Day: October 23, 2024

Introduction: “Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward A Postmodern Ecocritical Practice” By Serpil Oppermann

“Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward A Postmodern Ecocritical Practice” by Serpil Oppermann first appeared in the Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment journal in the Summer of 2006. This article is significant in both literature and literary theory as it addresses the tension within ecocriticism—a field concerned with the intersection of literature and the environment—by highlighting its crisis of realist epistemology. Oppermann critiques the reliance on realism, arguing that ecocriticism has confined itself to outdated interpretive frameworks and calls for a more expansive, postmodern approach. She posits that by embracing a reconstructive postmodern ecocritical theory, the field can evolve beyond its limitations, integrating diverse perspectives and offering more nuanced interpretations of environmental texts. This work is important for its intellectual challenge to the foundational assumptions of ecocriticism and its promotion of theoretical depth in the study of nature in literature.

Summary of “Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward A Postmodern Ecocritical Practice” By Serpil Oppermann

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward A Postmodern Ecocritical Practice” By Serpil Oppermann

Literary Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation
Ecocriticism	The study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment, emphasizing ecological consciousness in literary criticism.
Realist Epistemology	A theoretical framework that assumes literature can provide a direct, unmediated representation of reality, which is critiqued by Oppermann for limiting ecocriticism.
Postmodernism	A critical framework that challenges traditional ideas of truth, representation, and reality, emphasizing multiplicity, heterogeneity, and the constructed nature of meaning.
Referentiality	The assumption that literature can directly refer to or represent reality, often critiqued in postmodern and ecocritical contexts for oversimplifying the relationship between text and world.
Textuality	The nature of texts as constructed, focusing on how meaning is generated through language rather than direct reference to reality.
Contextuality	The consideration of the broader contexts—cultural, historical, social—surrounding a text and its production, often contrasted with purely textual approaches.
Mimetic Theory	A theory of literature that emphasizes its ability to imitate or reflect reality, often associated with realism and critiqued in postmodern theory.
Dialogic Construction	A concept from Bakhtin, emphasizing the interplay between different voices or perspectives within a text, which Oppermann suggests is useful for ecocriticism.
Polysemic Approach	An approach that recognizes multiple meanings or interpretations of a text, often used in postmodern literary analysis to avoid fixed, singular readings.
Ecocentric Postmodern Theory	A theoretical approach combining postmodernism and ecocriticism, focusing on ecological principles like interconnectedness and diversity, while critiquing hierarchical structures in both environmental and cultural contexts.

Contribution of “Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward A Postmodern Ecocritical Practice” By Serpil Oppermann to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward A Postmodern Ecocritical Practice” By Serpil Oppermann

Literary Work	Critique Through Oppermann’s Lens	Key Concepts Applied
“Pilgrim at Tinker Creek” by Annie Dillard	Dillard’s work can be critiqued through Oppermann’s framework for its exploration of nature’s complexity and the limitations of realist representation. Although Dillard offers vivid depictions of nature, Oppermann would argue that these representations are always mediated by language and cultural codes, rather than providing transparent access to reality.	Critique of Mimetic Theory, Referential Fallacy, Textuality vs. Contextuality
“Heart of Darkness” by Joseph Conrad	Conrad’s portrayal of nature in Heart of Darkness can be analyzed through Oppermann’s postmodern ecocriticism by focusing on how colonial discourses shape the representation of the African environment. Nature in Conrad’s work reflects power relations and domination, making it a construct within imperialist ideologies rather than a neutral, objective reality.	Dialogic Construction, Postcolonial Ecocriticism, Representation of Nature as a Cultural Construct
“Solar Storms” by Linda Hogan	Oppermann’s theory would critique Solar Storms for showing how nature and human relationships are shaped by cultural and historical forces. Hogan’s work reflects a resistance to simplistic realist depictions of nature and instead emphasizes the interconnection between ecological issues and social justice, which aligns with Oppermann’s call for an ecocentric postmodern approach.	Interconnectedness, Ecocentric Postmodernism, Multiperspectival Approach
“Foe” by J.M. Coetzee	Oppermann’s postmodern ecocriticism would focus on how Foe problematizes the representation of nature, particularly through the character of Friday, who symbolizes nature as a voiceless, dominated entity. The novel critiques the ways in which nature is “written” by human discourses and questions whether nature can ever truly “speak” outside these frameworks. The constructedness of nature’s representation is central to this critique.	Representation of Nature, Language and Power, Textual Construction of Nature

Criticism Against “Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward A Postmodern Ecocritical Practice” By Serpil Oppermann

Representative Quotations from “Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward A Postmodern Ecocritical Practice” By Serpil Oppermann with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Ecocriticism today finds itself struggling with hermeneutical closure.”	Oppermann critiques the limitations of ecocriticism’s reliance on realist epistemology, which restricts interpretive possibilities, leading to intellectual stagnation within the field.
“No interpretive theory can be conceived of without language occupying its center.”	Oppermann emphasizes the central role of language in any theory of interpretation, challenging the ecocritical tendency to separate literature from linguistic constructs when analyzing nature.
“Postmodernism challenges our mimetic assumptions about representation.”	This quote highlights how postmodern theory disrupts traditional views that literature directly reflects reality, an idea that Oppermann believes should be integrated into ecocriticism to enrich its theoretical grounding.
“The representation of reality is a verbal construct in which meaning is achieved by reference from words to words.”	Oppermann underscores that meaning in literature is created through language and not by direct reference to the external world, thus critiquing the referential assumptions often present in ecocritical studies.
“Ecocriticism needs to be more fully engaged in a dynamic interaction with literary theory.”	This quote expresses Oppermann’s call for a deeper integration of ecocriticism with contemporary literary theories like postmodernism to develop more complex and meaningful analyses of literature and the environment.
“Postmodernism in its general framework is based on the idea of heterogeneity, which makes it complicit with ecology.”	Oppermann argues that the principles of postmodernism, such as diversity and interconnectedness, align well with ecological thinking, making it a suitable theoretical foundation for ecocriticism.
“Mimetic postulate of referentiality of meaning…is based on the misconception of finding faithful recordings of nature.”	She criticizes the belief that literature can faithfully represent nature without mediation, proposing that all literary representations are constructions shaped by language and culture.
“A dialogic construction of human/nature interactions would also conjoin literary and scientific discourses.”	Oppermann suggests that ecocriticism should incorporate a dialogic approach, allowing for multiple voices and perspectives, and bridging the gap between literary and scientific discourses when addressing environmental issues.
“Studying environmental literature from a more stimulating perspective of its ‘ecological conception of textuality’ would…reveal that all texts are ‘complex fabric of signs.’”	Here, Oppermann promotes an “ecological conception of textuality,” which acknowledges that texts, like ecosystems, are complex and interconnected, allowing for richer interpretations of environmental literature.
“Ecocriticism can offer a multiperspectival approach that probes into the problematic relationship of representation and the natural environment.”	She advocates for a flexible, multiperspectival approach in ecocriticism that recognizes the complex ways literature represents nature, moving beyond binary or simplistic interpretations of the environment.

Suggested Readings: “Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward A Postmodern Ecocritical Practice” By Serpil Oppermann

1. Iovino, Serenella, and Serpil Oppermann. “Theorizing Material Ecocriticism: A Diptych.” Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment, vol. 19, no. 3, 2012, pp. 448–75. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44087130. Accessed 21 Oct. 2024.
2. Oppermann, Serpil. “Theorizing Ecocriticism: Toward a Postmodern Ecocritical Practice.” Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment, vol. 13, no. 2, 2006, pp. 103–28. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44070262. Accessed 21 Oct. 2024.
3. Estok, Simon C. “Theorizing in a Space of Ambivalent Openness: Ecocriticism and Ecophobia.” Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment, vol. 16, no. 2, 2009, pp. 203–25. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44733418. Accessed 21 Oct. 2024.
4. Burger, Michael. “Environmental Law/Environmental Literature.” Ecology Law Quarterly, vol. 40, no. 1, 2013, pp. 1–57. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24113614. Accessed 21 Oct. 2024.
5. Gilmore, Timothy. “After the Apocalypse: Wildness as Preservative in a Time of Ecological Crisis.” Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment, vol. 24, no. 3, 2017, pp. 389–413. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26569805. Accessed 21 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “New Directions For Ecofeminism: Toward A More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

“New Directions For Ecofeminism: Toward A More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard first appeared in 2010 in the journal Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment (ISLE), published by Oxford University Press. This seminal essay reflects Gaard’s advocacy for integrating deeper feminist perspectives into ecocriticism, a field which had historically marginalized feminist and ecofeminist voices. Gaard critiques the omission of feminist analysis in canonical ecocritical texts and argues for an inclusive framework that incorporates gender, species, and sexuality into environmental criticism. Her work highlights the importance of acknowledging the intersectionality between environmental justice, gender equality, and speciesism. The essay has since been recognized as a key contribution to both literature and literary theory, urging scholars to expand their ecological critiques beyond traditional environmental and conservation concerns to embrace feminist and ecofeminist ideologies.

Summary of “New Directions For Ecofeminism: Toward A More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

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Literary Terms/Concepts in “New Directions For Ecofeminism: Toward A More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

Literary Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Usage/Importance in Gaard’s Essay
Ecofeminism	A theoretical and activist movement linking ecological concerns with feminist critiques of patriarchy.	Central to Gaard’s argument, ecofeminism critiques the interconnected oppression of women, nature, and animals, advocating for gender and environmental justice.
Ecocriticism	The study of literature and the environment, focusing on the relationship between human culture and the natural world.	Gaard critiques traditional ecocriticism for sidelining feminist and ecofeminist perspectives, arguing for an expanded approach that includes gender, species, and sexuality.
Intersectionality	The idea that different social identities (gender, race, class, sexuality, etc.) intersect and shape experiences of oppression or privilege.	Gaard stresses the need for an intersectional approach in ecocriticism, linking feminism, speciesism, race, and sexuality in environmental discourse.
Posthumanism	A theoretical framework that challenges human-centered views of the world and examines the agency of non-human entities.	Gaard critiques posthumanism for neglecting ecofeminist foundations, emphasizing that ecofeminism predates and complicates posthumanist discussions of human/non-human relations.
Interspecies Criticism	A critique that examines the relationship between humans and other animal species, often challenging speciesism.	Gaard calls for an interspecies focus within ecofeminism, highlighting how the treatment of animals reflects broader patterns of domination and oppression.
Wave Metaphor	A historical framework used to describe the development of feminism in waves (first wave, second wave, third wave, etc.).	Gaard critiques the wave metaphor for erasing the contributions of ecofeminism and feminists of color, advocating for a more inclusive historical model.
Bioregionalism	A philosophical and political approach that emphasizes living in harmony with the natural characteristics of a specific region.	Gaard connects bioregionalism with ecofeminism, advocating for localized, place-based activism that considers the interconnectedness of people, animals, and the environment.
Queer Ecocriticism	A critical approach that explores the intersections of queer theory and environmental criticism.	Gaard explores how ecofeminism intersects with queer theory, particularly in addressing sexual justice and the connections between species, gender, and sexuality.
Reproductive Justice	A framework that links reproductive rights with broader social justice issues such as environmental health and gender equality.	Gaard argues that ecofeminism can contribute to discussions of reproductive justice, connecting environmental degradation with reproductive health and rights.
Ecophobia	A term describing fear or hostility toward the natural world, often manifesting as anthropocentrism or speciesism.	Gaard references Simon Estok’s work on ecophobia to highlight the anthropocentric and speciesist tendencies in ecocriticism, urging for more inclusive ecological perspectives.
Material Feminism	A branch of feminism that focuses on the material conditions of gender oppression, including environmental and bodily factors.	Gaard aligns ecofeminism with material feminism, advocating for attention to the material impacts of environmental degradation on marginalized bodies and communities.
Ethical Contexts/Contents	The ethical frameworks that guide decision-making, often influenced by cultural and historical contexts.	Gaard discusses the importance of ethical contexts in ecofeminism, emphasizing that cross-cultural ecofeminist ethics must account for different historical and environmental contexts.
Sexual Justice	The pursuit of fairness and equality in issues related to gender and sexuality, often linked to broader social justice concerns.	Gaard proposes an ecofeminist theory of sexual justice that examines the intersections of environmental degradation, gender, and sexual exploitation.

Contribution of “New Directions For Ecofeminism: Toward A More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard to Literary Theory/Theories

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Examples of Critiques Through “New Directions For Ecofeminism: Toward A More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

Literary Work	Critique through Ecofeminism	Relevant Concepts from Gaard’s Essay
Mary Austin’s The Land of Little Rain	Through an ecofeminist lens, Austin’s work can be critiqued for how it engages with gender and the desert landscape. Austin’s depictions of nature reflect an ecological consciousness but avoid critiquing patriarchal narratives that link the land to the feminine in a passive, submissive way.	– Ecofeminism and Place Studies: Gaard would highlight the importance of reclaiming women’s agency in place-based narratives rather than reinforcing gendered depictions of land as “feminine.”
Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring	Although Carson’s work is a powerful ecological critique, it lacks an intersectional focus on gender and species oppression. Gaard would critique the absence of a feminist and interspecies perspective, noting that Carson doesn’t fully explore the impact of environmental degradation on women and animals.	– Interspecies Criticism and Intersectionality: Gaard would urge for an analysis that connects environmental destruction to gender and species hierarchies.
William Faulkner’s The Bear	Faulkner’s story of human dominance over nature can be critiqued from an ecofeminist perspective for reinforcing patriarchal and anthropocentric values. The tale reflects human attempts to control and conquer the environment, without acknowledging the interconnectedness of gender, species, and environmental exploitation.	– Anthropocentrism and Patriarchy: Gaard’s ecofeminist critique would address the lack of attention to the way human domination over nature mirrors gender oppression.
Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s Herland	While Herland explores a feminist utopia, it can be critiqued for not sufficiently addressing the intersection of gender and environmental ethics. Gaard would critique the text’s portrayal of a gendered society that doesn’t fully explore ecofeminist concerns, especially with regards to species and ecological relationships.	– Ecofeminism and Gender/Sexuality: Gaard would focus on how Herland overlooks the connections between feminism and ecological consciousness, particularly in terms of species relations.

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Key Concepts from Gaard’s New Directions For Ecofeminism Used in the Critiques:

1. Ecofeminism and Place Studies: Gaard critiques depictions of nature that reinforce patriarchal ideas of the land as passive or feminine.
2. Interspecies Criticism and Intersectionality: Gaard emphasizes the need for critiques that link environmental degradation to the oppression of both women and animals.
3. Anthropocentrism and Patriarchy: Gaard critiques texts that promote human-centered (anthropocentric) perspectives, which often mirror patriarchal domination.
4. Ecofeminism and Gender/Sexuality: Gaard critiques works that fail to explore how feminist concerns intersect with environmental and species issues, particularly in utopian or speculative literature.

Criticism Against “New Directions For Ecofeminism: Toward A More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

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• Overemphasis on Gender and Species Intersectionality
• Critics may argue that Gaard’s focus on gender and species intersectionality, while important, could overshadow other crucial elements in ecocriticism, such as race, class, and global economic systems. This emphasis might limit the broader scope of ecocriticism by making it overly specialized.
• Insufficient Engagement with Broader Ecocritical Perspectives
• Gaard critiques established works within ecocriticism, such as those by Lawrence Buell and Greg Garrard, for sidelining feminist perspectives. However, critics might argue that she does not fully engage with the broader ecocritical discourse, which may have developed significant contributions in areas other than ecofeminism.
• Risk of Essentialism in Ecofeminism
• Some may criticize Gaard’s reliance on ecofeminism for potentially falling into essentialist thinking. By linking women and nature too closely, critics could argue that Gaard reinforces stereotypes that women have a “natural” connection to the environment, which could limit the complexity of feminist critique.
• Limited Focus on Practical Activism
• Although Gaard’s work emphasizes the importance of feminist activism within environmental justice movements, critics may argue that her focus remains too theoretical and lacks specific guidance on how ecofeminist principles can be practically applied in activism or policymaking.
• Exclusion of Non-Western Feminist Ecocriticism
• Gaard’s essay is primarily concerned with Western feminist and ecofeminist critiques. Critics might argue that she neglects to sufficiently engage with non-Western perspectives on ecofeminism, limiting the global relevance of her theoretical framework.
• Narrow Definition of Ecofeminism
• Some scholars may argue that Gaard’s definition of ecofeminism is narrow and excludes other feminist perspectives that could contribute to ecological discussions, such as Marxist feminism or Indigenous ecofeminist traditions, which offer alternative ways of understanding the connections between gender and ecology.
• Potential for Alienation within Ecocriticism
• Critics could argue that Gaard’s strong focus on feminist and ecofeminist concerns risks alienating scholars within the broader ecocritical community who do not prioritize gender or species issues in their work, potentially limiting the essay’s appeal to a wider audience.

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Representative Quotations from “New Directions For Ecofeminism: Toward A More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation	Citation
“Ecofeminism has been ‘one of the catalysts’ for the environmental turn in literary studies…”	Gaard highlights the role of ecofeminism in shaping the development of ecocriticism, even though it has been marginalized in many accounts of ecocritical history.	(Gaard, 2010, p. 1)
“The first task for feminist ecocritics involves recuperating the large history of feminist ecocriticism…”	Gaard calls for the reclamation of ecofeminism’s contributions to ecocriticism, addressing how feminist perspectives have been overlooked in both literary criticism and environmental activism.	(Gaard, 2010, p. 1)
“Buell’s historical narrative of environmental literary criticism curiously backgrounds or omits ecofeminism…”	This critique of Lawrence Buell’s work underscores how ecofeminism is sidelined in mainstream ecocritical discourse, even when it has been pivotal in shaping the field.	(Gaard, 2010, p. 2)
“An inclusive narrative of ecocritical history will recognize that each development… interrogates what precedes it.”	Gaard advocates for a more inclusive and layered understanding of ecocritical history, one that integrates feminist, ecofeminist, and intersectional perspectives.	(Gaard, 2010, p. 4)
“The ‘wave’ narrative of feminisms… erases the histories of Indigenous women, African-American women, Chicanas…”	Gaard critiques the “wave” metaphor in feminism for erasing the contributions of feminists of color, arguing that this same framework is replicated in ecocritical history.	(Gaard, 2010, p. 3)
“Ecofeminist values oppose all forms of hierarchy and domination, and environmental justice is a movement challenging… the colonization of nature and marginalized humans.”	Gaard connects ecofeminism to environmental justice, showing how both movements share a common goal of resisting various forms of oppression, including racial, gender, and environmental exploitation.	(Gaard, 2010, p. 5)
“An ecofeminist theory of sexual justice has already taken root… exploring the intersections of ecofeminism and queer theory.”	Gaard introduces the idea of sexual justice within ecofeminism, highlighting how ecofeminism can contribute to understanding the links between environmental justice, reproductive rights, and sexuality.	(Gaard, 2010, p. 6)
“In the near future, ecofeminism and feminist ecocriticism will need to articulate an interspecies focus…”	Gaard emphasizes the need for ecofeminism to focus on the interconnectedness of human and non-human species, critiquing speciesism and advancing interspecies ethics.	(Gaard, 2010, p. 8)
“The space program is ‘an oversized literalization of the masculine transcendent idea… an attempt to achieve selfhood freed… from the pull of the Earth, of mater, dependence on the mother, the body.'”	Gaard critiques the masculinist ideology behind space exploration, linking it to the patriarchal desire to transcend nature and the body, reinforcing ecofeminism’s critique of domination over the Earth.	(Gaard, 2010, p. 16)
“Rather than despair, I would like to build on Adamson and Slovic’s wild optimism.”	Despite the challenges faced by ecofeminism, Gaard remains hopeful about the potential for expanding ecocritical discourse to include more intersectional and feminist perspectives.	(Gaard, 2010, p. 7)

Suggested Readings: “New Directions For Ecofeminism: Toward A More Feminist Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

1. Gaard, Greta. “Ecofeminism Revisited: Rejecting Essentialism and Re-Placing Species in a Material Feminist Environmentalism.” Feminist Formations, vol. 23, no. 2, 2011, pp. 26–53. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41301655. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
2. Gaard, Greta. “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism.” Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment, vol. 17, no. 4, 2010, pp. 643–65. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44087661. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
3. Estok, Simon C. “An Introduction to ‘Ecocritical Approaches to Food and Literature in East Asia’: The Special Cluster.” Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment, vol. 19, no. 4, 2012, pp. 681–90. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44087162. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
4. Gaard, Greta. “Toward a Queer Ecofeminism.” Hypatia, vol. 12, no. 1, 1997, pp. 114–37. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3810254. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
5. Gaard, Greta. “Vegetarian Ecofeminism: A Review Essay.” Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies, vol. 23, no. 3, 2002, pp. 117–46. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3347337. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell

“Ecofeminism: What One Needs to Know” by Nancy R. Howell first appeared in 1997 in the Zygon: Journal of Religion and Science. The article explores the intersections between feminist theory and ecological concerns, emphasizing the link between the domination of women and the domination of nature. Howell argues that social and intellectual transformations are essential for ecological survival and that ecofeminism challenges traditional dualistic and hierarchical modes of thought. By integrating ecology with feminist religious and ethical perspectives, Howell highlights the importance of recognizing diversity and non-hierarchical relationships in both social and ecological systems. The paper is significant in literature and literary theory as it extends feminist critiques of patriarchy to include environmental exploitation, thus enriching discussions on intersectionality, cultural narratives, and the role of ideology in the oppression of both women and nature. Howell’s work contributes to ecofeminist thought by providing a comprehensive theoretical framework that bridges science, religion, and activism.

Summary of “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell

• Definition of Ecofeminism
  Ecofeminism links feminist theory with ecological concerns, focusing on the parallel between the domination of women and nature.
  “Ecofeminism refers to feminist theory and activism informed by ecology. Ecofeminism is concerned with connections between the domination of women and the domination of nature.”
• Historical Context and Origins
  Ecofeminism emerged in the 1970s feminist movement, with the term coined by Françoise d’Eaubonne in 1974.
  “Ecofeminism emerged as part of the 1970s feminist movement and took its name from Françoise d’Eaubonne’s term ecofeminisme, which appeared in 1974.”
• Key Ecofeminist Theorists
  Howell references notable ecofeminists such as Rosemary Radford Ruether, Janis Birkeland, and Carol J. Adams, who explore the interconnectedness of gender oppression and environmental degradation.
  “Ecofeminism brings together these two explorations of ecology and feminism, in their full, or deep forms, and explores how male domination of women and domination of nature are interconnected.”
• Social and Intellectual Transformation
  Howell argues that ecofeminism calls for both social and intellectual transformation to dismantle hierarchical systems and promote non-violence, equality, and cultural diversity.
  “A first presupposition and expectation of ecofeminism is that social transformation is necessary for the sake of survival and justice.”
• Critique of Dualism and Hierarchies
  The ecofeminist perspective challenges traditional dualisms (e.g., culture/nature, male/female) and hierarchies, which justify the subjugation of women and nature.
  “Ecofeminism questions fundamental assumptions about dualisms of culture/nature, mind/body, reason/emotion, human/animal, subjectivity/object.”
• Integration of Science and Religion
  Howell highlights the ecofeminist effort to integrate scientific and religious perspectives, advocating for a holistic understanding of nature and human relationships.
  “Ecofeminism is engaged in the critical and constructive tasks of integrating science and religion toward ecofeminist praxis.”
• Diverse Ecofeminist Traditions
  The article examines different strands of ecofeminism, including North American Christian ecofeminism, womanist theology, Native American ecofeminism, and Third World ecofeminism.
  “Examples of religious or spiritual ecofeminisms are North American Christian ecofeminism, neopagan Wiccan ecofeminism, Native American ecofeminism, and Third World ecofeminism.”
• Constructive Ecofeminist Perspectives
  Howell discusses constructive ecofeminist models, like those of Rosemary Radford Ruether and Sallie McFague, who propose new theological frameworks that view the cosmos holistically.
  “Ruether’s theocosmology sketches an ecofeminist theology of nature indebted to the creation spirituality of Matthew Fox.”

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell

Literary Term/Concept	Explanation	Example/Quotation
Ecofeminism	A movement that combines ecological concerns with feminist theory, emphasizing the connection between the exploitation of nature and the oppression of women.	“Ecofeminism refers to feminist theory and activism informed by ecology. Ecofeminism is concerned with connections between the domination of women and the domination of nature.”
Dualism	The division of something conceptually into two opposed or contrasted aspects, often criticized by ecofeminists for perpetuating hierarchies (e.g., male/female, culture/nature).	“Ecofeminism questions fundamental assumptions about dualisms of culture/nature, mind/body, reason/emotion, human/animal, subjectivity/object.”
Patriarchy	A system of society or government in which men hold power and women are largely excluded; often blamed by ecofeminists for ecological and gender exploitation.	“D’Eaubonne holds patriarchal systems and male power responsible for ‘the destruction of the environment’…”
Hierarchy	A system in which members of society or elements in nature are ranked one above the other, criticized in ecofeminism for justifying domination and exploitation.	“Ecofeminism claims that hierarchy is projected onto nature from the perspective of human social models.”
Interconnectedness	The idea that all living things are interconnected and that human survival and ecological justice depend on recognizing this relationship.	“An ecological perspective makes it difficult to maintain with certainty that nature is organized hierarchically; ecofeminism claims that hierarchy is projected onto nature.”
Intrinsic Value	The belief that nature holds inherent worth beyond its utility to humans, a core principle in ecofeminist thought.	“Ecofeminism calls for a shift from instrumental value to intrinsic value in assessing nature.”
Biocentrism	A worldview that centers the importance of all living organisms, not just humans, and opposes human-centered (anthropocentric) views of nature.	“A biocentric view rejects hierarchy and the human illusion that it is possible to manage or control nature.”
Social Transformation	The process of fundamental societal change, advocated by ecofeminists to achieve ecological sustainability and gender equality.	“Social transformation must reassess and reconstruct values and relations toward equality, cultural diversity, and nonviolence.”
Religious Pluralism	The acceptance of multiple religious perspectives, which is significant in ecofeminism as it integrates diverse spiritual and cultural beliefs in environmental activism.	“Ecofeminism is a cross-cultural and plural movement inclusive of Third World, feminist, and plural religious perspectives.”
Theocosmology	A theological concept developed by ecofeminists like Rosemary Radford Ruether, which emphasizes the interrelationship between God and the cosmos.	“Ruether’s theocosmology sketches an ecofeminist theology of nature indebted to the creation spirituality of Matthew Fox.”

Contribution of “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell to Literary Theory/Theories

• Challenging Patriarchal Literary Structures
  The article critiques patriarchal systems in literature and society, linking them to environmental degradation and domination of women.
  “D’Eaubonne holds patriarchal systems and male power responsible for ‘the destruction of the environment and for the accelerated pollution.'”
• Expanding Feminist Literary Criticism
  Howell expands feminist criticism by incorporating environmental concerns, showing how ecological degradation and the oppression of women are interconnected.
  “Ecofeminism argues that the connections between the oppression of women and nature must be recognized to understand adequately both oppressions.”
• Critique of Dualisms in Literary and Philosophical Thought
  Howell challenges dualistic thinking, such as the nature/culture and mind/body dichotomies, which have dominated Western literature and philosophy.
  “Ecofeminism questions fundamental assumptions about dualisms of culture/nature, mind/body, reason/emotion, human/animal, subjectivity/object.”
• Integration of Religious and Spiritual Perspectives in Literary Theory
  The article highlights how ecofeminism integrates religious and spiritual views, providing a holistic understanding of humanity’s relationship with nature, which is often overlooked in traditional literary theory.
  “Ecofeminism is engaged in the critical and constructive tasks of integrating science and religion toward ecofeminist praxis.”
• Introducing Environmental Ethics into Literary Discourse
  Howell’s work introduces environmental ethics into literary theory by promoting the idea that nature should be valued intrinsically, not merely as a resource for human use.
  “Ecofeminism calls for a shift from instrumental value to intrinsic value in assessing nature.”
• Promoting Interconnectedness and Diversity in Literary Analysis
  Howell emphasizes the interconnectedness of all life forms, urging literary theorists to value biological and cultural diversity, and resist hierarchical structures in both literature and society.
  “Ecofeminism claims that hierarchy is projected onto nature from the perspective of human social models.”
• Contribution to Postcolonial and Third World Literary Theories
  By acknowledging the contributions of Third World ecofeminism, Howell enriches postcolonial literary discourse with an emphasis on local knowledge systems and ecological sustainability.
  “Shiva contrasts Indian cosmology with a Cartesian concept of nature and argues that Western science, technology, politics, and economic development have exploited nature and marginalized women.”

Examples of Critiques Through “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell

Literary Work	Ecofeminist Critique Based on Howell’s Ideas	Supporting Quotations from Howell
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein	The domination of nature and the subjugation of women are central themes. Victor Frankenstein’s attempt to control and manipulate life mirrors the patriarchal impulse to dominate both nature and women.	“Ecofeminism calls for a shift from instrumental value to intrinsic value in assessing nature.”
William Shakespeare’s The Tempest	Prospero’s control over the island and its inhabitants can be critiqued as patriarchal and colonial. The subjugation of Caliban and the island reflects the male tendency to dominate both women and nature.	“Ecofeminism critiques systems of domination, highlighting the interconnections between the oppression of women and nature.”
Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale	The novel’s dystopian world is based on the patriarchal exploitation of women’s bodies and nature. The regime’s control of reproduction reflects the ecofeminist critique of the objectification of women and nature.	“The interconnection between the domination of women and nature is leveraged to critique systems hostile to both.”
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness	The depiction of Africa as an exotic, chaotic wilderness and the objectification of women, such as Kurtz’s African mistress, can be critiqued through ecofeminism as reinforcing colonialism and patriarchy.	“Ecofeminism claims that hierarchy is projected onto nature from human social models.”

Criticism Against “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell

• Overgeneralization of Patriarchal Systems
  Critics may argue that Howell overgeneralizes by attributing ecological destruction solely to patriarchal systems, without considering other factors such as industrialization, capitalism, or individual responsibility.
  “D’Eaubonne holds patriarchal systems and male power responsible for ‘the destruction of the environment and for the accelerated pollution that accompanies this madness.’”
• Lack of Intersectionality in Addressing Other Forms of Oppression
  Some might argue that Howell’s focus on ecofeminism could be expanded to include more detailed discussions of race, class, and other intersecting forms of oppression, especially in contexts beyond North America and Western thought.
  “Ecofeminism adds naturism—the oppression of the rest of nature—to the issues of sexism, racism, classism, and heterosexism that concern feminism.”
• Idealization of Nature and Indigenous Traditions
  Howell’s work could be critiqued for idealizing nature and indigenous traditions, potentially ignoring the complexities and challenges within these worldviews and how they interact with modern ecological issues.
  “Shiva contrasts Indian cosmology with a Cartesian concept of nature and argues that Western science, technology, politics, and economic development have exploited nature and marginalized women.”
• Limited Practical Solutions for Ecological Crisis
  While Howell advocates for intellectual and social transformation, critics might argue that her article lacks concrete, practical solutions or strategies for addressing the ecological crises beyond the realm of theory.
  “Social transformation must reassess and reconstruct values and relations toward equality, cultural diversity, and nonviolence in associations that are nonhierarchical.”

Representative Quotations from “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Ecofeminism refers to feminist theory and activism informed by ecology.”	This defines ecofeminism as a movement that integrates ecological concerns with feminist activism, emphasizing the interconnected struggles of women and nature.
“D’Eaubonne holds patriarchal systems and male power responsible for ‘the destruction of the environment.'”	Howell references Françoise d’Eaubonne’s argument that patriarchal systems are the root cause of environmental degradation, linking male domination with ecological destruction.
“Ecofeminism argues that the connections between the oppression of women and nature must be recognized.”	This highlights a core principle of ecofeminism—the acknowledgment that the exploitation of nature and the subjugation of women are intertwined and must be understood together.
“Ecofeminism calls for a shift from instrumental value to intrinsic value in assessing nature.”	Howell advocates for a change in how nature is valued, urging people to respect nature for its inherent worth, rather than treating it as a resource for human exploitation.
“Ecofeminism questions fundamental assumptions about dualisms of culture/nature, mind/body, reason/emotion.”	This critiques traditional dualistic thinking in Western philosophy, which ecofeminists believe has led to the subjugation of women and nature by privileging one side of the dichotomy over the other.
“Social transformation must reassess and reconstruct values and relations toward equality, cultural diversity.”	Howell stresses that social change, including the restructuring of values and relations, is crucial for achieving both ecological survival and gender justice.
“An ecological perspective makes it difficult to maintain with certainty that nature is organized hierarchically.”	Ecofeminism challenges the hierarchical view of nature, arguing that ecological systems are based on interconnection and interdependence rather than hierarchical domination, a model humans should adopt.
“Without compromising commitment to cultural diversity, social transformation must be part of a decentered global movement.”	This quotation emphasizes the importance of global movements for social change that respect cultural diversity and oppose all forms of domination and oppression.
“Ecofeminism is engaged in the critical and constructive tasks of integrating science and religion toward ecofeminist praxis.”	Howell highlights the ecofeminist goal of bridging science and religion, showing that ecofeminism isn’t just theoretical but is also an activist movement focused on real-world transformation.
“Ecofeminism draws from feminist critical perspectives on science and on religion.”	This stresses that ecofeminism critiques both science and religion from a feminist perspective, questioning their traditional methods and biases that have excluded women and supported hierarchical structures.

Suggested Readings: “Ecofeminism: What One Needs To Know” by Nancy R. Howell

1. JUMAWAN-DADANG, RAQUELYN. “Saving Marine Life: An Empirical Assessment of Ecofeminist Thought in Coastal Communities.” Philippine Sociological Review, vol. 63, 2015, pp. 61–83. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24717160. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
2. Carol Downer, et al. “New Directions for Women.” New Directions for Women, vol. 22, no. 1, Feb. 1993. Charles Deering McCormick Library of Special Collections, Northwestern University. Independent Voices. Reveal Digital, JSTOR, https://jstor.org/stable/community.28041198. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
3. Howe, Leslie A. Hypatia, vol. 20, no. 2, 2005, pp. 197–99. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3811174. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.

Introduction: “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

“Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard appeared in 1997 in the journal The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology. This work is significant in the realm of literary theory for highlighting the intersection of literature and environmental advocacy. Gaard, a key figure in ecofeminism, introduces an environmentalist perspective in literary critique, urging scholars to reassess human-nature relationships as depicted in texts. Ecocriticism examines how literature influences and reflects environmental attitudes, prompting a deeper awareness of ecological crises. The movement has reshaped literary studies, emphasizing nature’s agency, challenging anthropocentric narratives, and incorporating ethical responsibilities towards the environment.

Summary of “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

Introduction

• The article reviews developments in ecocriticism from 2007-2008, identifying key shifts in the field through five major themes:
  1. Normal Science (mainstream ecocriticism)
  2. Re-enchantment (the critique of scientism)
  3. Against Nature (rethinking nature itself)
  4. Ecological Materialism (Marxist/scientific approaches)
  5. Globality/Postcoloniality (global and postcolonial perspectives)

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1. Normal Science: The Usual Practice of Ecocriticism

• Early ecocritics considered themselves politically engaged environmentalists. Their identity involved balancing environmental consciousness with “largely helpless participation in consumerism and professional academic life.”
• A focus of ecocriticism has been non-fictional nature writing, previously dismissed in literary studies. It was used to challenge “a biophobic, ecocidal Western culture.”
• Like feminist criticism, ecocriticism critiques representations of nature and creates “its own canon of ecopoets.”
• Example: David Whitley’s analysis of Disney films demonstrates how popular media, such as Bambi and Finding Nemo, combine environmentalist themes with sanitized or anthropomorphic portrayals of nature. Whitley acknowledges Disney’s “massively anthropomorphic feature animations,” calling attention to the “disnification” of animals while still defending the sentiment in children’s films.

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2. Re-enchantment: The Argument Against ‘Scientism’

• This section explores the rejection of rationalist, reductionist science, advocating for a materialist spirituality. Val Plumwood’s work stands out as she promotes a “re-enchantment or re-enspiriting of the realm designated material.”
• Plumwood challenges the view of matter as inert, arguing instead for reclaiming “agency and intentionality for matter” through engaging with non-scientific ways of knowing.
• She critiques “bullying concepts and jargon, such as anthropomorphism,” which she sees as reducing the richness of human-environment interactions.
• Patrick Curry adds to this discussion, asserting that modernist rationalization has contributed to the ongoing ecological crisis by commodifying the natural world. He proposes a return to “neo-animist re-enchantment” to counter the disenchantment of nature.

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3. Against Nature: The Ecocritical Challenge to Extant Ideas of Nature

• Timothy Morton’sEcology without Nature leads the critique of traditional ecocriticism, arguing for the removal of the concept of nature altogether. Morton sees mainstream environmental literature as “romantic consumerism.”
  • He critiques nature writing (or “ecomimesis”) as inherently flawed, as it perpetuates consumerist ideals even when attempting to evoke nature. His thesis is that “environmentalisms in general are consumerist.”
  • Morton deconstructs the use of nature in literature, suggesting that efforts to represent the presence of nature only create more writing, deepening our distance from the natural world: “ecomimesis cannot achieve escape velocity from writing itself.”
• Morton’s radical claim that nature and consumerism are intertwined unsettles the field of ecocriticism, as he argues for an “ecocritique” that moves beyond nature as a literary or cultural concept.

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4. Ecological Materialism: Marxist and Scientific Approaches

• Raymond Williams’ work on ecocriticism through a Marxist lens focuses on integrating empirical knowledge with flexible theoretical constructs. John Parham highlights how Williams’ ideas contribute to “a humanist, ecological socialism.”
• This tradition contrasts with American environmentalism, which often lacks class consciousness, offering a different ecological outlook: “environmental politics questions the anthropocentric bias of conventional delineations of ‘the polis’.”
• Kate Soper promotes “alternative hedonism,” arguing for a cultural shift towards sustainable pleasures that challenge consumerism. She calls for a “reordering whereby commodities once perceived as enticingly glamorous” are seen as ugly due to their environmental impacts.
• Adrian Ivakhiv argues for a more comprehensive materialist analysis of film in his essay on eco-cinecriticism, linking film production with its ecological impacts. He calls for an eco-cinecriticism based on the “cultural circulation model” that examines both the content and production processes of films.

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5. Globality/Postcoloniality: The Intersection of Ecocriticism and Postcolonialism

• Ursula Heise’s Sense of Place and Sense of Planet advocates for a shift from local environmentalism to “eco-cosmopolitanism.” She challenges the bioregional focus of earlier ecocriticism by calling for attention to global ecological networks: “what is crucial for ecological awareness . . . is not so much a sense of place as a sense of planet.”
• Heise critiques the overemphasis on localism in ecocriticism, suggesting that it often stems from privilege, as “it is affluence and education that foster bioregional resistance.”
• Graham Huggan explores how postcolonial ecocriticism examines the legacies of imperialism in ecological mismanagement. He highlights the inseparability of “current crises of ecological mismanagement from historical legacies of imperialistic exploitation.”
• Rob Nixon’s work identifies tensions between postcolonialism and ecocriticism, such as the contrast between postcolonial hybridity and ecocritical purism. He calls for a nuanced understanding of environmental politics in the Global South, stressing the complex interactions between postcolonial critiques and environmental advocacy.

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6. Additional Key Contributions

• Scott Slovic emphasizes the personal and political nature of ecocriticism, advocating for “narrative scholarship” that blends autobiographical reflection with political critique. He stresses the need to link ecological awareness with sensory experience: “ecopoetry and nature writing guide us to pay deeper attention to our physical senses.”
• Annette Kolodny offers a historical perspective on indigenous environmental knowledge, arguing that Native American authors have long used environmentalist discourse for political advocacy, predating modern ecocritical theory.

Literary Terms/Concepts in “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

Literary Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Application in Ecocriticism
Ecocriticism	The study of the relationship between literature and the physical environment. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of nature and culture, often advocating for ecological responsibility.	Ecocriticism critiques literary representations of nature, challenges anthropocentric views, and proposes eco-conscious readings of texts.
Anthropocentrism	A human-centered viewpoint that places humanity at the center of concerns, often at the expense of the environment.	Ecocriticism challenges anthropocentrism by emphasizing non-human agency and advocating for more biocentric or ecocentric approaches to literary studies.
Ecopoetics	A term preferred by some scholars (e.g., Jonathan Bate) over ecocriticism, referring to the study of literature’s engagement with environmental issues through form, structure, and language.	Ecopoetics focuses on how poetry and literature formally express ecological awareness, offering alternative representations of nature and environmental concerns.
Environmental Justice	A movement that seeks to address the inequitable distribution of environmental benefits and harms, particularly as they relate to marginalized communities.	In literature, environmental justice critiques often intersect with ecocriticism by addressing issues of race, class, gender, and their relationship to environmental exploitation or degradation.
Nature Writing	A genre of non-fiction literature that focuses on the natural world, typically celebrating its beauty and advocating for its protection.	Nature writing is often central to ecocritical analysis, though some scholars critique its idealized, pastoral representations of nature that overlook human impacts and complex ecological realities.
Bioregionalism	A movement that emphasizes living sustainably within a specific ecological region, advocating for deep knowledge and care of the local environment.	Bioregionalism in ecocriticism explores how literature represents place and promotes local environmental activism. Writers are seen as advocating for a deep sense of place and ecological responsibility within their specific regions.
Deep Ecology	A philosophical perspective that calls for a fundamental restructuring of human relationships with nature, advocating for intrinsic value in all living beings beyond their utility to humans.	Ecocriticism often draws on deep ecology to challenge exploitative attitudes towards the environment, promoting texts that reflect respect for nature’s inherent worth.
Posthumanism	A theoretical framework that challenges the primacy of the human subject in favor of recognizing the agency of non-human entities, including animals, plants, and ecosystems.	In ecocriticism, posthumanism informs readings of texts that decentralize human characters and explore the agency and voices of the natural world or non-human species.
Ecomimesis	A term used to describe literary efforts to mimic or represent the natural world as closely as possible.	Ecocritics analyze how ecomimesis is used in literature to evoke a sense of being “in” nature, often critiquing its romanticized representations.
Ecofeminism	An interdisciplinary approach that links feminism and ecology, highlighting the interconnected exploitation of women and nature.	Ecofeminist literary criticism explores how patriarchy and capitalism exploit both women and the environment, advocating for the liberation of both.
Green Romanticism	A literary and philosophical movement that romanticizes nature as a source of purity, beauty, and spiritual renewal.	Ecocritics critique Green Romanticism for sometimes overlooking ecological complexities and promoting simplistic, pastoral views of nature. However, it also contributes to environmental consciousness in literature.
Re-enchantment	A concept promoting the re-spiritualization or re-mystification of nature, countering the disenchantment brought about by modern science and rationalism.	Ecocritics like Val Plumwood advocate for re-enchantment as a way to counter scientific reductionism and promote a deeper emotional and spiritual connection with nature in literature.

Contribution of “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Feminist Theory

• Ecofeminism: Garrard integrates feminist approaches with ecological criticism, emphasizing the interconnectedness between the oppression of women and nature. He draws from influential figures like Val Plumwood to critique the “mastery of nature” (Garrard, 2010).
  • Reference: “The trajectory that links her [Val Plumwood’s] early work on environmental values… culminated in a work of narrative scholarship presented at an ASLE-UK conference, ‘Journey to the Heart of Stone’” (Garrard, 2010, p. 7).

2. Postcolonial Theory

• Global Ecocriticism: Garrard connects postcolonialism with environmental justice, revealing how ecocriticism intersects with global environmental issues. He highlights the ecological implications of colonial exploitation.
  • Reference: “The globalization of ecocriticism… sees the interaction of ecocriticism and postcolonialism… the inseparability of current crises of ecological mismanagement from historical legacies of imperialistic exploitation and abuse” (Garrard, 2010, p. 29).

3. Marxist Theory

• Ecological Materialism: Drawing from Marxist theory, Garrard introduces ecological materialism to critique capitalism’s role in environmental destruction. He addresses the environmental consequences of economic exploitation and class struggles.
  • Reference: “Back in the 1980s… Raymond Williams would apparently become irritated with fellow Marxists who could only cite ‘nature’ in prophylactic scare quotes, so certain were they of its wholly socially constructed, reactionary character” (Garrard, 2010, p. 16).

4. Queer Theory

• Queer Ecocriticism: Garrard explores the intersection of queer theory and ecocriticism, challenging heteronormative assumptions within environmental discourse. He critiques the exclusion of queer perspectives from ecological discussions.
  • Reference: “There is a great deal more that might be reviewed under the rubric ‘Against Nature’: the advent of queer ecology, animal studies, and the continuing development of posthumanist thought” (Garrard, 2010, p. 15).

5. Phenomenology

• Embodiment and Environment: Garrard discusses how phenomenology can enhance ecocriticism by focusing on embodied experiences of the environment, drawing on the work of theorists like Merleau-Ponty and Heidegger to discuss human interaction with nature.
  • Reference: “Louise Westling… argues for the ‘chiasmic’ intertwining of ‘embodiment’ and the ‘flesh of the world’” (Garrard, 2010, p. 4).

6. Deconstruction

• Deconstruction of Nature: Garrard engages with deconstructionist methods to critique traditional notions of “nature,” exposing how cultural constructions of nature uphold anthropocentric hierarchies. He analyzes Timothy Morton’s Ecology without Nature in this context.
  • Reference: “Morton exemplifies the claim in nifty and memorable style by deconstructing a cliché, prevalent in ecomimetic writing… ecomimesis ‘cannot achieve escape velocity from writing itself’” (Garrard, 2010, p. 11).

7. Cultural Studies

• Representation of Nature in Media: Garrard explores how nature is represented in media, critiquing works like Disney films for anthropomorphizing nature. This contributes to cultural studies by revealing the ideological work of environmental representations.
  • Reference: “Whitley presents his analysis unapologetically… a delightful example of the former is David Whitley’s The Idea of Nature in Disney Animation” (Garrard, 2010, p. 2).

8. Environmental Ethics

• Re-enchantment and Ethics: Garrard critiques the disenchantment brought by scientism and argues for a re-enchantment of the material world through ethical ecological relationships. He draws on Patrick Curry’s work on nature’s moral value.
  • Reference: “Patrick Curry… has picked up the torch from Plumwood, claiming in ‘Nature Post-Nature’… for neo-animist re-enchantment” (Garrard, 2010, p. 8).

9. Posthumanism

• Critique of Anthropocentrism: Garrard’s engagement with posthumanist theory deconstructs anthropocentrism, exploring the agency of non-human entities and how ecological criticism can move beyond human-centered narratives.
  • Reference: “Morton’s ethic of estrangement coincides powerfully… with the anti-identitarian ecocriticisms developed by Catriona Mortimer-Sandilands, Ursula Heise, and others” (Garrard, 2010, p. 13).

Examples of Critiques Through “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

Literary Work	Ecocritical Critique	Reference from the Article
Disney’s Pocahontas	Critiques the romanticized representation of Native Americans and their relationship with nature, highlighting Disney’s commodification of animals and idealizing of indigenous animism. The transformation of wild animals into pets is seen as a harmful reinforcement of consumer culture.	“The transformation of wild animals into the equivalent of pets and accessories is sanctioned in Pocahontas by the supposedly Indian notion…” (Gaard, 2010, p. 87)
Finding Nemo	Highlights the combination of environmental advocacy and anthropomorphism in the representation of marine life, yet notes how compromises (e.g., avoiding clownfish biology) show selective ecological representation and prioritize sentimental appeal over accuracy.	“The animators for Finding Nemo expended tremendous effort getting the reef just right, but balked at the zoologically realistic option…” (Gaard, 2010, p. 2)
Bambi	Acknowledges the film’s contribution to a generation of conservationists while criticizing the sanitization of forest life. The film simplifies the complexities of forest ecosystems and contributes to a sentimental view of nature detached from ecological realities.	“Bambi (which inspired a generation of conservationists even as it thoroughly sanitized the forest)…” (Gaard, 2010, p. 2)
The Hungry Tide by Amitav Ghosh	Examines how Ghosh’s novel intertwines ecological and postcolonial critiques, highlighting the environmental degradation and social displacement in the Sundarbans, focusing on how ecological conservation efforts often conflict with the needs of marginalized human populations.	“The distinctive topography of the Sundarbans… embodies the duality of nature in its transhistoricity and mutability” (Gaard, 2010, pp. 126-127)

Criticism Against “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

Representative Quotations from “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Ecocriticism has at once critiqued ‘representations of nature’ and proposed its own canon of ecopoets.”	Ecocriticism challenges traditional literary depictions of nature while simultaneously advocating for a new literary tradition that emphasizes ecological awareness. This dual role positions ecocriticism as both analytical and creative.
“Disney’s animated features make a play for our feelings; inventing animals with exaggerated features that enhance their cuteness.”	This critique highlights how Disney anthropomorphizes animals to appeal emotionally to audiences, often distorting real nature. It illustrates how popular media can create sentimentalized, unrealistic portrayals of nature.
“Ecopoetry and nature writing guide us to pay deeper attention to our physical senses and enables us to appreciate our own embeddedness in the world.”	This reflects the central goal of ecopoetry and nature writing in fostering a more profound sensory and ecological connection between humans and the natural world, emphasizing personal and ecological integration.
“The environmentalist ambitions of ecocriticism have always and will always be vulnerable.”	This recognizes the challenges ecocriticism faces in making tangible ecological changes, despite its theoretical and literary contributions to environmental advocacy. It points out the limits of scholarship in effecting real-world ecological impact.
“Narrative scholarship blends autobiographical reflection, political critique and cultural analysis.”	This describes a style of scholarship within ecocriticism that combines personal narrative with critical analysis, promoting a more experiential and engaged approach to literary and environmental criticism.
“Bringing people (especially students) to their senses” through literature is critical to developing a responsible relationship with the environment.”	This underscores the importance of education in ecocriticism, advocating for literature’s role in awakening ecological awareness in readers, particularly students, to foster environmental responsibility.
“Green consumerism is only one kind of environmental consumerism. Environmentalisms in general are consumerist.”	This challenges the perception that environmentalism is outside the consumer culture, arguing instead that many forms of environmentalism, including green consumerism, are part of the broader consumerist framework.
“A walk through sage and rabbitbrush… may be well worth the cost” in re-engaging with nature.”	This highlights the personal value ecocriticism places on direct experiences in nature, suggesting that even in a world dominated by consumerism, reconnecting with the natural environment can offer significant personal and ecological benefits.
“Poetry… can be seen as ‘narcissistic, eroticized, endowed with natural magic…’”	This quotation explores the aesthetic and emotional power of poetry in ecocriticism, where poetry’s rhythms and visceral elements evoke a deep connection between human emotion and the natural world.
“It is unclear what contribution phenomenology made in the first place.”	This points out a critique within ecocriticism regarding the limitations of phenomenology in offering concrete solutions to ecological problems, questioning the practical value of certain theoretical approaches.

Suggested Readings: “Ecocriticism” by Greta Gaard

1. Gaard, Greta. “New Directions for Ecofeminism: Toward a More Feminist Ecocriticism.” Interdisciplinary Studies in Literature and Environment, vol. 17, no. 4, 2010, pp. 643–65. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44087661. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
2. Arnold, Jean, et al. “Forum on Literatures of the Environment.” PMLA, vol. 114, no. 5, 1999, pp. 1089–104. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/463468. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
3. Garrard, Greg. “Ecocriticism.” Keywords for Environmental Studies, edited by Joni Adamson et al., vol. 3, NYU Press, 2016, pp. 61–64. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt15zc5kw.24. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
4. Gaard, Greta. “Ecofeminism Revisited: Rejecting Essentialism and Re-Placing Species in a Material Feminist Environmentalism.” Feminist Formations, vol. 23, no. 2, 2011, pp. 26–53. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41301655
5. . Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.
6. Gaard, Greta. “Green, Pink, and Lavender: Banishing Ecophobia through Queer Ecologies, Review of Queer Ecologies: Sex, Nature, Politics, Desire, Catriona Mortimer-Sandilands and Bruce Erickson, Eds.” Ethics and the Environment, vol. 16, no. 2, 2011, pp. 115–26. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2979/ethicsenviro.16.2.115. Accessed 22 Oct. 2024.