Day: November 15, 2024

Introduction: “Marriage A-la-Mode” by John Dryden

“Marriage A-la-Mode” by John Dryden first appeared in 1673 as part of a collection of Restoration comedies that reflected the complexities and ironies of court life. This play is known for its dual plot structure, interweaving a heroic romance with a satirical comedy of manners. The main themes revolve around the social expectations of marriage, fidelity, and the power dynamics between the sexes. Through its sharp wit, clever dialogue, and exaggerated characters, Dryden presents a critique of the aristocracy’s frivolity and moral ambiguity, making it a notable work for its humor and social commentary. The play’s popularity stems from its reflection of Restoration society’s attitudes toward marriage and relationships, as well as its innovative approach to mixing genres, which provided audiences with both entertainment and a lens into the hypocrisies of their own world.

Text: “Marriage A-la-Mode” by John Dryden

Annotations: “Marriage A-la-Mode” by John Dryden

Line	Annotation
“Why should a foolish marriage vow,”	The speaker questions the validity and purpose of the marriage vow, calling it “foolish” and implying that it may lack enduring significance.
“Which long ago was made,”	The vow was made in the past, suggesting it may no longer hold relevance in the present. This reflects a sense of temporal distance and change over time.
“Oblige us to each other now”	The speaker challenges whether they should still be bound by this vow despite changing circumstances, particularly the loss of love or passion.
“When passion is decay’d?”	The idea of “decay’d passion” suggests that love or desire has faded, hinting at the transient nature of romantic or passionate love in relationships.
“We lov’d, and we lov’d, as long as we could,”	A reflective acknowledgment that the couple did experience love sincerely, but only “as long as we could,” indicating a natural end to this emotional connection.
“Till our love was lov’d out in us both:”	This line suggests that their love has been exhausted or depleted; they have given all they could, and now it is gone. The phrase “lov’d out” conveys a sense of emotional fatigue or fulfillment of love’s potential.
“But our marriage is dead, when the pleasure is fled:”	Here, the speaker states that the essence or vitality of their marriage depended on pleasure, and with its absence, the marriage has lost its meaning or “died.”
“‘Twas pleasure first made it an oath.”	The speaker attributes the marriage vow or “oath” to pleasure, suggesting that the commitment was based on physical or sensual enjoyment rather than deeper emotional or spiritual bonds.
“If I have pleasures for a friend,”	This line implies that the speaker finds pleasure outside of marriage, perhaps through companionship or friendship, indicating an alternative source of fulfillment.
“And farther love in store,”	The speaker hints at potential romantic interests or passions beyond the marriage, indicating a willingness or readiness to explore love anew.
“What wrong has he whose joys did end,”	The speaker questions whether there is any wrongdoing in seeking pleasure elsewhere, especially if the other party (the spouse) no longer finds joy in the relationship.
“And who could give no more?”	This line suggests that the spouse is also unable to offer further emotional or passionate engagement, framing the search for external pleasures as reasonable.
“‘Tis a madness that he should be jealous of me,”	The speaker asserts that jealousy from the spouse would be irrational or “mad,” as the mutual love between them has dissipated.
“Or that I should bar him of another:”	The speaker also believes it would be wrong to prevent the spouse from pursuing other relationships, suggesting a mutual freedom in seeking new connections.
“For all we can gain is to give ourselves pain,”	The speaker recognizes that clinging to a dead marriage would only result in pain and suffering for both parties, implying that letting go would be more beneficial.
“When neither can hinder the other.”	This concluding line emphasizes a sense of individual freedom; neither partner has the right or ability to restrain the other, highlighting a perspective of mutual independence in the face of emotional change.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Marriage A-la-Mode” by John Dryden

Device	Example	Explanation
Allusion	“marriage vow”	Refers to the traditional marriage vows, invoking societal expectations and the sanctity associated with marriage.
Antithesis	“We lov’d, and we lov’d, as long as we could”	Contrasts the love they had with its eventual depletion, highlighting the finite nature of their emotions.
Apostrophe	“Why should a foolish marriage vow”	The speaker directly addresses the concept of the “marriage vow” as if questioning it, personifying the vow as something that can respond.
Assonance	“pleasures for a friend”	Repetition of the “e” sound adds a melodic quality to the line, emphasizing the speaker’s alternative pursuits of pleasure.
Caesura	“But our marriage is dead, when the pleasure is fled:”	The comma creates a natural pause, reinforcing the finality and reflective tone of the statement.
Conceit	“Till our love was lov’d out in us both”	This line uses a conceit, or an extended metaphor, to describe love as something that can be exhausted or “used up.”
Connotation	“decay’d”	The word “decay’d” has connotations of death and deterioration, emphasizing the end of passion and love in the relationship.
End-stopping	“Which long ago was made,”	The punctuation at the end of this line reinforces the finality and distance of the vow made in the past.
Epiphora	“as long as we could” / “in us both”	The repetition of the endings emphasizes the mutual and temporal limits of their love.
Hyperbole	“all we can gain is to give ourselves pain”	Exaggeration is used here to emphasize that trying to maintain the marriage only causes suffering.
Irony	“foolish marriage vow”	Referring to a sacred vow as “foolish” introduces irony, challenging traditional views of marriage.
Juxtaposition	“pleasure” and “oath”	Juxtaposing “pleasure” with “oath” underscores the conflict between temporary desires and permanent commitments.
Metaphor	“our marriage is dead”	Compares the marriage to something that is alive and has now “died,” symbolizing the end of emotional connection.
Metonymy	“pleasures for a friend”	“Pleasures” represents romantic or sensual fulfillment, indirectly referring to extramarital interests.
Paradox	“lov’d out in us both”	This line contains a paradox, as love is often seen as boundless, but here it is portrayed as exhaustible.
Personification	“our marriage is dead”	Marriage is personified as something that can “die,” attributing human qualities to an abstract concept.
Repetition	“We lov’d, and we lov’d”	Repeating “we lov’d” emphasizes the sincerity and depth of feeling, while also hinting at its inevitable decline.
Rhetorical Question	“Why should a foolish marriage vow, / Which long ago was made, / Oblige us to each other now”	The speaker uses a rhetorical question to question the lasting obligation of marriage vows, encouraging readers to consider the purpose of marital bonds.
Simile	“Till our love was lov’d out in us both” (implied comparison)	Though not a direct simile, it suggests love as something that can be used up like a resource, comparing it to a finite substance.

Themes: “Marriage A-la-Mode” by John Dryden

1. The Transience of Love and Passion: In “Marriage A-la-Mode,” Dryden explores the impermanence of romantic love, suggesting that passion is fleeting and ultimately fades. The speaker reflects, “We lov’d, and we lov’d, as long as we could, / Till our love was lov’d out in us both,” indicating that their initial attraction and affection were genuine but could not be sustained indefinitely. This theme reflects a more skeptical and realistic view of love, positing that emotional connections, no matter how strong initially, often wane over time. The decay of passion is further emphasized with the line, “When passion is decay’d,” suggesting that love, much like other aspects of life, is subject to the effects of time and can deteriorate, leaving the marriage hollow once the pleasure is gone.
2. Critique of Marriage as a Social Institution: Dryden’s poem criticizes the institution of marriage as being based on outdated and often unrealistic expectations. The speaker questions the binding nature of the marriage vow, calling it a “foolish marriage vow, / Which long ago was made.” This language challenges traditional views on marriage, suggesting that a vow made under the influence of passion should not necessarily enforce lifelong commitment. The poem conveys a sense of disillusionment with the concept of marriage, as the speaker implies that the societal obligation to remain married becomes burdensome when love has faded. By juxtaposing pleasure with obligation, Dryden critiques marriage as a socially imposed contract that may not suit the changing nature of human emotions.
3. The Pursuit of Personal Freedom: The speaker in “Marriage A-la-Mode” advocates for individual freedom within relationships, especially when love has waned. The line “If I have pleasures for a friend, / And farther love in store” indicates the speaker’s desire to seek new sources of happiness outside the confines of marriage. The speaker questions, “What wrong has he whose joys did end, / And who could give no more?” suggesting that both partners have the right to pursue personal satisfaction without being bound by past promises. This pursuit of freedom highlights Dryden’s progressive stance on relationships, implying that people should be free to explore love and joy beyond a single partnership, especially if the relationship no longer fulfills them.
4. Jealousy and Possessiveness in Relationships: Dryden also examines the irrationality of jealousy and possessiveness within marriage, particularly when love has diminished. The speaker calls it “a madness that he should be jealous of me,” arguing that jealousy is unreasonable when both partners have lost affection for one another. This theme highlights the idea that possessiveness is unnecessary and even harmful when the emotional foundation of a relationship has eroded. Instead, Dryden’s speaker advocates for a mutual understanding of freedom: “Or that I should bar him of another,” suggesting that restricting one another’s pursuits in love only leads to unnecessary pain. This perspective challenges traditional ideas of loyalty and fidelity, proposing a more open and understanding approach to relationships.

Literary Theories and “Marriage A-la-Mode” by John Dryden

Literary Theory	Explanation in Context of “Marriage A-la-Mode”	References from the Poem
Feminist Theory	Feminist theory examines gender roles and the societal expectations placed on women, especially within marriage. In “Marriage A-la-Mode”, Dryden critiques marriage as an institution that can impose restrictive roles on both men and women, limiting individual freedom and agency. The speaker’s desire for autonomy and lack of jealousy suggest a challenge to traditional marital expectations and the concept of exclusive possession in marriage, especially regarding women’s roles and their right to personal freedom.	“‘Tis a madness that he should be jealous of me, / Or that I should bar him of another,” highlights a rejection of traditional possessiveness in marriage, proposing mutual independence instead.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Psychoanalytic theory explores subconscious desires, motivations, and the conflict between social duty and personal desire. The speaker’s struggle in “Marriage A-la-Mode” to reconcile his feelings of decayed passion with the marriage vow illustrates a deep inner conflict. His desire for external pleasures reveals a subconscious resistance to societal expectations of fidelity, as well as a search for satisfaction that the marriage can no longer provide. This theory can explain the speaker’s disillusionment with conventional marital expectations and his drive toward self-fulfillment.	“Why should a foolish marriage vow, / Which long ago was made, / Oblige us to each other now / When passion is decay’d?” reflects the speaker’s internal conflict between the vow and his own fading desires.
Marxist Theory	Marxist theory focuses on societal structures, class relations, and the critique of ideology, particularly the ways institutions can maintain social order. In “Marriage A-la-Mode,” marriage is viewed as a social contract rather than a relationship based on enduring love, suggesting it serves as a tool to enforce conformity and control. The speaker’s dismissal of the vow as “foolish” indicates a rejection of the institution as outdated and incompatible with individual needs, challenging the idea that marriage should serve as an instrument of social stability.	“But our marriage is dead, when the pleasure is fled: / ‘Twas pleasure first made it an oath” critiques marriage as a social institution bound by pleasure rather than meaningful bonds, questioning its long-term societal value.

Critical Questions about “Marriage A-la-Mode” by John Dryden

• What is Dryden’s critique of the institution of marriage, and how does he present this critique through the speaker’s perspective?
• In “Marriage A-la-Mode,”Dryden questions the societal expectations surrounding marriage, particularly the idea of an unbreakable marital bond. The speaker expresses disillusionment with the marriage vow, describing it as a “foolish marriage vow, / Which long ago was made.” This line suggests a disconnect between the vow’s initial meaning and its present significance, raising questions about the relevance of lifelong promises in a relationship where passion has decayed. By portraying marriage as an outdated commitment that persists despite the loss of love, Dryden critiques the rigid social institution that may trap individuals in unfulfilling relationships, ultimately questioning the value of marriage as an enduring contract.
• How does the speaker’s perspective on jealousy challenge traditional notions of fidelity and loyalty in marriage?
• The speaker’s dismissal of jealousy as “a madness” that would “bar him of another” reflects a radical view on fidelity, advocating for mutual freedom within marriage rather than possessive loyalty. This perspective challenges traditional marital expectations, where loyalty and exclusivity are foundational to the commitment. Dryden presents jealousy as an unnecessary source of “pain” when love has faded, suggesting that personal satisfaction should take precedence over societal standards of fidelity. By questioning the importance of exclusivity, Dryden invites readers to consider whether marriage should be redefined in a way that acknowledges individual desires and autonomy, especially in relationships where mutual affection no longer exists.
• What role does personal freedom play in the speaker’s understanding of love and commitment?
• Personal freedom is central to the speaker’s view on relationships, as he believes that both partners should have the autonomy to seek pleasure beyond marriage. This idea is highlighted in the line, “If I have pleasures for a friend, / And farther love in store,” indicating that the speaker sees love and companionship as dynamic, evolving needs that may not be fully satisfied within the bounds of a single relationship. The speaker’s emphasis on personal fulfillment over traditional commitment suggests a redefinition of love, one that values individual happiness over rigid marital expectations. Dryden uses this perspective to question the relevance of lifelong marriage in a society where desires and needs are ever-changing.
• How does Dryden use the decay of passion to explore the theme of emotional exhaustion in relationships?
• In “Marriage A-la-Mode,” Dryden explores the concept of love as something that can be “lov’d out in us both,” suggesting that emotional and physical desire can be exhausted over time. The speaker’s acknowledgment that “passion is decay’d” raises the question of whether it is realistic to expect love to remain constant in a marriage. This focus on the decay of passion emphasizes the idea that romantic relationships may have a natural lifespan, with love potentially “dying” as desire fades. Through this, Dryden examines the weariness that can result from forcing a relationship to endure past its natural end, critiquing societal expectations that compel individuals to maintain marital bonds despite emotional exhaustion and loss of connection.

Literary Works Similar to “Marriage A-la-Mode” by John Dryden

• “The Scrutiny” by Richard Lovelace: Similar in its exploration of fleeting love and the desire for freedom outside of monogamy, this poem questions the notion of exclusive commitment, much like Dryden’s critique of marriage.
• “To His Coy Mistress” by Andrew Marvell: This poem shares Dryden’s theme of passion’s impermanence, urging a lover to seize the moment and suggesting that love and desire are temporal and bound to fade.
• “Song: Go, Lovely Rose” by Edmund Waller: Waller’s poem also reflects on the transience of beauty and passion, echoing Dryden’s view on the decay of romantic attraction over time.
• “A Song (Ask Me No More)” by Thomas Carew: Carew’s poem conveys the disillusionment that often follows initial passion, much like Dryden’s portrayal of love’s eventual exhaustion in marriage.
• “The Broken Heart” by John Donne: Donne’s poem examines the pain and finality of love’s end, similar to Dryden’s reflection on how passion can fade and leave an emotional void within relationships.

Representative Quotations of “Marriage A-la-Mode” by John Dryden

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Why should a foolish marriage vow, / Which long ago was made,”	The speaker questions the relevance of a vow made in the past, highlighting a sense of disillusionment.	Marxist Theory – Critiques marriage as a social institution that binds individuals to outdated promises.
“Oblige us to each other now / When passion is decay’d?”	The speaker argues that marriage obligations should not continue once love and desire have faded.	Psychoanalytic Theory – Examines the inner conflict between social duty and personal desire.
“We lov’d, and we lov’d, as long as we could”	Acknowledges that the initial love was genuine but ultimately had limits, emphasizing the transience of passion.	New Historicism – Reflects Restoration society’s changing attitudes toward marriage and love as fluid concepts.
“Till our love was lov’d out in us both:”	Suggests that love has been exhausted or used up, presenting love as finite.	Existentialism – Views love as an experience that, like any emotion, has a limited lifespan.
“But our marriage is dead, when the pleasure is fled:”	The speaker equates the end of pleasure with the “death” of marriage, redefining its essence.	Feminist Theory – Critiques the conventional view of marriage by proposing that fulfillment is essential to its validity.
“‘Twas pleasure first made it an oath.”	Suggests that the marriage vow was made under the influence of pleasure rather than deeper commitment.	Marxist Theory – Implies that social contracts like marriage are based on temporary emotions, questioning their long-term societal role.
“If I have pleasures for a friend, / And farther love in store”	The speaker hints at seeking love and companionship beyond marriage, advocating for individual freedom.	Liberal Humanism – Emphasizes the importance of personal fulfillment over traditional societal expectations.
“What wrong has he whose joys did end, / And who could give no more?”	Questions whether it is wrong to seek happiness elsewhere once the joy in marriage has faded.	Ethical Relativism – Suggests that moral judgments about fidelity are subjective and dependent on individual circumstances.
“‘Tis a madness that he should be jealous of me”	The speaker dismisses jealousy as irrational once love has decayed, promoting mutual independence.	Feminist Theory – Challenges possessiveness in relationships and traditional notions of marital fidelity.
“For all we can gain is to give ourselves pain, / When neither can hinder the other.”	The speaker highlights that staying in a loveless marriage only causes pain, advocating for autonomy.	Existentialism – Emphasizes freedom and personal responsibility over societal expectations in relationships.

Suggested Readings: “Marriage A-la-Mode” by John Dryden

1. Kalitzki, Judith. “Versions of Truth: Marriage à La Mode.” Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700, vol. 4, no. 2, 1980, pp. 65–70. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43292320. Accessed 10 Nov. 2024.
2. McKeon, Michael. “MARXIST CRITICISM AND ‘MARRIAGE A LA MODE.'” The Eighteenth Century, vol. 24, no. 2, 1983, pp. 141–62. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41467289. Accessed 10 Nov. 2024.
3. Milhous, Judith. Theatre Journal, vol. 35, no. 3, 1983, pp. 416–18. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3207225. Accessed 10 Nov. 2024.
4. Denman, Jason. “‘Too Hasty to Stay’: Erotic and Political Timing in ‘Marriage à La Mode.'” Restoration: Studies in English Literary Culture, 1660-1700, vol. 32, no. 2, 2008, pp. 1–23. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43293813. Accessed 10 Nov. 2024.

Introduction: “Housewife” by Anne Sexton

“Housewife” by Anne Sexton, first appeared in 1962 in her poetry collection All My Pretty Ones, captures Sexton’s unique perspective on the role of women, especially as homemakers, during the mid-20th century, offering a critique of societal expectations placed on women. With striking imagery, she presents the house as both a haven and a trap, suggesting that the house “eats” the woman, symbolizing how traditional roles can consume personal identity. This piece became popular for its bold portrayal of feminist ideas and its candid exploration of the inner lives of women, resonating with readers during the feminist movements of the 1960s and 70s. Sexton’s fearless engagement with topics like gender roles, domesticity, and mental health has made Housewife a lasting work that continues to evoke critical conversations on women’s autonomy and societal constraints.

Text: “Housewife” by Anne Sexton

Some women marry houses.
It’s another kind of skin; it has a heart,
a mouth, a liver and bowel movements.
The walls are permanent and pink.
See how she sits on her knees all day,
faithfully washing herself down.
Men enter by force, drawn back like Jonah
into their fleshy mothers.
A woman is her mother.
That’s the main thing.

Annotations: “Housewife” by Anne Sexton

Line	Annotation
“Some women marry houses.”	The opening line introduces a metaphor where the woman marries her home, indicating a profound attachment or an imposed identity intertwined with domesticity. “Marrying houses” symbolizes how some women are confined within domestic roles, treating the house as if it were a life partner.
“It’s another kind of skin;”	This line suggests that the house becomes an extension of the woman herself, like a second skin. It implies how deeply personal and consuming this relationship with the domestic space is, as though the woman’s own identity is enmeshed in her surroundings.
“it has a heart, a mouth, a liver and bowel movements.”	By describing the house with organs, Sexton personifies it, illustrating it as a living, breathing entity. This creates an image of the house as a body, reflecting the woman’s life and implying that the house “consumes” her energy, life, and labor.
“The walls are permanent and pink.”	Here, the walls symbolize stability but also restriction. “Permanent” suggests an inescapable quality, while “pink” hints at traditional femininity or stereotypical feminine aesthetics, highlighting gendered expectations of women’s spaces.
“See how she sits on her knees all day,”	This line portrays the woman in a position of servitude and ritualistic care, almost as if she’s worshipping or submitting to the house. The image of kneeling is evocative of submission, sacrifice, or duty, emphasizing her dedication to the home.
“faithfully washing herself down.”	Washing “herself” down can symbolize the blurring of identity between the woman and the house. By cleaning the house, she metaphorically cleans herself, emphasizing that her self-worth is bound to the maintenance of the domestic space.
“Men enter by force, drawn back like Jonah”	This line introduces men into the poem, describing them as entering the home forcefully, possibly alluding to a sense of dominance or control. The comparison to Jonah suggests they are “swallowed” or return to a motherly space, with the house as a stand-in for the maternal body.
“into their fleshy mothers.”	This imagery likens the house to a motherly figure, echoing the maternal role many women are expected to fulfill in the household. It also indicates that the home represents safety and nurturing, although this may be confining for women.
“A woman is her mother.”	This line reinforces the cycle of generational roles and expectations, suggesting that a woman’s identity is inherited or defined by her role as a mother and caretaker. It emphasizes how societal norms expect women to mirror their mothers’ lives.
“That’s the main thing.”	The concluding line drives home the poem’s critical message: that women’s identities are often reduced to their maternal and domestic roles. It implies resignation, as if these roles are ultimately inescapable, reflecting the internalized expectations of gender norms.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Housewife” by Anne Sexton

Device	Example	Explanation
Allusion	“Jonah”	Refers to the Biblical story of Jonah, who was swallowed by a whale. Here, it suggests men are “swallowed” by the home, paralleling their return to a motherly space.
Analogy	“Some women marry houses.”	Compares women’s relationship to their homes to marriage, emphasizing the deep, consuming bond and the confinement in traditional domestic roles.
Assonance	“walls are permanent and pink”	The repetition of the “a” sound in “walls” and “are” creates a soft, melodic quality, which contrasts with the permanence and constraint implied by the words.
Caesura	“That’s the main thing.”	A pause at the end of this line serves as a final, conclusive thought, creating an abrupt stop to emphasize the inevitability of women becoming like their mothers.
Consonance	“Marry houses”	The repetition of the “s” sound in “marry” and “houses” softens the phrase, ironically making the confinement sound gentle, though it represents restriction.
Enjambment	“See how she sits on her knees all day,”	This line flows into the next without punctuation, emphasizing the continuous, unending labor and dedication the woman has toward the house.
Extended Metaphor	The house as a living body	Sexton extends the house metaphor by giving it human organs, portraying it as a living entity that absorbs the woman’s energy, thus consuming her identity.
Hyperbole	“sits on her knees all day”	Exaggerates the time spent by the woman cleaning, implying a relentless, almost sacrificial dedication to domestic labor.
Imagery	“walls are permanent and pink”	Evokes a visual image of confinement with the “permanent walls” and stereotypical femininity with “pink,” reinforcing traditional roles imposed on women.
Irony	“faithfully washing herself down”	The irony lies in the fact that she’s not actually washing herself but the house, yet she sees it as an extension of herself, showcasing her blurred identity.
Metaphor	“marry houses”	The phrase compares the woman’s role in the home to marriage, highlighting the deep, binding nature of her relationship with domestic life.
Metonymy	“walls”	The walls represent the entire house, and metaphorically, the constraints of domestic life that surround the woman.
Paradox	“A woman is her mother.”	This line suggests that despite being an individual, a woman’s identity is inextricably tied to her role, echoing her mother’s life, creating a cycle of identity loss.
Personification	“it has a heart, a mouth, a liver and bowel movements”	Giving the house bodily organs personifies it, suggesting it’s a living entity that consumes the woman’s labor and life force.
Repetition	“a heart, a mouth, a liver”	The list of organs emphasizes the house as a body, stressing the completeness of the woman’s absorption into her role as homemaker.
Simile	“like Jonah”	Compares men entering the home to Jonah being swallowed by a whale, emphasizing their return to a nurturing but engulfing maternal space.
Symbolism	“pink”	The color pink symbolizes traditional femininity and reinforces stereotypical gender roles, suggesting that the woman’s space is decorated with societal expectations.
Synecdoche	“walls”	The walls represent the entire home, illustrating how the woman’s identity and her physical space are inseparably linked.
Theme	Domestic confinement, identity loss	The theme highlights the limited, consuming nature of domestic life for women, who often lose their identity to their roles as caretakers and homemakers.
Tone	Resigned, critical	The poem’s tone is reflective yet critical, as it underscores the inevitability and restrictiveness of traditional domestic roles for women.

Themes: “Housewife” by Anne Sexton

1. Domestic Confinement and Identity Loss: The theme of domestic confinement is vividly portrayed through the metaphor of women “marrying houses.” This line suggests that women’s identities are inextricably bound to the domestic sphere, so much so that their sense of self merges with the home itself. Sexton emphasizes this loss of individuality by describing the house as having “a heart, a mouth, a liver and bowel movements,” signifying that the house is a living entity that consumes the woman’s labor and identity. The metaphor of the house becoming an “extension of skin” underscores how the domestic space engulfs her, blending the boundaries between the woman’s identity and her role as a homemaker.
2. Generational Expectations and Maternal Legacy: Sexton touches upon the theme of inherited roles and societal expectations for women, particularly in the line, “A woman is her mother. That’s the main thing.” This line speaks to the cycle of generational expectations, suggesting that women are often expected to replicate the lives of their mothers, bound to the same domestic roles and responsibilities. By stating “the main thing,” Sexton implies an almost inescapable fate for women to assume their mothers’ identities, highlighting the societal pressure for women to conform to traditional roles within the household.
3. Gendered Spaces and Traditional Femininity: The description of the “walls [that] are permanent and pink” symbolizes how domestic spaces are traditionally gendered, marked by societal expectations of femininity. The color “pink” alludes to stereotypical representations of femininity, suggesting that the woman’s space is defined and even constrained by traditional gender roles. The permanence of the walls hints at the rigidity of these roles, emphasizing how deeply entrenched and inescapable they are for many women. The line reinforces how society shapes the environment of the domestic space to embody femininity, contributing to the overall sense of confinement in the woman’s life.
4. Power Dynamics and Male Authority: In Housewife, Sexton explores the theme of male dominance within the domestic sphere, especially in the line, “Men enter by force, drawn back like Jonah into their fleshy mothers.” This imagery depicts men as forcefully entering the home, which symbolizes a sense of male authority and control over the domestic space. The reference to “Jonah” suggests that men view the home as a nurturing, motherly space they return to for comfort, yet their entrance is marked by force, implying an imbalance of power and control. This line reflects how men may take for granted the nurturing role of women, highlighting the one-sided expectations of domestic roles and the imbalance in household dynamics.

Literary Theories and “Housewife” by Anne Sexton

Literary Theory	Application to Housewife by Anne Sexton	References from the Poem
Feminist Theory	Housewife can be analyzed through a feminist lens to highlight the societal expectations placed on women, especially regarding their roles in the domestic sphere. Feminist critics would argue that the poem critiques the ways women are confined to homemaking and lose their identities within these roles. This perspective underscores Sexton’s portrayal of the home as a place of confinement rather than fulfillment.	The line “Some women marry houses” emphasizes how women are expected to devote themselves entirely to the home, likening this commitment to a marriage. Additionally, “A woman is her mother” reflects the cyclical and generational constraints placed on women, where they inherit and replicate their mothers’ roles, showcasing a lack of autonomy.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Through a psychoanalytic lens, Housewife can be viewed as a reflection of the woman’s internal conflict and unconscious struggle with her role. The house symbolizes the “id” or suppressed desires, consuming the woman’s sense of self. This analysis might suggest that the woman’s obsessive care for the house reflects her repressed identity and feelings of self-neglect, which are channeled into her domestic tasks.	The description of the house as having “a heart, a mouth, a liver and bowel movements” suggests that the house is a living entity, almost like a surrogate body for the woman, signifying her projection of self onto her surroundings. Her “faithful” cleaning could indicate an attempt to satisfy an unconscious need for control or purpose, reinforcing the internalization of her assigned role.
Marxist Theory	From a Marxist perspective, Housewife can be interpreted as a critique of how domestic labor is undervalued in a capitalist society. The poem highlights how women’s unpaid labor in the home supports patriarchal structures, as the woman’s role in maintaining the household facilitates the male’s return to a nurturing space without reciprocation. Marxist critics might view the woman’s confinement to the home as a form of exploitation that benefits the larger social and economic system.	The line “Men enter by force” implies a sense of entitlement men have within the domestic sphere, highlighting the imbalance of power. Additionally, “walls are permanent and pink” suggests the rigid, gendered roles imposed by society, indicating that the woman’s labor and identity are confined to this socially constructed space, which serves the needs of others.

Critical Questions about “Housewife” by Anne Sexton

• How does Sexton portray the relationship between women and domestic spaces in “Housewife?“
• Sexton portrays the relationship between women and domestic spaces as one of entrapment and identity erosion. By describing how “Some women marry houses,” she suggests that women’s identities become subsumed by their domestic roles, as if their lives are dedicated to serving their homes. The house becomes “another kind of skin,” symbolizing the extent to which a woman’s personal identity is merged with her domestic space, almost as if the house becomes an extension of her own body. This metaphor emphasizes that the home is not just a place but a confining identity, showing the often inescapable nature of traditional domestic roles for women. Through this portrayal, Sexton raises questions about how societal expectations can limit and define women’s lives within the home.
• In what ways does the poem critique generational cycles of domestic roles for women?
• “Housewife” critiques the generational cycle of domestic roles by suggesting that women are destined to follow in their mothers’ footsteps, bound by tradition and societal norms. The line “A woman is her mother” underscores this theme, as it implies that women are expected to inherit their mothers’ roles without question. Sexton’s use of the phrase “That’s the main thing” gives a sense of inevitability, as if this inheritance is unavoidable and central to a woman’s identity. By depicting this cycle, Sexton challenges the reader to question the fairness of these roles and consider the limited choices that have historically defined women’s lives, thereby critiquing the lack of autonomy women often have in escaping these generational expectations.
• How does Sexton address themes of power and control within the household in the poem?
• Sexton addresses themes of power and control by exploring the dynamic between men and women in the domestic space, particularly highlighting the unequal authority that men hold over the household. The line “Men enter by force, drawn back like Jonah into their fleshy mothers” reveals a power imbalance; while men come and go freely, women remain tethered to the home. The imagery of “force” suggests an imposition of male authority, while comparing men to Jonah swallowed by a whale hints at their entitlement to the nurturing space without equal responsibility. Sexton’s choice of words illustrates the societal expectation that women maintain and sustain the home, while men are merely visitors. This critique of domestic power dynamics reveals how women’s roles in the household often limit their agency and control.
• What is the significance of the poem’s tone, and how does it affect the reader’s interpretation of the domestic role?
• The tone of “Housewife”is reflective yet critical, tinged with irony as it underscores the confining nature of traditional domestic roles. Phrases like “faithfully washing herself down” illustrate the woman’s near-religious dedication to her home, yet there’s a sense of irony in that she is not literally “washing herself” but the house. This ironic tone highlights the absurdity of women devoting themselves so entirely to a role that offers little personal fulfillment or recognition. The tone is further intensified by the closing line, “That’s the main thing,” which reads as resigned and final, as though there is no escape from these expectations. This tone shapes the reader’s interpretation, encouraging a critical view of the domestic role as an identity that consumes rather than liberates, challenging the reader to consider the hidden costs of traditional gender roles.

Literary Works Similar to “Housewife” by Anne Sexton

1. “The Applicant” by Sylvia Plath
   Similar to Housewife, this poem critiques the traditional roles and expectations placed on women, particularly within marriage and domesticity, highlighting how women are often reduced to their utility.
2. “Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers” by Adrienne Rich
   This poem explores the theme of female confinement within marriage, where Aunt Jennifer’s domestic life restricts her freedom, much like the woman in Housewife is confined by her role within the home.
3. “What’s That Smell in the Kitchen?” by Marge Piercy
   Piercy’s poem reflects a woman’s frustration with domestic expectations and the burdens of household responsibilities, resonating with Sexton’s exploration of a woman’s identity consumed by domestic roles.
4. “Her Kind” by Anne Sexton
   In this poem, Sexton also examines themes of female identity and societal expectations, particularly the roles that society imposes on women, paralleling the sense of entrapment seen in Housewife.
5. “To the Ladies” by Mary, Lady Chudleigh
   This 18th-century poem critiques marriage as an institution that restricts women, echoing Sexton’s portrayal of domestic life as a consuming force that can diminish a woman’s sense of self.

Representative Quotations of “Housewife” by Anne Sexton

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Some women marry houses.”	Opens the poem with a metaphor comparing women’s commitment to the home as akin to marriage.	Feminist Theory: Highlights the expectation for women to become bound to domestic roles.
“It’s another kind of skin;”	Suggests that the house becomes an extension of the woman’s identity, enveloping her personal self.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Indicates the merging of identity with environment, a form of self-erasure.
“it has a heart, a mouth, a liver and bowel movements.”	Personifies the house, suggesting it consumes life as a living being does.	Marxist Theory: Reflects how unpaid domestic labor sustains others but drains the woman’s identity.
“The walls are permanent and pink.”	Emphasizes the rigidity of domestic life and the gendered expectations symbolized by the color pink.	Gender Theory: Explores how spaces are gendered and how femininity is prescribed in domestic roles.
“See how she sits on her knees all day,”	Implies that the woman is in a constant state of servitude and submission within the home.	Feminist Theory: Portrays the submissive role women are expected to take on within the household.
“faithfully washing herself down.”	Ironically describes the woman as cleansing herself, though it’s actually the house she cleans.	Irony: Highlights the self-sacrifice involved in maintaining the home, losing personal identity.
“Men enter by force”	Describes men as coming into the home authoritatively, suggesting a dominance over the domestic sphere.	Power Dynamics Theory: Examines the imbalance of authority between men and women in the household.
“drawn back like Jonah into their fleshy mothers.”	Compares men to Jonah, suggesting the house is like a maternal space.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Explores maternal archetypes and the house as a space of nurturing yet entrapment.
“A woman is her mother.”	Asserts that a woman’s identity is shaped by her mother’s role, often continuing generational patterns.	Social Expectation Theory: Highlights the cycle of traditional roles passed from mother to daughter.
“That’s the main thing.”	A resigned ending, emphasizing the inevitability of these roles for women.	Structuralism: Indicates the role of societal structures in defining and limiting women’s identities.

Suggested Readings: “Housewife” by Anne Sexton

1. Middlebrook, Diane Wood. “Housewife into Poet: The Apprenticeship of Anne Sexton.” The New England Quarterly, vol. 56, no. 4, 1983, pp. 483–503. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/365101. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
2. HOFFMAN, NANCY YANES, and JEFFREY L. LANT. “Two Perspectives on Anne Sexton.” Southwest Review, vol. 64, no. 3, 1979, pp. 209–19. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43468286. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
3. Salvio, Paula M. “LOSS, MEMORY, AND THE WORK OF LEARNING: Lessons from the Teaching Life of Anne Sexton.” Personal Effects, edited by DEBORAH H. HOLDSTEIN and DAVID BLEICH, University Press of Colorado, 2001, pp. 93–118. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt46nx6f.7. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.
4. Mizejewski, Linda. “Sappho to Sexton: Woman Uncontained.” College English, vol. 35, no. 3, 1973, pp. 340–45. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/374996. Accessed 13 Nov. 2024.