December 22, 2024 - English Studies

“The Cry of the Children” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning: A Critical Analysis

“The Cry of the Children” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning first appeared in 1843 as part of a collection published in Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine.

Introduction: “The Cry of the Children” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning

“The Cry of the Children” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning first appeared in 1843 as part of a collection published in Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine. The poem is a poignant critique of the exploitation of child labor during the Industrial Revolution in England, highlighting the physical and emotional suffering of children forced to work in harsh conditions. Its vivid imagery and empathetic tone effectively convey the plight of these young workers, resonating with contemporary social reform movements. The poem’s enduring popularity as a textbook example lies in its powerful social commentary, its role in sparking discussions about labor rights, and its embodiment of Victorian-era concerns about morality and justice. It serves as a classic illustration of how literature can act as a catalyst for societal change.

Text: “The Cry of the Children” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning

Pheu pheu, ti prosderkesthe m ommasin, tekna;”
[[Alas, alas, why do you gaze at me with your eyes, my children.]]—Medea.

Do ye hear the children weeping, O my brothers,

Ere the sorrow comes with years ?

They are leaning their young heads against their mothers, —

And that cannot stop their tears.

The young lambs are bleating in the meadows ;

The young birds are chirping in the nest ;

The young fawns are playing with the shadows ;

The young flowers are blowing toward the west—

But the young, young children, O my brothers,

They are weeping bitterly !

They are weeping in the playtime of the others,

In the country of the free.

Do you question the young children in the sorrow,

Why their tears are falling so ?

The old man may weep for his to-morrow

Which is lost in Long Ago —

The old tree is leafless in the forest —

The old year is ending in the frost —

The old wound, if stricken, is the sorest —

The old hope is hardest to be lost :

But the young, young children, O my brothers,

Do you ask them why they stand

Weeping sore before the bosoms of their mothers,

In our happy Fatherland ?

They look up with their pale and sunken faces,

And their looks are sad to see,

For the man’s grief abhorrent, draws and presses

Down the cheeks of infancy —

“Your old earth,” they say, “is very dreary;”

“Our young feet,” they say, “are very weak !”

Few paces have we taken, yet are weary—

Our grave-rest is very far to seek !

Ask the old why they weep, and not the children,

For the outside earth is cold —

And we young ones stand without, in our bewildering,

And the graves are for the old !”

“True,” say the children, “it may happen

That we die before our time !

Little Alice died last year her grave is shapen

Like a snowball, in the rime.

We looked into the pit prepared to take her —

Was no room for any work in the close clay :

From the sleep wherein she lieth none will wake her,

Crying, ‘Get up, little Alice ! it is day.’

If you listen by that grave, in sun and shower,

With your ear down, little Alice never cries ;

Could we see her face, be sure we should not know her,

For the smile has time for growing in her eyes ,—

And merry go her moments, lulled and stilled in

The shroud, by the kirk-chime !

It is good when it happens,” say the children,

“That we die before our time !”

Alas, the wretched children ! they are seeking

Death in life, as best to have !

They are binding up their hearts away from breaking,

With a cerement from the grave.

Go out, children, from the mine and from the city —

Sing out, children, as the little thrushes do —

Pluck you handfuls of the meadow-cowslips pretty

Laugh aloud, to feel your fingers let them through !

But they answer, ” Are your cowslips of the meadows

Like our weeds anear the mine ?

Leave us quiet in the dark of the coal-shadows,

From your pleasures fair and fine!

“For oh,” say the children, “we are weary,

And we cannot run or leap —

If we cared for any meadows, it were merely

To drop down in them and sleep.

Our knees tremble sorely in the stooping —

We fall upon our faces, trying to go ;

And, underneath our heavy eyelids drooping,

The reddest flower would look as pale as snow.

For, all day, we drag our burden tiring,

Through the coal-dark, underground —

Or, all day, we drive the wheels of iron

In the factories, round and round.

“For all day, the wheels are droning, turning, —

Their wind comes in our faces, —

Till our hearts turn, — our heads, with pulses burning,

And the walls turn in their places

Turns the sky in the high window blank and reeling —

Turns the long light that droppeth down the wall, —

Turn the black flies that crawl along the ceiling —

All are turning, all the day, and we with all ! —

And all day, the iron wheels are droning ;

And sometimes we could pray,

‘O ye wheels,’ (breaking out in a mad moaning)

‘Stop ! be silent for to-day ! ‘ “

Ay ! be silent ! Let them hear each other breathing

For a moment, mouth to mouth —

Let them touch each other’s hands, in a fresh wreathing

Of their tender human youth !

Let them feel that this cold metallic motion

Is not all the life God fashions or reveals —

Let them prove their inward souls against the notion

That they live in you, or under you, O wheels ! —

Still, all day, the iron wheels go onward,

As if Fate in each were stark ;

And the children’s souls, which God is calling sunward,

Spin on blindly in the dark.

Now tell the poor young children, O my brothers,

To look up to Him and pray —

So the blessed One, who blesseth all the others,

Will bless them another day.

They answer, ” Who is God that He should hear us,

While the rushing of the iron wheels is stirred ?

When we sob aloud, the human creatures near us

Pass by, hearing not, or answer not a word !

And we hear not (for the wheels in their resounding)

Strangers speaking at the door :

Is it likely God, with angels singing round Him,

Hears our weeping any more ?

” Two words, indeed, of praying we remember ;

And at midnight’s hour of harm, —

‘Our Father,’ looking upward in the chamber,

We say softly for a charm.

We know no other words, except ‘Our Father,’

And we think that, in some pause of angels’ song,

God may pluck them with the silence sweet to gather,

And hold both within His right hand which is strong.

‘Our Father !’ If He heard us, He would surely

(For they call Him good and mild)

Answer, smiling down the steep world very purely,

‘Come and rest with me, my child.’

“But, no !” say the children, weeping faster,

” He is speechless as a stone ;

And they tell us, of His image is the master

Who commands us to work on.

Go to ! ” say the children,—”up in Heaven,

Dark, wheel-like, turning clouds are all we find !

Do not mock us ; grief has made us unbelieving —

We look up for God, but tears have made us blind.”

Do ye hear the children weeping and disproving,

O my brothers, what ye preach ?

For God’s possible is taught by His world’s loving —

And the children doubt of each.

And well may the children weep before you ;

They are weary ere they run ;

They have never seen the sunshine, nor the glory

Which is brighter than the sun :

They know the grief of man, without its wisdom ;

They sink in the despair, without its calm —

Are slaves, without the liberty in Christdom, —

Are martyrs, by the pang without the palm, —

Are worn, as if with age, yet unretrievingly

No dear remembrance keep,—

Are orphans of the earthly love and heavenly :

Let them weep ! let them weep !

They look up, with their pale and sunken faces,

And their look is dread to see,

For they think you see their angels in their places,

With eyes meant for Deity ;—

“How long,” they say, “how long, O cruel nation,

Will you stand, to move the world, on a child’s heart, —

Stifle down with a mailed heel its palpitation,

And tread onward to your throne amid the mart ?

Our blood splashes upward, O our tyrants,

And your purple shews your path ;

But the child’s sob curseth deeper in the silence

Than the strong man in his wrath !”

Annotations: “The Cry of the Children” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning

Stanza	Annotation
Epigraph	The opening quote from Medea reflects the grief and despair of children, a theme central to the poem. Medea’s cry of anguish parallels the lament of the exploited children in the Industrial Revolution.
1st Stanza	The children’s weeping contrasts with the joy of nature (lambs, birds, fawns). This juxtaposition highlights the unnatural suffering of children in a supposedly free and prosperous country. The rhetorical question “Do ye hear?” engages the audience and underscores their ignorance or apathy.
2nd Stanza	This stanza contrasts the sorrow of children with that of the elderly. While old age brings natural grief, the suffering of children is unnatural and premature, challenging the ideal of a “happy Fatherland.” The image of children weeping before their mothers emphasizes their vulnerability.
3rd Stanza	The children describe their world as “dreary,” emphasizing their physical weakness and emotional despair. Their exhaustion reflects the relentless labor they endure. The concept of graves as a “rest” exposes the horrifying reality that death is preferable to their current existence.
4th Stanza	Using the example of “little Alice,” the stanza illustrates how death brings release from suffering. The grave becomes a sanctuary, contrasting with the oppressive lives of the children. The imagery of the smiling, peaceful dead contrasts with the weary living, intensifying the tragedy.
5th Stanza	The children lament that life has become a form of living death, binding their hearts in grave-like silence. Calls to enjoy nature fall on deaf ears, as the children, burdened by labor, see no beauty in the world. The “weeds anear the mine” symbolize their bleak reality.
6th Stanza	The children express their inability to partake in joy or physical play due to exhaustion from labor. Their description of trembling knees and drooping eyelids highlights their physical deterioration. Nature’s vibrancy pales against the monotony of their toil underground or in factories.
7th Stanza	The relentless turning of factory wheels symbolizes the mechanical, dehumanizing labor the children endure. The “turning” imagery extends to their environment (walls, sky, ceiling), showing how every aspect of their lives revolves around oppressive labor. The children’s cry for the wheels to stop conveys their desperation.
8th Stanza	The plea for silence underscores the children’s yearning for human connection and relief. The “cold metallic motion” contrasts with the warmth of human interaction. The stanza critiques how industrialization reduces human souls to mere cogs in a machine.
9th Stanza	The children question the effectiveness of prayer, as the noise of the machines drowns their cries. This highlights their spiritual alienation and growing disbelief in divine intervention. The industrial world has eroded their faith in God and humanity alike.
10th Stanza	The children’s fragmented prayers (“Our Father”) symbolize their limited access to spiritual solace. Their perception of God as distant reflects the failure of religious institutions to alleviate their suffering. This stanza critiques society’s hypocrisy in preaching faith while ignoring the children’s plight.
11th Stanza	The children’s disbelief grows as they view God as silent and powerless. The metaphor of “wheel-like, turning clouds” in heaven parallels the relentless wheels of industry, suggesting that even divine realms are mechanical and indifferent. Their loss of faith reflects their despair.
12th Stanza	This stanza contrasts the children’s premature grief with the wisdom that comes with age. Their suffering is unnatural and devoid of consolation. The comparison to martyrs without recognition intensifies the sense of injustice and neglect.
13th Stanza	The children’s “pale and sunken faces” evoke pity and horror. They accuse society of exploiting their innocence for economic gain, with the “mailed heel” imagery symbolizing oppression. The final lines warn that the silent curse of children is more damning than any overt rebellion.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Cry of the Children” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning

Literary Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“Weeping sore before the bosoms of their mothers”	The repetition of the “b” sound emphasizes the sorrow and vulnerability of the children.
Allusion	“Pheu pheu, ti prosderkesthe m ommasin, tekna;” (Epigraph from Medea)	The reference to Medea aligns the suffering of the children with Greek tragedy, emphasizing their plight.
Anaphora	“The young… The young… The young…”	The repetition of “The young” highlights the contrast between the vibrancy of youth in nature and the suffering of the children.
Apostrophe	“O my brothers”	The speaker directly addresses the audience to appeal to their compassion and evoke responsibility.
Assonance	“Are worn, as if with age, yet unretrievingly”	The repetition of vowel sounds (“o,” “a,” and “e”) creates a mournful tone.
Caesura	“And we hear not (for the wheels in their resounding)”	The pause within the line reflects the interruption caused by the relentless noise of the machines.
Contrast	“The young lambs are bleating in the meadows; But the young, young children… are weeping bitterly”	Contrasts the innocence and joy of nature with the sorrow of the children, emphasizing the unnatural suffering they endure.
Enjambment	“For all day, the wheels are droning, turning, — / Their wind comes in our faces,”	The continuation of the sentence across lines mirrors the relentless motion of the factory wheels.
Epistrophe	“Turns the sky… Turns the long light… Turn the black flies…”	Repetition of “turns” at the beginning of successive clauses emphasizes the monotonous, mechanical motion surrounding the children.
Hyperbole	“Our blood splashes upward”	Exaggerates the children’s suffering to emphasize its severity and societal impact.
Imagery	“Pale and sunken faces”	Creates a vivid picture of the children’s physical suffering and despair.
Irony	“In the country of the free”	The phrase is ironic as it contrasts the suffering of children with the supposed freedom and prosperity of the nation.
Juxtaposition	“Sing out, children, as the little thrushes do” vs. “Leave us quiet in the dark of the coal-shadows”	Juxtaposes the joy of nature with the despair of the children’s reality, heightening the tragic tone.
Metaphor	“Cold metallic motion”	Compares industrial machinery to something lifeless and unfeeling, symbolizing the dehumanization caused by industrialization.
Onomatopoeia	“The wheels are droning, turning”	The word “droning” imitates the sound of the machines, making the reader feel the oppressive industrial noise.
Personification	“The old hope is hardest to be lost”	Personifies hope as something that can be “lost,” emphasizing the emotional impact of despair.
Rhetorical Question	“Do you hear the children weeping, O my brothers?”	Invites the reader to reflect on their own indifference to the children’s suffering.
Repetition	“Young, young children”	The repetition of “young” intensifies the focus on the innocence and vulnerability of the children.
Simile	“Her grave is shapen / Like a snowball, in the rime”	Compares Alice’s grave to a snowball, highlighting the coldness and stillness of death.
Symbolism	“The wheels”	Symbolize the relentless, dehumanizing force of industrial labor, consuming the children’s lives.

Themes: “The Cry of the Children” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning

1. Exploitation of Children

One of the central themes of The Cry of the Children is the exploitation of children during the Industrial Revolution. Elizabeth Barrett Browning vividly portrays the suffering of young laborers in mines and factories, highlighting their physical and emotional exhaustion. Lines such as “For all day, we drag our burden tiring, / Through the coal-dark, underground” reveal the grueling conditions the children endure. Their labor is likened to a form of living death, as they lament, “We are weary, / And we cannot run or leap.” Browning’s use of vivid imagery and repetitive descriptions of their weariness underscores the unnatural and inhumane demands placed on children, drawing attention to the moral failure of a society that sacrifices its most vulnerable for economic gain.

2. Loss of Innocence

The poem emphasizes the premature loss of innocence among the children, who experience profound sorrow instead of the joy and freedom typical of youth. Browning contrasts the natural world’s vitality—”The young lambs are bleating in the meadows; / The young birds are chirping in the nest”—with the bitter tears of the children: “But the young, young children… are weeping bitterly.” This juxtaposition highlights how industrialization strips children of their childhood, replacing innocence with despair. Furthermore, their exposure to death at a young age, as seen in the line, “Little Alice died last year her grave is shapen,” intensifies the tragic loss of innocence. The poem reveals the devastating emotional toll of industrial labor, which denies children the carefree experiences of youth.

3. Spiritual Alienation

Another significant theme is the spiritual alienation caused by relentless suffering. The children express doubt in divine justice, questioning, “Who is God that He should hear us, / While the rushing of the iron wheels is stirred?” The industrial environment, symbolized by the incessant turning of wheels, drowns out both their prayers and any sense of divine presence. Browning portrays how the children’s faith is eroded by their experiences, as they state, “We look up for God, but tears have made us blind.” This spiritual alienation not only reflects their personal despair but also critiques a society that values economic progress over moral responsibility, leaving the children abandoned by both man and God.

4. Social Injustice

Browning critiques the social injustice inherent in a system that prioritizes industrial and economic growth over human well-being. The poem’s repeated address to “O my brothers” serves as a direct appeal to the readers, urging them to acknowledge their complicity in perpetuating the children’s suffering. The line, “How long, O cruel nation, / Will you stand, to move the world, on a child’s heart,” accuses society of building its prosperity on the physical and emotional exploitation of children. The vivid image of “blood splashes upward” symbolizes the cost of industrial progress, while the “child’s sob curseth deeper in the silence” serves as a haunting reminder of the moral consequences of ignoring their plight. Through these indictments, Browning calls for social reform and moral accountability.

Literary Theories and “The Cry of the Children” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning

Literary Theory	Application to the Poem	References from the Poem
Marxist Criticism	The poem critiques the capitalist exploitation of child labor during the Industrial Revolution. It highlights class oppression and economic inequality.	The line, “How long, O cruel nation, / Will you stand, to move the world, on a child’s heart,” condemns the industrial system that profits from children’s suffering.
Feminist Criticism	Browning, as a woman poet, gives voice to the powerless children, often aligning their plight with societal neglect of vulnerable groups.	The repeated address to “O my brothers” implies a patriarchal audience, critiquing their indifference to the suffering of children, particularly those reliant on maternal care.
Ecocriticism	The poem contrasts the vibrant, natural world with the bleak, industrialized settings where children suffer, highlighting the destructive effects of industrialization.	The juxtaposition of “The young lambs are bleating in the meadows” with “Leave us quiet in the dark of the coal-shadows” illustrates the loss of harmony with nature.

Critical Questions about “The Cry of the Children” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning

1. How does Elizabeth Barrett Browning critique the industrialization of Victorian society through the poem?

Browning’s poem serves as a powerful critique of the Industrial Revolution, emphasizing the human cost of industrial progress. She highlights how the mechanization of labor dehumanizes workers, particularly children, who are reduced to cogs in the industrial machine. The relentless motion of the “iron wheels” symbolizes the inescapable and oppressive force of industrialization: “For all day, the wheels are droning, turning.” Browning juxtaposes the natural world’s freedom and vibrancy—”The young lambs are bleating in the meadows”—with the children’s sorrowful reality in the “dark of the coal-shadows.” This stark contrast underscores how industrialization not only exploits human life but also disconnects society from the natural world, transforming it into a bleak and oppressive environment. The poem critiques the moral bankruptcy of a society that prioritizes economic growth over the well-being of its people, especially its youngest and most vulnerable members.

2. How does the poem explore the theme of spiritual alienation among the children?

Browning portrays spiritual alienation as a direct result of the children’s relentless suffering, suggesting that their faith has been eroded by the harsh realities of their lives. The poem asks, “Who is God that He should hear us, / While the rushing of the iron wheels is stirred?” Here, the noise of industrial machines drowns out both the children’s prayers and any sense of divine presence. The children’s fragmented prayer, reduced to the simple phrase “Our Father,” highlights their limited spiritual connection, further underscored by their belief that God is unresponsive: “He is speechless as a stone.” This alienation extends beyond religion to a broader critique of Victorian society, which has abandoned its moral and spiritual responsibility to protect its most vulnerable members. Browning uses this theme to underline the devastating psychological impact of labor exploitation, which strips children not only of their physical well-being but also their hope and faith.

3. What role does nature play in the poem, and how does it contrast with the children’s reality?

Nature in The Cry of the Children is presented as a symbol of innocence, freedom, and vitality, in stark contrast to the oppressive and unnatural conditions of the children’s lives. Browning uses imagery of vibrant natural life—”The young lambs are bleating in the meadows; / The young birds are chirping in the nest”—to underscore what the children are denied. The contrast becomes even starker when the children respond with, “Leave us quiet in the dark of the coal-shadows.” This response reflects their alienation from the natural world, which has become irrelevant in their world of relentless labor and despair. Nature also serves as a moral backdrop, emphasizing the unnaturalness of the children’s suffering and the moral failing of a society that allows it. Browning’s use of nature as a foil to industrialization critiques the broader societal disconnect from humanity and the environment.

4. How does Browning evoke empathy and call for social reform in the poem?

Browning employs rhetorical devices, vivid imagery, and direct appeals to evoke empathy for the children and call for social reform. The repeated address to “O my brothers” personalizes the issue, urging readers to acknowledge their complicity in perpetuating the children’s suffering. Browning uses haunting imagery, such as “pale and sunken faces” and “our grave-rest is very far to seek,” to make the children’s plight visceral and immediate. The line, “How long, O cruel nation, / Will you stand, to move the world, on a child’s heart,” directly challenges societal priorities, calling for a moral reckoning. By juxtaposing the children’s suffering with the indifference of their “happy Fatherland,” Browning critiques the hypocrisy of a nation that prides itself on freedom while exploiting its own people. The poem’s emotional appeal and moral urgency serve as a call to action, urging readers to advocate for social and labor reform.

Literary Works Similar to “The Cry of the Children” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning

“The Chimney Sweeper” by William Blake
Similarity: This poem, like The Cry of the Children, critiques child labor and exploitation during the Industrial Revolution, focusing on the innocence lost and the suffering endured by young workers.
“London” by William Blake
Similarity: Both poems expose the harsh realities of industrialized society, with a focus on the moral and social decay caused by economic greed and systemic oppression.
“Song of the Shirt” by Thomas Hood
Similarity: This poem parallels Browning’s themes by portraying the relentless labor and suffering of the working poor, particularly women, highlighting societal neglect and injustice.
“A Voice from the Factories” by Caroline Norton
Similarity: Norton’s poem specifically focuses on child labor in coal mines, mirroring Browning’s emotional appeal and vivid imagery to elicit empathy and call for reform.

Representative Quotations of “The Cry of the Children” by Elizabeth Barrett Browning

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Do ye hear the children weeping, O my brothers?”	The opening line addresses the audience directly, highlighting the children’s suffering and society’s apathy.	Marxist Criticism: Critiques the class inequality that forces children into labor for economic profit.
“They are weeping in the playtime of the others, / In the country of the free.”	Contrasts the children’s suffering with the supposed freedom and prosperity of their nation.	Postcolonial Criticism: Challenges the national myth of freedom by exposing internal exploitation.
“The young birds are chirping in the nest; / But the young, young children… are weeping bitterly.”	Juxtaposes the innocence of nature with the misery of the children.	Ecocriticism: Highlights the disconnection between human life and the natural world.
“For all day, we drag our burden tiring, / Through the coal-dark, underground.”	Describes the harsh physical labor and exhaustion faced by the children.	Marxist Criticism: Illustrates the exploitation of children as a result of industrial capitalism.
“How long, O cruel nation, / Will you stand, to move the world, on a child’s heart?”	Critiques societal indifference to the suffering of children in pursuit of progress.	Moral Philosophy: Questions the ethical compromises made for economic growth.
“Our grave-rest is very far to seek!”	The children express that even the relief of death feels unattainable amidst their suffering.	Existentialism: Reflects the despair and lack of agency in the children’s lives.
“We look up for God, but tears have made us blind.”	Highlights the spiritual alienation and loss of faith among the suffering children.	Theology and Religious Criticism: Critiques the failure of religious institutions to address social issues.
“Still, all day, the iron wheels go onward, / As if Fate in each were stark.”	The relentless wheels symbolize the inescapable oppression of industrial labor.	Symbolism: Represents the dehumanizing force of industrialization and its impact on human lives.
“Little Alice died last year her grave is shapen / Like a snowball, in the rime.”	Uses the death of a child as an example of the toll labor takes on young lives.	Feminist Criticism: Highlights the societal neglect of vulnerable groups, particularly women and children.
“The child’s sob curseth deeper in the silence / Than the strong man in his wrath.”	Suggests the silent suffering of children carries a more profound moral indictment than overt rebellion.	Moral Philosophy: Argues that passive suffering is a powerful critique of systemic injustice.

“The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe: A Critical Analysis

“The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe first appeared in 1862 in the Atlantic Monthly magazine.

Introduction: “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe

“The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe first appeared in 1862 in the Atlantic Monthly magazine. Written during the American Civil War, the poem reflects themes of divine justice, sacrifice, and moral resolve. Drawing from biblical imagery and spiritual fervor, it portrays God as an avenging figure who brings righteous judgment while urging believers to fight for freedom and justice. Lines like “As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free” resonated deeply with the Union’s cause, linking their fight against slavery to a sacred duty. Its popularity stemmed from its stirring melody (adapted from the earlier song “John Brown’s Body”), its unifying religious and patriotic undertones, and its ability to inspire hope and determination in a nation divided by war. Over time, the hymn has transcended its historical context to become an enduring anthem of liberty, faith, and perseverance.

Text: “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe

‘Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord:
⁠He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored;
⁠He hath loosed the fateful lightning of his terrible swift sword:
⁠ His truth is marching on.

‘I have seen Him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps;
⁠They have builded Him an altar in the evening dews and damps;
⁠I can read his righteous sentence by the dim and flaring lamps:
⁠ His day is marching on.

‘I have read a fiery gospel, writ in burnished rows of steel:
⁠”As ye deal with my contemners, so with you my grace shall deal;
⁠Let the Hero, born of woman, crush the serpent with his heel,
⁠ Since God is marching on.”

‘He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat;
⁠He is sifting out the hearts of men before his judgment-seat:
⁠O, be swift, my soul, to answer Him! be jubilant, my feet!
⁠ Our God is marching on.

‘In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea,
⁠With a glory in His bosom that transfigures you and me:
⁠As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free,
⁠ While God is marching on.

Annotations: “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe

Line	Annotation
Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord:	The speaker envisions a divine revelation of God’s coming glory, using vivid imagery to show God’s presence and majesty.
He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored;	A biblical allusion to Revelation 14:19-20, where God enacts justice upon the wicked, symbolized as the “grapes of wrath.”
He hath loosed the fateful lightning of his terrible swift sword:	Describes God’s swift and decisive judgment, depicted through the metaphor of a “terrible swift sword.”
His truth is marching on.	Reiterates the unstoppable march of divine truth and justice.
I have seen Him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps;	Suggests God’s presence among Union soldiers (watch-fires) during the Civil War, symbolizing divine guidance and support.
They have builded Him an altar in the evening dews and damps;	Metaphorically suggests that the soldiers’ sacrifices are like building altars to honor God.
I can read his righteous sentence by the dim and flaring lamps:	The flickering light of campfires becomes symbolic of divine judgment being visible even in dark times.
His day is marching on.	Reaffirms the idea of God’s justice and unstoppable movement.
I have read a fiery gospel, writ in burnished rows of steel:	The “gospel” here symbolizes the righteousness of the soldiers’ cause, while “burnished rows of steel” refers to their weapons.
“As ye deal with my contemners, so with you my grace shall deal;	Implies divine reciprocity: how the enemy treats others will be returned through God’s justice.
Let the Hero, born of woman, crush the serpent with his heel,	An allusion to Genesis 3:15, where the ‘Hero’ (Christ) will defeat evil, represented by the serpent.
Since God is marching on.”	Reaffirms the unwavering presence and movement of God.
He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat;	References the biblical image of the trumpet sounding for judgment, symbolizing the call to action.
He is sifting out the hearts of men before his judgment-seat:	Describes God testing human hearts to determine their righteousness in the face of judgment.
O, be swift, my soul, to answer Him! be jubilant, my feet!	Encourages the speaker’s soul and feet to answer God’s call with eagerness and joy.
Our God is marching on.	Reiterates the theme of divine justice and the inexorable march of God.
In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea,	Refers to the humble and transformative birth of Christ, drawing a connection between Christ and freedom.
With a glory in His bosom that transfigures you and me:	The glory of Christ transforms humanity, offering hope and divine purpose.
As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free,	Links Christ’s sacrifice for holiness to the Union soldiers’ fight for freedom during the Civil War.
While God is marching on.	Concludes with the repeated refrain, emphasizing the divine justice guiding the Union cause.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe

Literary Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“He hath loosed the fateful lightning of his terrible swift sword”	The repetition of the “s” sound in “swift sword” creates a rhythmic and musical quality.
Allusion	“He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored;”	A biblical reference to Revelation 14:19, symbolizing divine judgment upon the wicked.
Anaphora	“Mine eyes have seen… He is… He hath… His truth…”	The repetition of phrases at the start of lines enhances rhythm and emphasizes the message.
Assonance	“In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea”	Repetition of the vowel sound “i” in “lilies Christ”. This creates a melodious effect.
Biblical Imagery	“Let the Hero, born of woman, crush the serpent with his heel”	Refers to Genesis 3:15, where Christ (the Hero) defeats evil (the serpent).
Consonance	“He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored;”	Repetition of the “r” and “t” sounds enhances rhythm and flow.
Enjambment	“I have seen Him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps; They have builded Him an altar…”	The sentence flows from one line to the next without pause, maintaining the poem’s rhythm.
Epistrophe	“marching on” (repeated in several stanzas)	Repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of lines emphasizes the divine and unstoppable movement.
Hyperbole	“He hath loosed the fateful lightning of his terrible swift sword;”	Exaggerates the power and swiftness of God’s judgment to emphasize its impact.
Imagery	“I have seen Him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps;”	Descriptive language creates a vivid picture of soldiers around campfires, symbolizing God’s presence.
Metaphor	“He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored;”	Compares God’s judgment to crushing grapes, symbolizing the destruction of wickedness.
Parallelism	“As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free”	Similar structure in both clauses emphasizes the link between Christ’s sacrifice and soldiers’ cause.
Personification	“His truth is marching on.”	Truth is given the human quality of marching, symbolizing its dynamic and unstoppable nature.
Refrain	“Glory, glory, hallelujah! His truth is marching on.”	The repeated refrain adds rhythm, reinforces the message, and inspires unity and resolve.
Rhyme	“Lord… stored… sword”	Creates rhyme in alternating lines, contributing to the poem’s musical quality.
Symbolism	“The trumpet that shall never call retreat;”	The trumpet symbolizes a divine call to action and unwavering moral resolve.
Synecdoche	“burnished rows of steel”	Represents soldiers’ rifles, using a part (steel) to signify the whole.
Tone	“O, be swift, my soul, to answer Him! Be jubilant, my feet!”	The tone is uplifting, urgent, and reverent, encouraging devotion and action.
Visual Imagery	“In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea”	Vividly describes a serene, beautiful scene to symbolize purity and Christ’s transformative power.
Zeugma	“As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free”	Links two ideas (holiness and freedom) using a single verb, emphasizing the connection between them.

Themes: “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe

Divine Justice and Judgment
The poem emphasizes the theme of divine justice and God’s inevitable judgment upon the wicked. Lines such as “He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored” draw a direct allusion to Revelation 14:19, where God’s wrath is likened to treading grapes in a winepress. God is depicted as a powerful force delivering righteous retribution, as seen in “He hath loosed the fateful lightning of his terrible swift sword.” This portrays God as an avenger whose truth and justice march forward unrelentingly, ensuring the triumph of righteousness.
Moral Resolve and Sacrifice
The poem advocates for moral resolve and the willingness to sacrifice for a greater cause. Julia Ward Howe aligns the soldiers’ sacrifice with Christ’s sacrifice, as illustrated in the line: “As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free.” This parallel emphasizes the nobility of dying for freedom and justice, particularly during the Civil War, where the Union’s fight against slavery is depicted as a sacred duty. The call for action—“O, be swift, my soul, to answer Him! Be jubilant, my feet!”—encourages individuals to eagerly respond to the divine call for righteousness.
Faith and Divine Presence
Throughout the poem, the speaker affirms the constant presence of God in human struggles, particularly in war. God is seen in the soldiers’ actions and sacrifices: “I have seen Him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps; They have builded Him an altar in the evening dews and damps.” These lines highlight the belief that God guides and supports the Union soldiers in their fight for justice. The imagery of “His truth is marching on” reinforces the idea that God’s divine truth is ever-present and triumphant.

Freedom and Liberation
The theme of freedom is central to the poem, connecting the Union’s fight in the Civil War with the divine mission of liberation. The line “As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free” underscores the idea that true freedom, both spiritual and physical, is worth sacrificing for. This aligns the abolition of slavery with God’s will, presenting the Union cause as a righteous struggle for liberation. The repeated refrain—“Our God is marching on”—suggests that the fight for freedom is divinely sanctioned and unstoppable.

Literary Theories and “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe

Literary Theory	Explanation	References from the Poem
Historical Criticism	This theory examines the poem in the context of the American Civil War (1861–1865). The poem reflects the moral and religious justification of the Union’s fight against slavery.	The line “As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free” connects the Union cause with Christ’s sacrifice, showing the abolitionist spirit of the time.
Biblical/Religious Criticism	Focuses on the religious allusions and theological themes in the text. The poem is deeply rooted in Christian symbolism and biblical imagery, portraying God as a divine force of justice.	References such as “He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored” and “Let the Hero, born of woman, crush the serpent with his heel” allude to Revelation and Genesis.
Patriotic/Nationalist Theory	Examines how literature promotes a sense of patriotism and collective identity during times of national crisis. The poem inspired Union soldiers and the broader American public by framing the Civil War as a holy mission.	The refrain “Our God is marching on” and imagery like “I have seen Him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps” link patriotism with divine purpose, fostering unity and resolve.

Critical Questions about “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe

How does Julia Ward Howe use religious imagery to justify the Union cause?
Julia Ward Howe employs powerful religious imagery to present the Union cause as a divine mission for justice and freedom. Biblical allusions are woven throughout the poem, such as “He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored,” referencing God’s judgment in Revelation. God is depicted as an active force, “His truth is marching on,” aligning the Union’s fight against slavery with the fulfillment of divine will. By equating the soldiers’ sacrifice to Christ’s sacrifice—“As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free”—Howe legitimizes the war as both morally righteous and spiritually necessary.
What role does the refrain “Our God is marching on” play in the poem?
The refrain “Our God is marching on” serves as a unifying and inspirational element throughout the poem. It reinforces the central idea that God is on the side of justice and righteousness, symbolizing His unstoppable presence and support for the Union soldiers. Repeated at the end of each stanza, it provides a rhythmic and emphatic conclusion that drives home the inevitability of divine victory. The refrain’s march-like cadence mirrors the movement of soldiers and evokes a sense of collective purpose and hope, encouraging listeners to persevere in their struggle for freedom and justice.

How does the poem connect the themes of sacrifice and freedom?
The themes of sacrifice and freedom are intricately connected in the poem, particularly in the line: “As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free.” Here, Julia Ward Howe draws a parallel between Christ’s sacrifice for humanity’s spiritual redemption and the Union soldiers’ sacrifice for the liberation of enslaved people. By doing so, Howe elevates the Civil War to a moral and religious plane, framing the fight against slavery as a holy obligation. This connection underscores the idea that true freedom often requires immense sacrifice, a message meant to inspire dedication to the Union’s cause.
How does the poem balance themes of war and hope?
While the poem vividly describes the harsh realities of divine judgment and war, it simultaneously conveys a strong sense of hope. For instance, imagery like “burnished rows of steel” symbolizes the weapons of soldiers, emphasizing the violence of the conflict. However, the poem balances this with uplifting visions of divine justice, as in “In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea.” This serene image of Christ’s birth contrasts the warlike imagery, suggesting that through the struggle, peace and redemption can ultimately be achieved. The hopeful refrain “Glory, glory, hallelujah!” further reassures the audience of victory and divine support, giving the poem its enduring inspirational power.

Literary Works Similar to “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe

“A Psalm of Life” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Like Howe’s poem, Longfellow’s work is inspirational and encourages moral resolve and action, emphasizing the importance of living a purposeful life.

“O Captain! My Captain!” by Walt Whitman
Both poems respond to events of the Civil War era, using patriotic and mournful tones to honor sacrifices and reflect on leadership and justice.
“The Star-Spangled Banner” by Francis Scott Key
This poem shares patriotic themes, celebrating national resilience and divine guidance in the face of conflict, much like Howe’s depiction of God’s role in the Union’s fight.
“Concord Hymn” by Ralph Waldo Emerson
Emerson’s poem commemorates a revolutionary struggle, similar to Howe’s themes of sacrifice and the fight for freedom through a lens of divine and moral duty.

“If We Must Die” by Claude McKay
Though written in a different historical context, McKay’s poem mirrors Howe’s call to fight courageously and purposefully against oppression for justice and freedom.

Representative Quotations of “The Battle Hymn of the Republic” by Julia Ward Howe

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord”	The speaker envisions divine intervention and God’s triumphant arrival.	Religious Criticism: Highlights the role of divine justice and providence.
“He is trampling out the vintage where the grapes of wrath are stored”	Alludes to God’s judgment in Revelation, where the wicked face retribution.	Historical Criticism: Reflects Civil War justice; Biblical Criticism connects it to apocalyptic imagery.
“His truth is marching on.”	Reiterates that God’s justice and truth are unstoppable and eternal.	Patriotic/Nationalist Theory: Frames the Union cause as divinely sanctioned.
“I have seen Him in the watch-fires of a hundred circling camps”	Describes God’s presence among soldiers in their camps during wartime.	Theological Lens: God as a guiding force in human struggles.
“They have builded Him an altar in the evening dews and damps”	Soldiers’ sacrifices are likened to building altars of worship and honor.	Symbolism: Represents moral resolve; Historical Criticism: Sacrifice in war.
“As He died to make men holy, let us die to make men free”	Connects Christ’s sacrifice with the soldiers’ fight for freedom and justice.	Moral Criticism: Emphasizes righteousness and sacrifice for liberation.
“He hath loosed the fateful lightning of his terrible swift sword”	Depicts God’s swift judgment on those who commit evil and injustice.	Biblical Criticism: Alludes to divine retribution; Symbolism: God’s power as a sword.
“He has sounded forth the trumpet that shall never call retreat”	The trumpet symbolizes a divine and unrelenting call to action.	Religious/Patriotic Theory: Urges persistence in the fight for justice.
“In the beauty of the lilies Christ was born across the sea”	Evokes a peaceful and divine image of Christ’s transformative birth.	Religious Symbolism: Christ as a symbol of purity and salvation.
“Glory, glory, hallelujah!”	The recurring refrain celebrates divine glory and victory.	Refrain Analysis: Creates unity and rhythm; Theological Criticism reinforces triumph in faith.

“Against Abjection” by Imogen Tyler: Summary and Critique

“Against Abjection” by Imogen Tyler first appeared in 2009 in Feminist Theory (Vol. 10, Issue 1, pp. 77–98), critiques the expansion of Julia Kristeva’s influential concept of abjection.

Introduction: “Against Abjection” by Imogen Tyler

“Against Abjection” by Imogen Tyler first appeared in 2009 in Feminist Theory (Vol. 10, Issue 1, pp. 77–98), critiques the expansion of Julia Kristeva’s influential concept of abjection. Tyler examines how Kristeva’s theory has been adopted and adapted within feminist literature, particularly in Anglo-American and Australian contexts, to analyze the portrayal of maternal bodies and identities. While acknowledging the productivity of the concept for feminist theory, Tyler critiques the risk of reinforcing historical patterns of disgust and dehumanization toward the maternal body through Kristeva’s abject paradigm. She proposes a shift from Kristeva’s psychoanalytic framework, which often reiterates a matricidal logic, toward a more politically and socially grounded understanding of abjection. This approach challenges the cultural scripts that render maternal bodies abject, emphasizing the lived realities and social locations of those subjected to abjection. Tyler’s work is significant for its interrogation of the limits of Kristeva’s framework and for its call to rethink maternal subjectivity beyond its traditional abject associations, offering a vital contribution to feminist theory and cultural critique.

Summary of “Against Abjection” by Imogen Tyler

Overview of Kristeva’s Theory of Abjection

Definition and Framework:
- Julia Kristeva’s theory of abjection describes the psychic mechanisms of revulsion and disgust, emphasizing bodily experiences that disrupt a coherent sense of self (Kristeva, 1982: 3).
- Abjection reflects the “border” between being and non-being, generating social and individual boundaries (Kristeva, 1982: 2).
Maternal Abjection and Matricide:
- Kristeva’s theory centralizes the maternal body as the primary site of abjection, associating it with bodily fluids, decay, and reproduction (Kristeva, 1989: 38).
- Matricide (the repudiation of the mother) is framed as a structural necessity for individual subjectivity and autonomy (Kristeva, 1989: 38).

Feminist Appropriations of Abjection

Feminist Use of the Abject:
- Feminist theorists in the 1980s and 1990s adopted abjection as a lens to critique the marginalization of maternal bodies and their representation in culture (Tyler, 2009: 78).
- The maternal body is often framed as “monstrous,” embodying cultural disgust and abjection (Creed, 1993: 49).

Critique of Anglo-Feminist Approaches:
- Tyler critiques how feminist theorists often reproduce Kristeva’s matricidal framework without challenging its foundational premises (Tyler, 2009: 83).
- Representations of the maternal as grotesque or monstrous risk reaffirming misogynistic cultural scripts rather than dismantling them (Russo, 1994: 58).

Lived Experiences of Maternal Abjection

Violence Against Pregnant Women:
- Statistical evidence highlights how pregnancy often intensifies domestic violence, with 17% of pregnant women in some studies reporting abuse (Johnson et al., 2003).
- Violence frequently targets the abdomen and chest, symbolizing disgust and control over the maternal body (De Bruyn, 2003: 26).
Abjection in Personal Testimonies:
- Testimonies from pregnant women reveal how abjection manifests in daily dehumanization, including verbal and physical abuse (Kaye et al., 2003: 41).
- Women report feeling reduced to “abject things,” stripped of their agency and humanity through violence and social exclusion (Kaye et al., 2003: 42–44).

Critique of Abject Criticism

Limitations of Affirmative Abjection:
- Tyler argues that feminist theories celebrating the “subversive potential” of abjection risk normalizing and reinforcing abject representations of maternal bodies (Tyler, 2009: 85).
- The emphasis on reclaiming the “monstrous maternal” often fails to address the tangible effects of abjection on real bodies and lives (Covino, 2000).
Disconnect Between Theory and Lived Reality:
- Abject criticism rarely integrates lived accounts of maternal violence and degradation, perpetuating a disconnection between theoretical abstraction and social reality (Tyler, 2009: 87).

Proposing a Shift in Feminist Theory

Moving Beyond Kristevan Abjection:
- Tyler calls for feminist theory to resist the “compulsion to abject” and to imagine frameworks that affirm maternal subjectivity without reiterating abject paradigms (Tyler, 2009: 86).
- The concept of abjection should evolve into a more political and social theory addressing the structural conditions that perpetuate abjection in lived experiences (Butler, 1993: 190).
Social and Political Accounts of Abjection:
- Tyler emphasizes the need to theorize abjection as a mechanism of exclusion, violence, and social control, particularly within intimate and intergenerational relations (Tyler, 2009: 89).

Conclusion

A Call for Feminist Rage and Action:
- Feminist theory must develop a critical stance “against abjection,” challenging histories of disgust for maternal bodies and advocating for lived maternal subjectivity (Spivak, 1992: 62).
- Tyler proposes a renewed focus on social abjection, which interrogates cultural, legal, and interpersonal mechanisms that dehumanize and marginalize women (Tyler, 2009: 94).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Against Abjection” by Imogen Tyler

Term/Concept	Definition	Context in the Article
Abjection	A psychoanalytic concept describing the process of expulsion of what is deemed impure or threatening to identity.	Central to Kristeva’s theory; associated with the maternal body and bodily processes such as birth, fluids, and decay (Kristeva, 1982).
Maternal Abjection	The specific designation of the maternal body as abject, embodying cultural disgust and monstrosity.	Tyler critiques Kristeva’s framing of the maternal as a primary site of abjection, arguing it reinforces patriarchal disgust towards maternal bodies (Tyler, 2009: 79).
Matricide	The symbolic or psychic “killing” of the mother as a necessary condition for individuation and subjectivity.	Kristeva posits matricide as essential to individuation, but Tyler challenges this as a patriarchal construction of subjectivity (Kristeva, 1989; Tyler, 2009: 86).
Kristevan Paradigm	Julia Kristeva’s psychoanalytic framework, which positions abjection as central to subjectivity and culture.	Tyler critiques feminist theorists for uncritically adopting this paradigm, which perpetuates the abjection of maternal bodies (Tyler, 2009: 83).
Transgressive Potential	The idea that encounters with the abject can disrupt or subvert cultural norms.	Tyler critiques this focus in feminist theory, arguing it neglects the lived consequences of being abject (Tyler, 2009: 83–85).
Affirmative Abjection	A feminist strategy of embracing abjection to reclaim marginalized identities or challenge norms.	Tyler warns that this risks reaffirming rather than challenging misogynistic representations, especially of maternal bodies (Covino, 2000; Tyler, 2009: 85).
Cultural Abject	Representations of abjection in cultural texts, such as literature, art, and film.	Feminist theorists often map how cultural texts depict women and maternal bodies as abject, but Tyler argues this focus overlooks the lived effects of abjection (Creed, 1993; Tyler, 2009: 83).
Abject Criticism	A feminist method of analyzing cultural texts to identify and challenge abjection.	Tyler critiques the focus on cultural representation for failing to address real-world violence and marginalization of women (Tyler, 2009: 83–84).
Monstrous-Feminine	A concept describing the maternal body as grotesque and horrifying, especially in cultural texts.	Borrowed from Creed’s analysis of horror cinema, it aligns maternal bodies with fear and revulsion (Creed, 1993; Tyler, 2009: 83).
Social Abjection	A broader view of abjection as structural violence and exclusion that dehumanizes individuals or groups.	Tyler advocates for a shift from psychoanalytic to social-political accounts of abjection, focusing on lived experiences of marginalization and violence (Tyler, 2009: 94).
Lived Abjection	The experience of being reduced to an “abject thing” through societal or interpersonal dehumanization.	Explored through testimonies of battered pregnant women, Tyler highlights how maternal abjection manifests in real-world violence and abuse (Tyler, 2009: 87).
Constitutive Outside	Judith Butler’s term for elements excluded from the symbolic order that define and reinforce social boundaries.	Tyler references Butler to critique how maternal abjection operates as a “constitutive outside” in both psychoanalytic theory and cultural norms (Butler, 1993: 188; Tyler, 2009: 86).
Communities of the Abject	Networks or groups formed around shared experiences of abjection, offering solidarity and resistance.	Tyler discusses online spaces like chat rooms where battered women form communities to reclaim agency and visibility (Tyler, 2009: 92).
Psychosocial Mechanisms	Processes that combine psychological and social factors to produce abjection.	Tyler emphasizes the need for theories that address the psychosocial dynamics of abjection, especially in lived experiences of marginalization (Tyler, 2009: 89).

Contribution of “Against Abjection” by Imogen Tyler to Literary Theory/Theories

Critique of Psychoanalytic Literary Theory
- Challenges Julia Kristeva’s psychoanalytic framework of abjection, especially its reliance on the concept of matricide as foundational to subjectivity (Tyler, 2009: 79).
- Questions the universalist premises of Kristeva’s theory, arguing that it reinforces patriarchal structures rather than dismantling them (Tyler, 2009: 86).
Feminist Literary Theory
- Critiques feminist adaptations of Kristeva’s abject paradigm, warning against its uncritical adoption as a feminist methodology (Tyler, 2009: 83–84).
- Highlights the risk of reproducing misogynistic representations of women and maternal bodies through “affirmative abjection” strategies (Tyler, 2009: 85).
- Advocates for a re-centering of “lived bodily experience” within feminist theory, as proposed by Toril Moi and Iris Marion Young, to move beyond abstract conceptualizations of the maternal (Tyler, 2009: 79, 94).

Cultural Studies and Film Theory
- Expands the critique of abjection in feminist cultural studies, specifically through analyses of the maternal body in horror cinema (e.g., Creed’s “monstrous-feminine”) (Tyler, 2009: 83).
- Calls for a shift in focus from symbolic representations of the abject maternal to the real-world social and political consequences of such representations (Tyler, 2009: 83–85).

Poststructuralism and Deconstruction
- Engages with Judith Butler’s theories of the “constitutive outside” to critique how abjection is used to reinforce boundaries of social order and intelligibility (Butler, 1993; Tyler, 2009: 86).
- Emphasizes the contingent and constructed nature of maternal abjection, arguing that it is not an essentialist condition but a reiterative socio-historical phenomenon (Tyler, 2009: 94).

Sociological and Political Literary Theory
- Introduces the concept of “social abjection,” expanding the term to encompass structural violence and marginalization beyond psychoanalytic contexts (Tyler, 2009: 94).
- Advocates for a political reimagining of abjection to address lived experiences of exclusion and violence, particularly toward women and maternal bodies (Tyler, 2009: 94).

Aesthetic and Art Theory
- Critiques the use of abjection in avant-garde and feminist art criticism, which often frames abject representations as inherently transgressive or liberatory (Tyler, 2009: 83).
- Warns against aestheticizing or fetishizing the maternal abject, arguing that such approaches risk reaffirming the cultural disgust they aim to critique (Tyler, 2009: 85).

Intersection of Theory and Practice
- Proposes an interdisciplinary approach that connects literary and cultural theories of abjection with sociological data on violence against maternal bodies (Tyler, 2009: 87).
- Highlights the importance of integrating theory with lived accounts of marginalization to develop more effective critiques of systemic violence (Tyler, 2009: 94).

Examples of Critiques Through “Against Abjection” by Imogen Tyler

Literary Work	Type of Critique Through “Against Abjection”	Explanation Using Tyler’s Framework
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley	Critique of the “Monstrous Maternal”	Explores how the absent maternal and the monstrous creation reflect cultural abjection of the maternal body. Tyler’s argument on the “maternal as abject” reveals the implicit matricidal anxiety in the narrative.
Beloved by Toni Morrison	Deconstruction of Maternal Abjection	Uses Tyler’s critique to analyze how the maternal body is subjected to abjection through systemic violence, while also showcasing resilience and reclamation of maternal subjectivity.
The Bloody Chamber by Angela Carter	Critique of Affirmative Abjection in Feminist Literature	Examines how Carter’s use of grotesque and abject imagery risks perpetuating negative cultural constructions of femininity and maternity, aligning with Tyler’s warnings against “affirmative abjection.”
Dracula by Bram Stoker	Critique of the “Monstrous-Feminine” in Gothic Literature	Highlights the portrayal of female vampires as abject maternal figures, aligning with Tyler’s critique of how horror narratives construct female bodies as sites of horror and cultural disgust.

Criticism Against “Against Abjection” by Imogen Tyler

Over-reliance on Kristeva’s Framework
Critics argue that Tyler’s critique depends heavily on Julia Kristeva’s foundational theory of abjection, potentially limiting the originality of her intervention and tethering her analysis to Kristeva’s psychoanalytic underpinnings.
Neglect of Broader Intersectional Dimensions
While Tyler addresses social and political abjection, her analysis does not extensively explore intersectional factors such as race, class, and sexuality in shaping experiences of maternal abjection, which could have enriched her critique.
Ambiguity in “Social and Political Account of Abjection”
Tyler calls for a shift to a more social and political account of abjection but does not always provide concrete or systematic ways to implement this in feminist theory or praxis.

Risk of Universalizing Maternal Experiences
By critiquing Kristeva’s universalism, Tyler risks replicating similar universal tendencies by not sufficiently acknowledging the diversity and specificity of maternal experiences across cultures and contexts.
Limited Engagement with Non-Western Perspectives
The article primarily critiques Anglo-American and Australian feminist theory, without significant engagement with non-Western feminist discourses, potentially narrowing the scope of her critique.
Ambivalence Toward Affirmative Abjection
Tyler critiques the use of “affirmative abjection” in feminist cultural criticism but offers limited alternatives for feminist theorists aiming to reclaim or reinterpret abject representations in empowering ways.

Focus on Maternal Abjection at the Expense of Other Forms
The article’s primary focus on maternal abjection could be seen as narrowing the broader applicability of the concept, potentially sidelining other significant forms of abjection such as racial, queer, or disabled bodies.
Insufficient Practical Application
While theoretically robust, some critics may find Tyler’s work less actionable in addressing real-world instances of violence and marginalization beyond academic feminist debates.

Representative Quotations from “Against Abjection” by Imogen Tyler with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“This article is about the theoretical life of ‘the abject’.”	Tyler outlines the purpose of her work, which is to critically analyze the use and implications of Julia Kristeva’s theory of abjection in feminist theory, particularly regarding maternal bodies and identities.
“Employing Kristeva’s abject paradigm risks reproducing histories of violent disgust towards maternal bodies.”	Tyler critiques the reliance on Kristeva’s concept of abjection in feminist theory, arguing that it perpetuates rather than challenges societal disgust and marginalization of maternal bodies.
“In place of the Kristevan model of the abject, it argues for a more thoroughly social and political account of abjection.”	Tyler proposes an alternative approach to abjection that focuses on its social and political dimensions rather than psychoanalytic roots, to better address the lived experiences of marginalized groups.
“Matricide is our vital necessity, the sine qua non condition of our individuation.”	Quoting Kristeva, Tyler critiques the universal assumption that subjectivity requires the violent rejection of the maternal, suggesting it reflects and reinforces patriarchal norms.
“Feminist theory needs to ascertain what the structural and conceptual limits of the Kristevan abject are.”	Tyler emphasizes the importance of critically examining the limitations of Kristeva’s abjection theory, especially its utility in theorizing maternal subjectivity and its potential complicity in harmful cultural scripts.
“What is completely absent from her account is any discussion of what it might mean to be that maternal abject.”	Tyler highlights a gap in Kristeva’s theory, pointing out that it fails to consider the lived realities and experiences of individuals positioned as abject, particularly mothers.
“Abjection is not just a psychic process but a social experience.”	Tyler broadens the scope of abjection to include its tangible social and political implications, such as dehumanization and exclusion, beyond Kristeva’s psychoanalytic focus.
“The maternal can only be produced as a site of horror through representational practices which figure ‘her’ as in excess of a singular body/identity.”	Tyler argues that cultural representations of the maternal as abject rely on violent dismemberment and fragmentation of maternal bodies, reinforcing their dehumanization.
“The myopic focus within feminist abject criticism on the transformative potential of excavating ‘the cultural abject’… risks marginalizing lived experiences.”	Tyler critiques the tendency in feminist theory to celebrate the subversive potential of abjection while neglecting the real-world consequences for those who are socially constructed as abject.
“Abjection has effects on real bodies; abjection hurts.”	Tyler underscores the physical and emotional harm caused by the social and cultural processes of abjection, particularly through violence against women and maternal bodies.

“Abjection, or Why Freud Introduces the Phallus: Identification, Castration Theory, and the Logic of Fetishism” by Tina Chanter: Summary and Critique

“Abjection, or Why Freud Introduces the Phallus: Identification, Castration Theory, and the Logic of Fetishism” by Tina Chanter first appeared in the Southern Journal of Philosophy in 2004 (Vol. XLJI, Supplement).

Introduction: “Abjection, or Why Freud Introduces the Phallus: Identification, Castration Theory, and the Logic of Fetishism” by Tina Chanter

“Abjection, or Why Freud Introduces the Phallus: Identification, Castration Theory, and the Logic of Fetishism” by Tina Chanter first appeared in the Southern Journal of Philosophy in 2004 (Vol. XLJI, Supplement). This article explores the intersections of Freud’s psychoanalytic theories, particularly castration theory and fetishism, with Julia Kristeva’s concept of abjection. Chanter revisits Freud’s framework of identification, challenging its paternal emphasis and his systematic avoidance of maternal identification. By integrating Kristeva’s notion of abjection, Chanter pushes beyond its traditional sexual difference framework to critique Freud’s assumptions regarding race and primitivism. This work is significant in literary theory as it interrogates the foundational structures of psychoanalytic discourse, advocating for a re-evaluation of maternal authority and its implications for understanding identity, race, and gender. Chanter’s analysis broadens the theoretical landscape, providing nuanced insights into the unconscious biases embedded in cultural and psychoanalytic narratives.

Summary of “Abjection, or Why Freud Introduces the Phallus: Identification, Castration Theory, and the Logic of Fetishism” by Tina Chanter

Introduction to Abjection as a Critical Lens

Chanter explores the concept of the abject, derived from Julia Kristeva, as a tool for addressing the limitations in Freud’s psychoanalytic theories, particularly in fetishistic and racial discourses (Chanter, 2004, p. 49).

She critiques Freud’s neglect of maternal identification, emphasizing its importance in understanding identity formation and challenging racial and gender biases embedded in psychoanalysis (p. 49).

Critique of Freud’s Gendered Frameworks

Freud’s castration theory and fetishism revolve around the phallus as a symbolic center, often excluding the mother as a source of identification (p. 50).

Chanter highlights Freud’s “systematic avoidance of the mother” and critiques the preference for paternal identification, which distorts the role of the maternal in psychic development (p. 49-50).

Abjection and Maternal Reconsideration

Drawing on Kristeva, Chanter reorients the discourse of abjection to emphasize its potential to critique and reframe Freud’s assumptions about sexual and racial difference (p. 49).

She argues for a reconfiguration of abjection to include the maternal figure as central to the process of subject formation, countering Freud’s erasure of maternal authority (p. 50-51).

Intersections of Sexual and Racial Differences

Chanter critiques Freud’s tendency to position racial difference as a mechanism to obscure unresolved issues regarding sexual difference (p. 50).

She discusses how fetishism and castration theory reflect not only sexual anxieties but also racialized narratives, suggesting an interdependence between discourses of race and gender (p. 50-51).

Revisiting the Phallic Phase

Freud’s introduction of the phallic phase is examined as symptomatic of his difficulty in reconciling paternal and maternal identification (p. 51-52).

Chanter challenges Freud’s claim that identification with the father precedes object-choice, noting the unresolved tension in his differentiation of maternal and paternal roles (p. 52-53).

Logic of Fetishism and Maternal Suppression

Chanter identifies fetishism as central to Freud’s theoretical framework, linking it to the suppression of maternal significance and the privileging of paternal authority (p. 55).

She critiques Freud’s reliance on fetishistic disavowal to sustain patriarchal narratives, arguing for an alternative that reclaims the maternal role (p. 55-56).

Towards a Revised Psychoanalytic Framework

By integrating Kristeva’s abjection, Chanter envisions a psychoanalytic framework that addresses unconscious forces driving exclusionary practices, especially regarding race and gender (p. 62).

Her work advocates for a “radicalization” of abjection to deconstruct patriarchal, racist, and heteronormative assumptions within psychoanalysis (p. 62-63).

Conclusion

Chanter’s reinterpretation of Freud and Kristeva opens a path for rethinking foundational psychoanalytic concepts, emphasizing maternal identification and the intersections of racial and sexual difference.

Her work underscores the need to rethink abjection as a tool for inclusive critical theory, challenging entrenched biases in cultural and psychoanalytic narratives (p. 63-64).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Abjection, or Why Freud Introduces the Phallus: Identification, Castration Theory, and the Logic of Fetishism” by Tina Chanter

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Description	Relevance in Chanter’s Argument
Abjection	A concept from Julia Kristeva, referring to the process of separating oneself from what is deemed unclean or threatening to subjectivity.	Used to critique Freud’s neglect of the maternal and to propose a rethinking of subject formation, emphasizing the maternal body and its role in identity construction (Chanter, p. 49-50).
Castration Theory	Freud’s theory positing that fear of losing the penis drives male psychosexual development and informs gender roles.	Critiqued for its phallocentric focus; Chanter challenges its exclusion of maternal identification and its implications for understanding race and gender (p. 51).
Fetishism	A psychological mechanism described by Freud, where a substitute object denies and acknowledges castration anxiety simultaneously.	Linked to racial and gendered discourses; Chanter critiques its use as a way to suppress maternal significance while sustaining patriarchal norms (p. 50-55).
Phallic Phase	Freud’s developmental phase where the penis becomes the central organ of sexual identity.	Seen as symptomatic of Freud’s difficulty reconciling maternal and paternal roles; Chanter argues this phase reinforces the marginalization of the maternal (p. 51-52).
Identification	A process in which an individual aligns themselves emotionally or psychologically with another person, often the parent.	Critiqued for its patriarchal bias in Freud’s work, where identification is tied predominantly to the father; Chanter argues for a rethinking that incorporates maternal identification (p. 50-51).
Object-Choice	Freud’s term for the selection of a love object, typically associated with the mother in early development.	Chanter explores the interplay between identification and object-choice, highlighting the tension in Freud’s prioritization of paternal identification over maternal object-choice (p. 50-52).
The Phallus	A symbolic representation of power and authority in psychoanalytic theory, central to Freud and Lacan’s frameworks.	Critiqued for perpetuating patriarchal structures; Chanter argues that its symbolic dominance marginalizes maternal authority and reinforces fetishistic logics (p. 55).
Racialized Other	A term describing how psychoanalytic theory incorporates race as a category of difference subordinate to sexual difference.	Chanter critiques Freud for using racial difference to obscure unresolved issues of sexual difference, thereby intertwining race and gender in problematic ways (p. 50).
Maternal Identification	The emotional or psychological alignment with the mother, often overshadowed by Freud’s focus on paternal identification.	Central to Chanter’s critique; she calls for rehabilitating maternal identification as vital to understanding subjectivity, abjection, and identity (p. 50-51).
The Enigma of Woman	Freud’s concept of woman as an unresolved mystery in psychoanalytic theory.	Chanter argues that Freud’s difficulty in addressing the “enigma of woman” is tied to broader exclusions, including racial and maternal dimensions (p. 50).
Disavowal	A psychological mechanism where reality is both acknowledged and denied, often related to fetishism.	Used by Chanter to illustrate how Freud’s theories suppress maternal influence and shore up patriarchal structures (p. 55-56).
Totemic Ritual	Freud’s concept linking primitive societies’ rituals to the development of social, moral, and religious structures.	Chanter critiques the use of primitivism as a parallel to psychoanalytic development, noting its racialized implications and its role in suppressing maternal significance (p. 59).
Pleasure Principle vs. Reality Principle	Freud’s framework contrasting the human drive for immediate pleasure with the constraints imposed by reality.	Chanter links this dichotomy to the dynamics of abjection and fetishism, illustrating how it informs gendered and racialized narratives in psychoanalytic theory (p. 51).

Contribution of “Abjection, or Why Freud Introduces the Phallus: Identification, Castration Theory, and the Logic of Fetishism” by Tina Chanter to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Psychoanalytic Theory: Reconfiguration of Maternal Identification

Challenges Freud’s focus on paternal identification, advocating for the inclusion of maternal identification as a central aspect of subject formation (Chanter, p. 50-51).

Offers a critical perspective on the phallic phase, exposing its role in suppressing maternal authority and reinforcing patriarchal norms (p. 51).
Proposes that the logic of abjection provides a framework to rethink foundational psychoanalytic categories, such as the Oedipus complex and fetishism, to better address gender and race (p. 62-63).

2. Feminist Literary Theory: Critique of Phallocentrism

Criticizes the phallocentric bias in Freudian and Lacanian frameworks, particularly their emphasis on the phallus as a symbolic center of power and identity (p. 55).
Advocates for a feminist rethinking of psychoanalytic categories by integrating Kristeva’s concept of abjection to foreground the maternal (p. 50).
Highlights the systemic marginalization of women’s experiences in psychoanalytic discourse, particularly the “enigma of woman,” to encourage feminist critiques of gendered narratives (p. 50).

3. Critical Race Theory: Intersections of Race and Psychoanalysis

Identifies the racialized underpinnings of Freudian discourse, showing how racial difference is used to obscure unresolved issues of sexual difference (p. 50).
Critiques the appropriation of fetishism in discourses on race, arguing that it imports phallocentric assumptions into racialized contexts (p. 50-51).

Calls for a psychoanalytic framework that recognizes the interplay between race and gender without subordinating one to the other (p. 51).

4. Poststructuralist Theory: Deconstruction of Foundational Binaries

Employs Kristeva’s concept of abjection to deconstruct the binary oppositions central to Freud’s theory, such as identification versus object-choice and castration versus fetishism (p. 49-50).

Argues that Freud’s reliance on primitivism and patriarchal narratives reflects a deeper structural dependence on exclusionary categories (p. 59).
Positions abjection as a tool for interrogating and reconfiguring the symbolic, imaginary, and real within psychoanalytic discourse (p. 63).

5. Postcolonial Literary Theory: Critique of Primitivism

Critiques Freud’s analogy between psychic development and the so-called “primitive,” exposing its colonial and racialized assumptions (p. 59).
Links Freud’s use of primitivism to the marginalization of maternal significance and its implications for colonial narratives in psychoanalytic thought (p. 59-60).

6. Affect Theory: Emphasis on Emotional and Psychic Processes

Expands Kristeva’s notion of abjection to explore its affective dimensions, focusing on how processes of separation and rejection shape identity and subjectivity (p. 62).
Reframes affective responses to the maternal body, challenging their exclusion in Freud’s focus on symbolic and phallic structures (p. 63).

Examples of Critiques Through “Abjection, or Why Freud Introduces the Phallus: Identification, Castration Theory, and the Logic of Fetishism” by Tina Chanter

Literary Work	Critique Through Chanter’s Lens	Key Concepts Referenced
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein	The creature’s rejection by society and Victor’s denial of parental responsibility can be analyzed as processes of abjection, emphasizing the suppression of maternal identification.	Abjection, maternal identification, phallic symbolic, repression of the maternal (Chanter, p. 49-50).
Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper	The narrator’s descent into madness reflects the abjection of the feminine body and psyche, showcasing patriarchal suppression and the erasure of maternal authority in caregiving roles.	Abjection, phallocentrism, gendered marginalization, repression of the maternal (p. 50, 55).
Toni Morrison’s Beloved	The haunting presence of Sethe’s dead daughter illustrates abjection as a confrontation with repressed maternal trauma and racialized histories of exclusion.	Abjection, racialized other, intersections of race and gender, maternal loss (p. 50-51, 63).
Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness	The portrayal of Africa as a space of “primitivism” and Kurtz’s breakdown exemplify Freud’s reliance on racialized narratives to navigate sexual and cultural difference.	Racialized other, primitivism, psychoanalysis and race, fetishistic disavowal (p. 50, 59).

Criticism Against “Abjection, or Why Freud Introduces the Phallus: Identification, Castration Theory, and the Logic of Fetishism” by Tina Chanter

1. Overreliance on Psychoanalytic Frameworks

Chanter’s critique is deeply rooted in Freudian and Kristevan psychoanalysis, which some argue are overly theoretical and disconnected from lived experiences or contemporary social contexts.
Critics might suggest that her reliance on psychoanalytic language limits accessibility and applicability to broader cultural or interdisciplinary discussions.

2. Insufficient Engagement with Race Theory

While Chanter critiques Freud’s racialized assumptions, her engagement with race theory could be seen as secondary to her focus on gender and maternal identification.
Critics might argue that she does not adequately address how racialized and colonial frameworks persist in contemporary psychoanalytic and cultural discourses.

3. Limited Development of Kristeva’s Abjection

Chanter builds on Julia Kristeva’s notion of abjection but fails to push its boundaries significantly beyond its original formulation in Powers of Horror.
Some may view her critique as a reiteration of Kristeva’s ideas rather than a groundbreaking extension of them.

4. Neglect of Intersectionality

Although Chanter discusses intersections of race and gender, her analysis may not fully embrace an intersectional framework that integrates class, sexuality, and other dimensions of identity.
Critics might argue that the discussion remains confined to a dual focus on race and gender without exploring other intersecting axes of marginalization.

5. Abstract Theoretical Focus

Chanter’s arguments are heavily theoretical, which may lead to critiques that her work lacks concrete examples or practical applications to literary texts or cultural phenomena.
This abstract focus could limit her relevance to those seeking actionable insights for interdisciplinary or activist scholarship.

6. Overemphasis on Maternal Identification

While Chanter’s advocacy for maternal identification is innovative, critics might contend that it risks reifying the maternal role in ways that could reinforce traditional gender roles.
Some feminist scholars may argue that focusing on maternal identification detracts from broader critiques of patriarchal systems.

7. Overshadowing of Contemporary Feminist and Queer Critiques

Chanter’s focus on Freud and Kristeva might overshadow more recent developments in feminist, queer, and postcolonial theory that provide alternative critiques of psychoanalysis.
Critics might argue that her work could benefit from engaging with contemporary theorists who challenge or expand upon psychoanalytic frameworks.

8. Potential for Misinterpretation of Freud

Chanter’s critique of Freud’s theories as patriarchal and phallocentric may be seen by some as reductive, oversimplifying the complexities and historical context of Freudian psychoanalysis.

Representative Quotations from “Abjection, or Why Freud Introduces the Phallus: Identification, Castration Theory, and the Logic of Fetishism” by Tina Chanter with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The abject can be used as a resource to rework the fetishistic discourses that have come to dominate a good deal of contemporary theory, including film theory and race theory.”	Chanter highlights the critical potential of abjection as a framework to challenge established discourses, particularly those rooted in fetishism. This underscores abjection’s relevance beyond psychoanalysis, extending it to cultural and theoretical domains such as film and race studies.
“Sexual difference founders on the rock of racial difference.”	Chanter critiques Freud’s inability to think through sexual difference without simultaneously relying on unexamined assumptions about race. She posits that psychoanalysis avoids confronting race, thereby revealing an interdependency that remains under-theorized in Freud’s work.
“Kristeva’s notion of abjection deals with affect, not with an idea that is disavowed.”	This statement distinguishes Kristeva’s approach to abjection from fetishism. While fetishism relies on denial and substitution, abjection engages with affective responses to boundaries and exclusions, offering a different conceptual entry point for rethinking psychoanalysis and social systems.
“Freud’s phallic phase…can be read as symptomatic of Freud’s suppression of maternal identification.”	Chanter argues that Freud’s introduction of the phallic phase reflects an implicit effort to marginalize maternal identification. This critique reconfigures Freud’s theory, suggesting that maternal roles were systematically downplayed to prioritize paternal figures in identity formation.
“The attribution to women of a fetishistic substitute or imaginary penis…has been extended to discourses on race.”	This quotation critiques the ways Freud’s theory of fetishism, originally about sexual difference, is uncritically adapted to racial difference. Chanter highlights the danger of transferring psychoanalytic assumptions about the phallus to racialized others, risking the perpetuation of racialized stereotypes.
“The reign of the phallus is thoroughly fetishistic.”	Chanter critiques the centrality of the phallus in psychoanalysis, describing it as an extension of fetishistic logic. She challenges the emphasis on the phallus, arguing that it overshadows other dynamics, such as maternal identification and abjection, in psychoanalytic theories of identity.
“Abjection offers a new way of rethinking what is at issue in the Lacanian mirror stage, by pushing back the question in a way that doesn’t foreclose the maternal body as a locus of the inception of meaning.”	Here, Chanter proposes that abjection provides a means to revisit Lacanian psychoanalysis, particularly its conceptualization of subject formation. By centering the maternal body, she seeks to challenge Lacan’s focus on paternal authority and the symbolic order.
“The white man knows that the racialized other is castrated—without power—but nonetheless attributes to him a mystical, magical, transcendent, threatening aura.”	Chanter critiques racialized applications of fetishism, arguing that Freud’s logic of fetishism reappears in racial discourses. The racialized other is paradoxically perceived as powerless yet threatening, a contradiction that mirrors the fetishist’s simultaneous acknowledgment and denial of castration.
“There is a sense in which the logic of fetishism produces, retroactively as it were, the logic of the phallus.”	Chanter reinterprets the relationship between fetishism and the phallus, suggesting that the former retroactively constructs the latter. This challenges the presumed primacy of the phallus in psychoanalytic theory, opening up alternative ways of understanding subjectivity and identity.
“Is there a way of recasting the abject so that its processes do not line up along lines that systematically disenfranchise certain groups at the expense of others?”	This question encapsulates Chanter’s broader aim: to reconfigure abjection as a tool for inclusivity and equity. By interrogating the structures of exclusion embedded in psychoanalytic and cultural frameworks, she seeks to develop a more just and expansive theoretical approach.