us from that perfect thing” (Stanza 4)	A seemingly contradictory statement that reveals a deeper truth. The idea that humans measure happiness by what they lack rather than what they possess highlights the complexities of human desire and dissatisfaction.
Personification	“Love…gives, for thy trusting worship, truth” (Stanza 3)	Giving human qualities to an abstract idea. Love is depicted as capable of “giving” truth, suggesting that true love is a force that reveals deeper realities.
Repetition	“This, this indeed is to be accursed” (Stanza 4)	Repeating the word “this” to emphasize the speaker’s sense of being cursed. The repetition adds emotional intensity and draws attention to the key idea of missed perfection.
Rhetorical Question	Implied in the reflective tone of the poem, asking whether life is measured by missed opportunities.	The rhetorical question is not directly stated but implied. The poem reflects on the human condition, posing unspoken questions about the meaning of life and fulfillment, encouraging readers to think deeply.
Rhyme	“Sing” and “thing” (Stanza 4)	Words that sound alike at the ends of lines. The rhyme connects the ideas of singing (self-expression) and the unattainable “perfect thing” (unfulfilled potential), reinforcing the poem’s theme.
Simile	Not directly present, but implied comparisons between life and song or love.	While Dunbar doesn’t use explicit similes, his language suggests metaphorical comparisons, such as love being like a song or life’s struggles being like a half-lost melody.
Symbolism	“Perfect song” (Stanza 2) and “perfect love” (Stanza 3)	Using objects or concepts to represent broader ideas. The “perfect song” and “perfect love” symbolize unattainable ideals, emphasizing the poem’s exploration of human longing for perfection.
Tone	Somber and reflective throughout	The author’s attitude toward the subject matter. Dunbar’s tone is somber, reflecting on the sorrow of life’s near-misses and the deep emotional weight of unfulfilled desires.
Visual Imagery	“Pale, sad staring” (Stanza 2)	Descriptive language that appeals to sight, helping the reader visualize sorrow and reflection on life’s tragic aspects. This image adds to the poem’s melancholic tone.

Themes: “Life’s Tragedy” by Paul Laurence Dunbar

• Unfulfilled Potential: A central theme in “Life’s Tragedy” is the sorrow of coming close to perfection but never quite achieving it. The poem reflects on the agony of missed opportunities, as seen in the lines “To sing the perfect song, / And by a half-tone lost the key.” This symbolizes life’s struggles, where individuals may strive for their best but fall just short, leaving a lasting feeling of regret. The repetition of this idea throughout the poem underscores the inherent tragedy in human efforts to reach their fullest potential, only to be thwarted by small, seemingly insignificant obstacles.
• The Pain of Near-Perfection: The poem emphasizes that the most profound sorrow comes not from complete failure, but from nearly achieving greatness and missing it by a narrow margin. In the lines “To have come near to the perfect love, / Not the hot passion of untempered youth,” Dunbar illustrates this theme by contrasting youthful passion with the more meaningful, mature love that is just within reach but ultimately unattainable. This notion of being “near” yet never fully realizing perfection adds to the deeper emotional resonance of the poem, where the pain lies in proximity rather than distance.
• The Elusiveness of Joy: Another key theme is the fleeting and incomplete nature of happiness. Dunbar suggests that people do not measure their joy by what they possess, but by what they are unable to attain, as reflected in the lines, “We count our joys not by what we have, / But by what kept us from that perfect thing.” This highlights the human tendency to focus on the things that are out of reach, making true contentment elusive. The poem suggests that even when we experience joy, it is overshadowed by the awareness of what could have been, thus deepening the sense of life’s inherent tragedy.
• Love and Its Imperfections: Love, in its idealized form, is another major theme in the poem. Dunbar contrasts “the hot passion of untempered youth” with “perfect love,” implying that while youthful love is often intense, it is flawed by vanity and immaturity. The “perfect love” is something more enduring, based on truth and trust, but it remains elusive. In the poem, the tragedy is not in the absence of love but in coming close to the ideal only to fall short, leaving an emotional void. This theme underscores the complexity of love as both a source of fulfillment and disappointment, contributing to the poem’s overarching sense of sorrow.

Literary Theories and “Life’s Tragedy” by Paul Laurence Dunbar

Literary Theory	Application to “Life’s Tragedy”	References from the Poem
Psychological Criticism	This theory examines the inner workings of the human mind, focusing on emotions, desires, and motivations. In “Life’s Tragedy,” the poem delves into the psychological pain of unfulfilled desires and the torment of coming close to perfection but never reaching it. The poem portrays the emotional distress that results from this near-achievement, highlighting the tension between the individual’s aspirations and reality.	“We count our joys not by what we have, / But by what kept us from that perfect thing” (Stanza 4). This reflects the psychological anguish of yearning for something just out of reach, illustrating the human tendency to dwell on what is missing rather than what is attained.
Existentialism	This theory explores human existence, freedom, and the search for meaning. “Life’s Tragedy” can be read through an existentialist lens, where the characters are faced with the inevitable disappointment of life’s imperfections and the struggle to find purpose in a world where complete happiness is unattainable. The poem conveys the sense of existential angst in its portrayal of the human condition as one of endless striving with little satisfaction.	“The pale, sad staring of Life’s Tragedy” (Stanza 2) suggests the inevitable contemplation of life’s disappointments, a reflection of the existential belief that life often lacks inherent meaning and humans must grapple with this reality.
Romanticism	Romanticism emphasizes emotion, individual experience, and the sublime. “Life’s Tragedy” reflects Romantic themes through its exploration of deep personal emotions, especially the pain of missed love and unfulfilled potential. The poem’s focus on the individual’s emotional response to life’s imperfections aligns with Romanticism’s emphasis on subjectivity and the inner world of feelings.	“To have come near to the perfect love, / Not the hot passion of untempered youth” (Stanza 3) illustrates the Romantic ideal of love that transcends youthful passion, seeking deeper truth and emotional fulfillment, but ultimately finding it elusive.

Critical Questions about “Life’s Tragedy” by Paul Laurence Dunbar

• How does the poem reflect on the concept of missed opportunities and human potential?
• In “Life’s Tragedy,” Dunbar explores the sorrow of coming close to one’s goals but never fully achieving them. The poem raises the question of whether the deepest grief stems not from failure, but from nearly reaching perfection and then falling short. This is evident in the line, “To sing the perfect song, / And by a half-tone lost the key” (Stanza 2). The critical question here is: Does Dunbar suggest that the real tragedy in life lies in our proximity to success? This reflection invites readers to consider how unfulfilled potential haunts human existence, making the gap between effort and accomplishment a source of deep sorrow.
• How does Dunbar use the metaphor of music to symbolize life’s struggles and imperfections?
• In “Life’s Tragedy,” Dunbar employs the metaphor of music to represent the pursuit of perfection and the emotional pain of falling short. The “perfect song” symbolizes the ideal, while the loss of the key by a “half-tone” reflects the minor errors that prevent one from achieving that ideal. This raises the question: How does music as a metaphor deepen the theme of imperfection in the poem? The use of this metaphor prompts readers to think about life’s aspirations in terms of harmony and dissonance, where even the smallest mistakes can result in profound disappointment, as reflected in the line, “There the potent sorrow, there the grief” (Stanza 2).
• What does the poem suggest about the nature of love, and how does it contrast different forms of love?
• Dunbar contrasts youthful, passionate love with a more mature, idealized form of love in “Life’s Tragedy.” He describes “the hot passion of untempered youth” and contrasts it with a love that “gives, for thy trusting worship, truth” (Stanza 3). This distinction raises a critical question: Does Dunbar imply that true love is only attainable through maturity and selflessness, and that youthful love is inherently flawed? The poem suggests that while youthful passion may be intense, it is often fleeting and superficial, whereas true love is based on deeper values but is equally difficult to achieve fully, leaving individuals with a sense of longing and incompletion.
• How does the poem convey the tension between joy and sorrow in human experience?
• Dunbar presents the idea that people measure their happiness not by what they have but by what they have missed out on. The line “We count our joys not by what we have, / But by what kept us from that perfect thing” (Stanza 4) underscores this tension between joy and sorrow. This raises the question: Does the human tendency to focus on unfulfilled desires prevent true happiness? The poem suggests that the very act of seeking perfection can lead to dissatisfaction, as people often dwell on the gaps between their reality and their aspirations, creating a tragic cycle of longing and discontentment even in moments of joy.

Literary Works Similar to “Life’s Tragedy” by Paul Laurence Dunbar

1. “Ode to a Nightingale” by John Keats
   Like “Life’s Tragedy,” this poem explores the contrast between idealized beauty and the painful realities of human suffering, reflecting on unfulfilled desires and the fleeting nature of joy.
2. “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost
   Similar to Dunbar’s theme of missed opportunities, this poem reflects on the choices people make and the regret or wonder about the path not taken, highlighting the idea of life’s imperfection and uncertainty.
3. “To an Athlete Dying Young” by A.E. Housman
   Both poems deal with the notion of potential unfulfilled, with Housman exploring the fleeting nature of youth and glory, akin to Dunbar’s exploration of the tragedy of coming close to perfection.
4. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot
   This poem, like “Life’s Tragedy,” grapples with themes of self-doubt, missed opportunities, and the inability to achieve idealized forms of love or fulfillment, capturing the anxiety of incomplete achievement.
5. “A Dream Deferred” by Langston Hughes
   Both poems contemplate the emotional impact of unfulfilled dreams and desires, with Hughes examining the potential consequences of deferred aspirations, much like Dunbar reflects on near-perfection as a source of sorrow.

Representative Quotations of “Life’s Tragedy” by Paul Laurence Dunbar

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“It may be misery not to sing at all”	This opening line introduces the theme of self-expression, suggesting that the inability to express oneself (through song) is a form of misery.	Psychological Criticism: Examines the internal struggle of repressing one’s desires and the emotional toll of silence.
“And to go silent through the brimming day”	The “brimming day” represents a life full of potential, yet the speaker remains silent, hinting at unfulfilled possibilities.	Existentialism: Reflects the theme of individuals grappling with their freedom and the potential meanings they fail to actualize.
“It may be misery never to be loved”	The speaker reflects on the universal human desire for love, suggesting that a lack of love is a deep form of suffering.	Romanticism: Highlights the emotional and individual longing for connection, which is central to Romantic thought.
“But deeper griefs than these beset the way”	This line reveals that there are even greater sorrows than loneliness or silence, setting up the poem’s exploration of unfulfilled potential.	Tragic Theory: Introduces the concept of greater existential or emotional tragedies, key in classical and modern tragedy theory.
“To sing the perfect song, / And by a half-tone lost the key”	The metaphor of singing a “perfect song” but losing the key by a small margin reflects the theme of near-perfection and ultimate failure.	Deconstruction: This perspective would explore the instability of meaning and how something so close to perfection becomes flawed.
“There the potent sorrow, there the grief”	The speaker directly points to the profound sadness that comes from losing something as small as a half-tone, symbolizing minor failures leading to larger grief.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Suggests how minor failures can trigger deeper emotional responses rooted in unconscious fears and desires.
“To have come near to the perfect love”	The idea of coming close to, but not achieving, perfect love underscores the theme of unattainable ideals.	Romanticism: Reflects on the Romantic ideal of perfect love, yet acknowledges its elusive nature.
“We count our joys not by what we have, / But by what kept us from that perfect thing”	The speaker suggests that people focus on what they lack rather than appreciating what they possess, a paradox of human nature.	Existentialism: Explores the tension between individual desires and the elusive nature of fulfillment, central to existential thought.
“This, this indeed is to be accursed”	Repetition of “this” underscores the intensity of the curse of imperfection, emphasizing the pain of near-achievement.	Tragic Theory: The idea of being cursed aligns with classical tragedy, where characters often suffer because of fate or flaws.
“The pale, sad staring of Life’s Tragedy”	This closing image personifies tragedy, suggesting that it quietly and persistently haunts the speaker, reinforcing the inevitability of sorrow.	Existentialism: Illustrates existential angst, as the speaker must face the quiet, inevitable disappointments of life.

Suggested Readings: “Life’s Tragedy” by Paul Laurence Dunbar

1. Braxton, Joanne M. “Dunbar, the Originator.” African American Review, vol. 41, no. 2, 2007, pp. 205–14. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40027052. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
2. Kinnamon, Keneth. “Three Black Writers and the Anthologized Canon.” American Literary Realism, 1870-1910, vol. 23, no. 3, 1991, pp. 42–51. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27746456. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
3. Cook, William W. New England Review (1978-1982), vol. 1, no. 2, 1978, pp. 241–46. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40355810. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
4. Nicholas, Xavier. “PAUL AND ALICE.” Callaloo, vol. 38, no. 3, 2015, pp. 440–80. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24739369. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Marking Time” by Owen Sheers

“Marking Time” by Owen Sheers, first appeared in his 2005 poetry collection Skirrid Hill, captures the complex emotions surrounding love and the passage of time, using the metaphor of lovers’ physical intimacy to explore deeper themes of memory, loss, and the transient nature of human connections. The central idea revolves around the tension between the fleeting moments of passion and the indelible marks they leave on one’s life. Sheers employs vivid imagery, such as the imprint of bodies on sheets, to evoke the physicality of love while also emphasizing its impermanence. The poem is characterized by its reflective tone and nuanced exploration of time’s impact on relationships, making it both intimate and universal in its themes.

Text: “Marking Time” by Owen Sheers

That mark upon your back is finally fading
in the way our memory will,
of that night our lust wouldn’t wait for bed
so laid us out upon the floor instead
where we worked up that scar —
two tattered flags flying from your spine’s mast,
a brand-burn secret in the small of your back.

I trace them now and feel the disturbance again.
The still waters of your skin broken, the volte engaging
as we make our marks like lovers who carve trees,
the equation of their names equalled by an arrow
that buckles under time but never leaves,
and so though changed, under the bark, the skin,
the loving scar remains.

Annotations: “Marking Time” by Owen Sheers

Line	Annotation
“That mark upon your back is finally fading”	Metaphor: The fading mark symbolizes the inevitable passage of time and the gradual fading of memories. The mark also represents the physical and emotional imprint of their love.
“in the way our memory will,”	Simile: The comparison between the fading mark and memory emphasizes the transient nature of both physical and emotional experiences. Time erodes memories, just as the scar fades.
“of that night our lust wouldn’t wait for bed”	Enjambment and Personification: Lust is personified as something uncontrollable, reflecting the spontaneity and urgency of desire. The lack of punctuation drives the narrative forward, mirroring the impulsiveness of the act.
“so laid us out upon the floor instead”	Imagery: The physical placement on the floor emphasizes the raw, primal nature of their desire, contrasting with the more traditional association of bed with intimacy.
“where we worked up that scar”	Metaphor: The “scar” here metaphorically represents the physical and emotional marks left by love. It suggests that intense experiences leave permanent traces, even if the surface heals.
“two tattered flags flying from your spine’s mast”	Metaphor and Symbolism: The “tattered flags” symbolize the scars as a sign of vulnerability and wear, while the “spine’s mast” evokes imagery of a ship, suggesting strength and the ability to endure through the storms of time.
“a brand-burn secret in the small of your back”	Oxymoron and Imagery: The phrase “brand-burn secret” combines pain (“brand-burn”) with intimacy (“secret”). This paradox highlights the idea that love can be both painful and private, leaving behind marks hidden from view.
“I trace them now and feel the disturbance again.”	Repetition of Sensation: The act of tracing the scars brings back the emotional intensity of the past. The “disturbance” suggests that while time has passed, the feelings associated with the scars remain potent.
“The still waters of your skin broken, the volte engaging”	Metaphor: “Still waters” represents calm, unmarked skin, while “broken” reflects how love disturbs this calm. The term “volte” refers to a sudden change in direction, mirroring the disruption love causes in life.
“as we make our marks like lovers who carve trees,”	Simile and Allusion: The comparison to lovers carving their initials into trees alludes to the tradition of creating lasting symbols of love, yet the poem acknowledges that time affects these marks.
“the equation of their names equalled by an arrow”	Metaphor: The “equation” of names represents the symbolic unity of lovers, and the “arrow” evokes Cupid’s arrow, symbolizing love. However, the arrow also hints at vulnerability, as arrows can wound.
“that buckles under time but never leaves,”	Personification: Time is depicted as a force that weakens (“buckles”) but cannot entirely erase the marks of love. This line emphasizes the resilience of love’s impact, even as it is altered by time.
“and so though changed, under the bark, the skin,”	Metaphor and Imagery: “Bark” and “skin” are metaphors for the surface of both trees and people. This line suggests that while appearances may change, deeper emotions and experiences remain embedded.
“the loving scar remains.”	Oxymoron: The juxtaposition of “loving” and “scar” captures the poem’s central theme: that love, while beautiful, often leaves behind emotional scars that endure even as the relationship evolves or fades.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Marking Time” by Owen Sheers

Device	Definition	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.	“two tattered flags flying from your spine’s mast”	The repetition of the “t” and “f” sounds creates a rhythmic, almost musical quality, reinforcing the image of vulnerability and strength represented by the scars.
Allusion	A reference to another text, event, or symbol.	“like lovers who carve trees”	Refers to the tradition of lovers carving their initials into trees, symbolizing lasting love.
Ambiguity	Use of language with multiple meanings or interpretations.	“the loving scar remains”	The “scar” can represent both the physical and emotional impacts of love, leaving room for multiple interpretations.
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds in nearby words.	“laid us out upon the floor instead”	The repetition of the “a” and “o” sounds creates a soft, rhythmic quality, enhancing the sense of intimacy.
Consonance	Repetition of consonant sounds within or at the end of words.	“brand-burn secret in the small of your back”	The repeated “r” and “b” sounds enhance the intensity of the imagery, evoking the sense of physical branding.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence or phrase beyond the end of a line.	“of that night our lust wouldn’t wait for bed / so laid us out”	The lack of punctuation between lines reflects the urgency of their actions, mirroring the flow of passion.
Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.	“two tattered flags flying from your spine’s mast”	Vivid imagery conveys the scars as visual symbols of both vulnerability (tattered) and resilience (mast).
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality.	“loving scar”	The phrase contrasts the tenderness of “loving” with the pain of a “scar,” highlighting love’s dual nature.
Juxtaposition	Placing two elements close together for contrasting effect.	“two tattered flags”	The juxtaposition of “tattered” with “flags” suggests fragility in something traditionally viewed as a symbol of strength.
Metaphor	A direct comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as.”	“The still waters of your skin broken”	Compares skin to “still waters,” representing calmness disrupted by passion, evoking both physical and emotional disturbance.
Oxymoron	A figure of speech that combines contradictory terms.	“loving scar”	Combines the opposing ideas of love and a scar, emphasizing the paradox of love leaving painful yet cherished marks.
Paradox	A statement that seems contradictory but may reveal a deeper truth.	“The loving scar remains.”	The paradox lies in how a painful scar can also be a symbol of love that endures, suggesting complexity in love’s impact.
Personification	Assigning human characteristics to non-human entities.	“lust wouldn’t wait for bed”	Lust is given human qualities, portraying it as an impatient force that drives the lovers to act without control.
Repetition	Reuse of words or phrases for emphasis.	“that night… that scar”	Repetition emphasizes the importance of the night and the lasting emotional impact of the scar, giving weight to memory and experience.
Rhetorical Question	A question asked for effect, not meant to be answered.	Implicit in the reflective tone of the poem	While not posed as a direct question, the poem invites reflection on the permanence of love’s marks without providing explicit answers.
Simile	A comparison using “like” or “as.”	“like lovers who carve trees”	Compares the lovers’ scars to marks carved into trees, symbolizing their attempt to create something permanent.
Symbolism	Using objects or actions to represent ideas or concepts.	“scar”	The scar symbolizes the lasting impact of love, representing both physical and emotional permanence despite change.
Synecdoche	A figure of speech where a part represents the whole.	“your spine’s mast”	The “spine’s mast” refers to the spine as a symbol of strength, representing the lover’s physical and emotional endurance.
Volta	A shift or turn in thought or argument.	“The still waters of your skin broken, the volte engaging”	The volta (Italian for “turn”) shifts from a calm reflection to a deeper exploration of the lasting emotional scars left by love.
Wordplay	Playful use of language for effect.	“equation of their names equalled by an arrow”	The use of “equation” and “arrow” plays with language, suggesting both a mathematical unity and the idea of Cupid’s arrow, blending logic with emotion.

Themes: “Marking Time” by Owen Sheers

• The Physical and Emotional Imprints of Love: “Marking Time” delves deeply into the idea that love, particularly physical love, leaves both visible and invisible marks on individuals. The physical scars referenced in the poem, such as the “two tattered flags flying from your spine’s mast,” serve as symbols of the emotional and physical impact of intimacy. These marks are described as permanent, even as they fade with time, mirroring how emotional experiences linger long after the moment has passed. The poem emphasizes that love is not fleeting; it leaves an indelible mark, both literally on the body and figuratively on the soul.
• The Transience of Passion and Memory: A recurring theme in the poem is the fleeting nature of both physical passion and memory. The line, “That mark upon your back is finally fading / in the way our memory will,” highlights how intense experiences, though vivid in the moment, inevitably blur over time. Sheers draws a parallel between the physical fading of the scars and the gradual erosion of memory, suggesting that, while the moments of passion were once immediate and urgent, they are not immune to the passage of time. This reinforces the idea that even the strongest emotions and experiences are subject to change.
• Time and Its Effects on Relationships: The title “Marking Time” itself suggests a meditation on time’s role in love and relationships. Throughout the poem, time is presented as a force that alters, but does not entirely erase, the effects of love. For example, in the lines, “the equation of their names equalled by an arrow / that buckles under time but never leaves,” time is depicted as bending the marks of love, symbolized by the arrow, but not removing them. This demonstrates that while relationships and feelings evolve and may weaken under time’s influence, the core memories and emotions remain embedded.
• Love as a Source of Both Pleasure and Pain: The poem explores the dual nature of love, presenting it as both a beautiful and painful experience. The scars described in the poem are both a result of intimate passion and a reminder of its emotional cost. The oxymoron “loving scar” encapsulates this duality, emphasizing that while love brings pleasure, it also leaves behind wounds that endure. The description of the scar as “a brand-burn secret in the small of your back” suggests a hidden pain that persists, even after the moment of intimacy has passed, highlighting the complex, bittersweet nature of love.

Literary Theories and “Marking Time” by Owen Sheers

Literary Theory	Application to “Marking Time”	References from the Poem
Psychoanalytic Theory	This theory focuses on unconscious desires, repressed emotions, and the human psyche’s complexities. In “Marking Time,” the speaker’s reflection on the scars represents a deeper exploration of the unconscious impact of love and intimacy. The scars are symbolic of emotional wounds and repressed memories, with the speaker continually revisiting and tracing them, suggesting unresolved emotions.	“I trace them now and feel the disturbance again” — this line indicates the ongoing psychological disturbance and emotional imprint of past love.
Feminist Theory	Feminist criticism could examine the portrayal of the physical body, particularly the female body, as a site where love and power dynamics are inscribed. The poem presents the body as marked by both pleasure and pain, potentially reflecting power imbalances in intimate relationships. Feminist theory would explore how the woman’s body becomes a canvas for the male speaker’s emotions and desires, and how that can reflect broader social norms regarding gender and love.	“That mark upon your back is finally fading” — the fading mark on the woman’s back can symbolize how a woman’s body bears the impact of relationships, often as a passive recipient of the male gaze and desire.
Post-Structuralism	Post-structuralism challenges fixed meanings and embraces ambiguity and multiplicity in interpretation. In “Marking Time,” the poem plays with the concepts of time, memory, and the body, using language that suggests instability and change. The use of metaphors like “scar” and “mark” represents shifting meanings—these physical marks are both signs of love and of pain, and they change over time, reflecting the fluid nature of identity and experience.	“The loving scar remains” — this line embodies the ambiguity of meaning, where the scar is a symbol of both love and trauma, challenging a single interpretation.

Critical Questions about “Marking Time” by Owen Sheers

• How does “Marking Time” explore the relationship between physicality and emotional memory?
• The poem intertwines physical scars with emotional memory, suggesting that physical acts of love leave a lasting impression not only on the body but also on the mind. The line “That mark upon your back is finally fading / in the way our memory will” draws a parallel between the fading of physical marks and the gradual erosion of memory. This raises the question of whether emotional scars, much like physical ones, truly fade with time or if they remain hidden beneath the surface. The poem seems to suggest that even though these marks may no longer be visible, they continue to affect the individuals involved, implying a deep connection between physicality and lasting emotional memory.
• In what ways does “Marking Time” address the concept of time and its impact on relationships?
• The poem’s title, “Marking Time,” immediately brings attention to the role of time in shaping and altering relationships. Throughout the poem, time is depicted as a force that both changes and preserves. In the line, “the equation of their names equalled by an arrow / that buckles under time but never leaves,” Sheers presents time as something that weakens the visible signs of love but cannot entirely erase them. This invites the question of how time alters the intensity of love and whether the marks of love are ever truly lost. Does the poem suggest that love’s impact is eternal, or does time inevitably erode even the most passionate connections?
• What role does the body play as a site of emotional experience in “Marking Time”?
• The poem uses the body as a canvas upon which emotional experiences are etched. The scars on the lover’s back, described as “two tattered flags flying from your spine’s mast,” symbolize the physical consequences of love, but also the emotional weight carried by the body. This raises the question of whether the body is simply a passive recipient of these emotional experiences or an active participant in the creation of meaning. The marks on the body may fade, but the emotional “scar” remains, suggesting that the body holds onto these experiences in ways that words or memory cannot fully express.
• How does “Marking Time” challenge traditional notions of love and intimacy?
• In “Marking Time,” love is portrayed not as an idealized, purely joyful experience but as something that is complex and marked by both pleasure and pain. The line “loving scar remains” encapsulates this tension, presenting love as something that leaves behind lasting, sometimes painful marks. This challenges traditional, romanticized views of love by introducing the idea that love is inherently linked to vulnerability and suffering. The poem encourages readers to question whether love can exist without these emotional scars, and whether intimacy always carries with it the potential for both connection and emotional injury.

Literary Works Similar to “Marking Time” by Owen Sheers

1. “Love After Love” by Derek Walcott
   Both poems explore the aftermath of love and how time shapes and alters relationships, focusing on self-reflection and emotional memory.
2. “When We Two Parted” by Lord Byron
   This poem, like “Marking Time,” deals with the lingering emotional scars and pain left behind by a past relationship.
3. “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock” by T.S. Eliot
   Eliot’s poem similarly reflects on love, time, and regret, with a focus on how intimate experiences leave lasting emotional imprints.
4. “Meeting at Night” by Robert Browning
   Browning’s poem shares the theme of physical passion and the fleeting nature of romantic encounters, similar to the urgency seen in Sheers’ work.
5. “Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden
   Like “Marking Time,” this poem highlights the emotional weight of love and loss, focusing on how love leaves a permanent mark even after separation.

Representative Quotations of “Marking Time” by Owen Sheers

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“That mark upon your back is finally fading”	Refers to the physical scar left from an intimate encounter, symbolizing how memories and experiences fade over time.	Psychoanalytic Theory: The fading scar reflects repressed memories and the unconscious mind’s difficulty in letting go of past emotional experiences.
“in the way our memory will”	Compares the fading of the scar to the fading of emotional memory, drawing attention to the transient nature of both.	Post-Structuralism: Memory is unstable, constantly shifting and altering, which challenges fixed notions of emotional permanence.
“of that night our lust wouldn’t wait for bed”	Describes the urgency and spontaneity of the lovers’ physical passion.	Feminist Theory: This urgency could be analyzed through the lens of power dynamics, questioning how desire influences gender roles in intimate relationships.
“two tattered flags flying from your spine’s mast”	The scars are compared to flags, symbolizing both the fragility and strength of the relationship.	Symbolism: The “tattered flags” symbolize vulnerability and the emotional battle scars of love, signifying the endurance of intimate experiences.
“a brand-burn secret in the small of your back”	Describes the scar as a hidden yet permanent reminder of their passionate encounter.	Psychoanalytic Theory: The “brand-burn” represents the deep emotional wounds left by love, symbolizing the lasting effect of repressed desires.
“I trace them now and feel the disturbance again”	The speaker revisits the emotional intensity of the past through the act of touching the scars.	Phenomenology: The act of tracing the scars evokes lived experience, highlighting the relationship between the body and memory.
“as we make our marks like lovers who carve trees”	Compares the scars left on the lover’s body to the tradition of carving initials in trees, symbolizing lasting love.	Romanticism: The simile invokes nature and timeless love, reflecting the romantic ideal of creating something permanent from fleeting passion.
“the equation of their names equalled by an arrow”	Suggests a symbolic unity between the lovers, represented by an arrow, which is a common symbol of love.	Structuralism: The “equation” of names and the “arrow” point to the use of symbols and signs within cultural codes of love.
“that buckles under time but never leaves”	Time weakens the physical symbols of love, but it does not completely erase them.	Deconstruction: Challenges the permanence of love by showing how time weakens but does not entirely remove emotional marks, reflecting instability.
“the loving scar remains”	The final line reflects the lasting emotional and physical impact of the relationship, despite its changes over time.	Psychoanalytic Theory: The “scar” represents the unresolved emotional trauma that remains embedded in the subconscious mind, even after healing.

Suggested Readings: “Marking Time” by Owen Sheers

1. Sheers, Owen. “Poetry and Place: Some Personal Reflections.” Geography, vol. 93, no. 3, 2008, pp. 172–75. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40574282. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
2. Nelson, Helena. Ambit, no. 183, 2006, pp. 83–83. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44337046. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
3. Sheers, Owen. “Learning the Language.” The Poetry Ireland Review, no. 62, 1999, pp. 49–49. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25579418. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
4. Bessant, Leslie. The International Journal of African Historical Studies, vol. 37, no. 3, 2004, pp. 581–82. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/4129064. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Yankee Doodle:” Nursery Rhyme

“Yankee Doodle,” a well-known American nursery rhyme, first appeared in written form in the year 1775 during the American Revolution. It was included in various collections of songs and was often sung by both British and American troops during wartime occasions. The song’s main qualities include its catchy, repetitive melody and simple lyrics, which were easy to remember and sing. Originally, it was a British satire mocking American colonists, but it was later embraced by the Americans as a patriotic anthem. The main idea of “Yankee Doodle” revolves around the transformation of a derogatory song into a symbol of national pride, representing resilience and unity in the face of adversity.

Text: “Yankee Doodle:” Nursery Rhyme

Yankee Doodle went to town,
Riding on a pony.
He stuck a feather in his cap.
And called it macaroni.

Yankee Doodle, Fa, So, La.
Yankee Doodle Dandy.
Yankee Doodle, Fa, So, La.
Buttermilk and Brandy.

Yankee Doodle went to town,
To buy a pair of trousers.
He swore he could not see the town,
For so many houses.

Yankee Doodle, Fa, So, La.
Yankee Doodle Dandy.
Yankee Doodle, Fa, So, La.
Buttermilk and Brandy.

Annotations: “Yankee Doodle:” Nursery Rhyme

Stanza	Devices	Functions
Yankee Doodle went to town, Riding on a pony. He stuck a feather in his cap. And called it macaroni.	Imagery, Rhyme, Irony	The imagery of “riding on a pony” creates a whimsical, playful tone. The rhyme between “pony” and “macaroni” adds to the lighthearted nature, while the irony lies in calling a simple feather “macaroni,” mocking pretentious fashion trends of the time.
Yankee Doodle, Fa, So, La. Yankee Doodle Dandy. Yankee Doodle, Fa, So, La. Buttermilk and Brandy.	Repetition, Nonsense	“Buttermilk and Brandy” provides a musical quality. The repetition of “Yankee Doodle” emphasizes the rhythm, and the nonsense words contribute to a fun, carefree tone.
Yankee Doodle went to town, To buy a pair of trousers. He swore he could not see the town, For so many houses.	Hyperbole, Irony, Rhyme	Hyperbole is used in the exaggerated statement that he “could not see the town for so many houses.” The irony comes from the contrast between the mundane task of buying trousers and the grandeur implied by the name “Yankee Doodle.” The rhyme continues to keep the playful tone.
Yankee Doodle, Fa, So, La. Yankee Doodle Dandy. Yankee Doodle, Fa, So, La. Buttermilk and Brandy.	Alliteration, Repetition, Nonsense	Similar to the second stanza, the use of alliteration and repetition reinforces the song’s musicality, while nonsense words maintain its playful and lighthearted nature.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Yankee Doodle:” Nursery Rhyme

Device	Example from “Yankee Doodle”	Definition	Explanation
Imagery	“Riding on a pony”	Descriptive language that creates a picture in the reader’s mind.	The image of Yankee Doodle riding on a pony evokes a lighthearted, childlike vision.
Rhyme	“Pony” and “Macaroni”	A repetition of similar sounds at the end of lines.	The rhyme between “pony” and “macaroni” makes the nursery rhyme catchy and fun.
Irony	“Called it macaroni”	A contrast between expectation and reality, often humorous.	The irony lies in calling a simple feather “macaroni,” which was a term for fancy fashion, mocking exaggerated sophistication.
Repetition	“Yankee Doodle, Fa, So, La”	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis or rhythm.	The repeated phrase “Yankee Doodle” enhances the sing-song quality of the rhyme.
Alliteration	“Fa, So, La” and “Buttermilk and Brandy”	The repetition of initial consonant sounds in closely connected words.	The repetition of sounds in “Fa, So, La” and “Buttermilk and Brandy” creates a musical flow.
Nonsense Words	“Fa, So, La”	Words with no specific meaning, used for fun or rhythm.	“Fa, So, La” adds to the playful and rhythmic tone of the rhyme without contributing meaning.
Hyperbole	“He swore he could not see the town, For so many houses.”	Exaggeration for effect.	The statement exaggerates the number of houses to highlight confusion or surprise.
Satire	The entire rhyme mocking pretentious fashion.	Use of humor, irony, or ridicule to expose or criticize.	“Yankee Doodle” satirizes the over-the-top fashion of the time by calling a feather “macaroni.”
Assonance	“Yankee Doodle” and “Dandy”	The repetition of vowel sounds within words.	The long “oo” sound in “Yankee Doodle” and “Dandy” creates a melodic effect.
Consonance	“Buttermilk and Brandy”	The repetition of consonant sounds within words.	The “b” sound in “Buttermilk and Brandy” creates a pleasing rhythm.
Tone	Playful and whimsical	The attitude or feeling expressed by the poem.	The rhyme’s tone is lighthearted and humorous, reflected in the nonsensical elements.
Meter	Regular rhythm in lines	The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in poetry.	The regular meter of the rhyme contributes to its singable, musical quality.
Symbolism	“Feather in his cap”	When an object or element represents a larger idea.	The feather symbolizes simple, understated pride, contrasting with the fashionable “macaroni” of the time.
Juxtaposition	“Buttermilk and Brandy”	Placing two contrasting elements together for effect.	The contrast between the ordinary “buttermilk” and the more extravagant “brandy” adds to the playful tone.
Onomatopoeia	“Doodle”	A word that imitates the sound it describes.	“Doodle” mimics the sound of light, carefree movement, enhancing the fun nature of the song.

Themes: “Yankee Doodle:” Nursery Rhyme

1. Patriotism and National Identity: “Yankee Doodle” reflects a theme of national identity, particularly the American spirit during the Revolutionary War. Originally used by the British to mock the American colonists, the Americans embraced it as a symbol of defiance and pride. The line “Yankee Doodle went to town, riding on a pony” captures the simplicity of the colonial lifestyle, but the fact that he “stuck a feather in his cap and called it macaroni” suggests a sense of pride, even in modest achievements. The song became a rallying cry, symbolizing the colonists’ resilience and their ability to turn ridicule into empowerment.
2. Mockery and Satire: The rhyme carries a satirical tone, poking fun at both British pretensions and American simplicity. The phrase “called it macaroni” mocks the elite European fashion trend of the time, where “macaroni” referred to an overly sophisticated style. By juxtaposing this with something as simple as sticking a feather in a cap, the poem highlights the absurdity of high society’s affectations. This use of satire reveals the tension between colonial Americans and the British, emphasizing cultural differences and a rejection of European elitism.
3. Class and Social Status: Another theme in “Yankee Doodle” is the contrast between social classes. The Americans, represented by Yankee Doodle, are depicted as common folk, riding on ponies and dressing simply. The use of “macaroni” – a symbol of upper-class European fashion – in a mocking context illustrates the poem’s critique of social pretensions. It suggests that American colonists valued practicality over the ostentation of the British aristocracy. The contrast between the ordinary, everyday actions in the rhyme (like buying trousers) and the grandiose name “Yankee Doodle” further emphasizes this theme of class distinction.
4. Humor and Playfulness: The playful tone of the rhyme, especially with the inclusion of nonsensical phrases like “Fa, So, La” and “Buttermilk and Brandy,” suggests that “Yankee Doodle” is meant to entertain as much as it is to convey meaning. The exaggerated imagery and lighthearted meter make it accessible and fun, allowing it to endure as a children’s nursery rhyme. The humorous exaggeration of “he swore he could not see the town, for so many houses” adds a comical twist, emphasizing the rhyme’s intention to amuse rather than to be taken literally.

Literary Theories and “Yankee Doodle:” Nursery Rhyme

Literary Theory	Application to “Yankee Doodle”	References from the Poem
Post-Colonial Theory	Post-colonial theory examines how colonized societies resist or adapt to the cultural domination of their colonizers. “Yankee Doodle” can be interpreted as a post-colonial text in which American colonists re-appropriate a derogatory British song and turn it into a symbol of their own identity and pride. The mocking term “Yankee Doodle” itself, meant to ridicule the colonists, is embraced as a patriotic anthem, reflecting the post-colonial theme of resistance and cultural reclamation.	The colonists “called it macaroni,” originally mocking their unsophisticated fashion, but the Americans turned the song into an expression of independence and self-assertion.
Cultural Materialism	Cultural materialism looks at how literature reflects socio-economic conditions and power dynamics. “Yankee Doodle” reflects the class and cultural tensions between the British aristocracy and American colonists. The line about sticking “a feather in his cap and called it macaroni” critiques the extravagance of British upper-class fashion by contrasting it with the simplicity of colonial life, indicating class distinctions and the growing cultural independence of the American colonies.	The phrase “riding on a pony” suggests the modest lifestyle of the American colonists, while “macaroni” symbolizes the outlandish trends of the British elite.
New Historicism	New Historicism emphasizes the relationship between a literary text and the historical context in which it was created. “Yankee Doodle” emerged during the American Revolution, and its content reflects the social and political tensions of the time. By understanding the historical background, we see the poem as a reflection of the colonists’ rejection of British mockery and their growing national pride. The nursery rhyme, initially a form of ridicule, becomes a tool of resistance and identity formation within the revolutionary context.	The phrase “Yankee Doodle” was used by British soldiers to mock the colonists, but as the Americans adopted it, the song became associated with Revolutionary War patriotism, transforming its meaning over time.

Critical Questions about “Yankee Doodle:” Nursery Rhyme

• How does “Yankee Doodle” reflect the power of language in shaping national identity?
• The transformation of “Yankee Doodle” from a British insult into an American symbol of pride highlights the power of language in shaping national identity. Originally used by British soldiers to mock the American colonists as unsophisticated, the colonists embraced the song and redefined its meaning. The line “he stuck a feather in his cap and called it macaroni” mocks the colonists’ supposed ignorance of European fashion trends, but the Americans’ adoption of the song demonstrates how language can be reclaimed to create a sense of unity and resistance. In this way, “Yankee Doodle” became a patriotic anthem, symbolizing the colonists’ defiance and their burgeoning national identity during the Revolutionary War.
• What role does satire play in “Yankee Doodle,” and how does it reflect social and cultural tensions?
• “Yankee Doodle” uses satire to expose the absurdity of British superiority and mock both the colonists and the British elite. The phrase “called it macaroni” is satirical, as it ridicules the British obsession with extravagant fashion while also mocking the colonists for their perceived lack of sophistication. However, the colonists’ embrace of the song demonstrates their awareness of the British mockery and their refusal to be demeaned. The satire reflects deeper social and cultural tensions between the American colonists, who valued simplicity and practicality, and the British aristocracy, whose wealth and extravagance were at odds with colonial values. Through satire, the rhyme critiques both groups, but ultimately empowers the colonists by allowing them to own the insult.
• In what ways does “Yankee Doodle” comment on class distinctions, and how is this reflected in the imagery?
• “Yankee Doodle” highlights class distinctions through its juxtaposition of simple colonial life with the more elaborate lifestyles of the British elite. The image of Yankee Doodle “riding on a pony” contrasts with the more sophisticated modes of transport likely favored by the British upper class. Similarly, “stuck a feather in his cap and called it macaroni” mocks the colonists’ attempt to appear fashionable, while simultaneously criticizing the British for their over-the-top tastes. The use of such imagery reflects the differences in social status and values, as the colonists are portrayed as humble and practical, while the British are depicted as extravagant and superficial. This subtle commentary on class reveals the growing cultural divide between the two societies.
• How does “Yankee Doodle” use humor to convey deeper messages about colonial life and British attitudes?
• The humor in “Yankee Doodle” is not just for entertainment—it carries deeper messages about colonial life and British attitudes towards the American colonists. The nonsensical line “Fa, So, La” and the exaggerated image of Yankee Doodle not being able to “see the town for so many houses” add a playful, humorous tone, but they also serve to mock the trivial concerns of both the colonists and the British. The use of humor diffuses the initial insult and turns it into a celebration of the colonists’ resourcefulness and wit. By embracing the humorous elements, the colonists rejected the British condescension and reinforced their own sense of identity. This humor acts as a vehicle for turning ridicule into pride, showing that the colonists could laugh at themselves while still defying British attitudes.

Literary Works Similar to “Yankee Doodle:” Nursery Rhyme

1. “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe
   Similar in its patriotic tone, this poem, like “Yankee Doodle,” became a rallying cry during times of war and reflects national pride.
2. “Mac Flecknoe” by John Dryden
   This satirical poem mocks its subject much like “Yankee Doodle” uses irony and satire to mock both colonists and British pretensions.
3. “Casey at the Bat” by Ernest Lawrence Thayer
   A humorous poem that, like “Yankee Doodle,” employs lightheartedness and exaggeration to create a playful narrative about a popular figure.
4. “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
   Although more serious, this poem shares the use of repetition and a rhythmic, singable quality that echoes the musicality of “Yankee Doodle.”
5. “O Captain! My Captain!” by Walt Whitman
   This poem, though somber, shares themes of national identity and pride, written in a context of historical significance like “Yankee Doodle.”

Representative Quotations of “Yankee Doodle:” Nursery Rhyme

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Yankee Doodle went to town, Riding on a pony.”	This line introduces the character Yankee Doodle and sets a playful tone with the image of him riding into town on a pony, a symbol of simplicity. It contrasts with the British aristocracy’s grandeur, positioning the colonists as humble and unpretentious.	Post-Colonial Theory: This reflects colonial resistance to British cultural domination, portraying the colonists’ simple lifestyle as part of their emerging national identity.
“He stuck a feather in his cap, And called it macaroni.”	In this line, Yankee Doodle adopts an exaggerated symbol of British fashion (a feather) and ironically calls it “macaroni,” which was slang for high fashion at the time. It mocks both the colonists’ lack of sophistication and the British obsession with style.	Satire Theory: This reflects the satirical nature of the poem, where both British and American pretensions are critiqued. It highlights the absurdity of class distinctions and the rejection of European elitism.
“Yankee Doodle, Fa, So, La. Yankee Doodle Dandy.”	The repetition of “Yankee Doodle” and the inclusion of nonsensical musical phrases creates a rhythmic, playful tone. It is part of the rhyme’s appeal as a children’s song and emphasizes its sing-song nature.	Formalism: Focuses on the rhyme’s structure, meter, and repetition, which create its musical quality and accessibility, showing how form enhances meaning.
“He swore he could not see the town, For so many houses.”	This line uses exaggeration to humorously depict Yankee Doodle’s surprise at the town’s growth, reflecting the poem’s use of hyperbole to entertain while commenting on the changing colonial landscape.	New Historicism: This line can be interpreted as a reflection of colonial expansion and change, capturing a moment of rapid growth in American towns and cities.
“Buttermilk and Brandy.”	This phrase contrasts two drinks, one simple and common (buttermilk) and the other luxurious (brandy), symbolizing the differences between colonial modesty and British extravagance.	Cultural Materialism: Highlights class distinctions between the everyday life of colonists and the opulence of the British upper class, reflecting socio-economic dynamics of the time.

Suggested Readings: “Yankee Doodle:” Nursery Rhyme

1. J. A. Leo Lemay. aThe American Origins of ‘Yankee Doodle.'” The William and Mary Quarterly, vol. 33, no. 3, 1976, pp. 435–64. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1921542. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
2. Davis, Harold. “On the Origin of Yankee Doodle.” American Speech, vol. 13, no. 2, 1938, pp. 93–96. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/451952. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
3. Sullivan, C. W. “Songs, Poems, And Rhymes.” Children’s Folklore: A Source Book, edited by Brian Sutton-Smith et al., University Press of Colorado, 1999, pp. 145–60. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt46nskz.15. Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.
4. Smith, John A. “Singing and Songwriting Support Early Literacy Instruction.” The Reading Teacher, vol. 53, no. 8, 2000, pp. 646–49. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20204857Accessed 15 Oct. 2024.