Day: January 9, 2025

Introduction: “The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson

“The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson first appeared in 1749, as part of his poetic endeavors, published independently. Inspired by Juvenal’s Tenth Satire, this masterful poem explores the universal follies of human ambition and the transient nature of worldly desires. Johnson employs sharp observation and philosophical depth, opening with the grand lines, “Let observation with extensive view, / Survey mankind, from China to Peru.” The poem critiques humanity’s relentless pursuit of wealth, power, and beauty, which often leads to ruin rather than fulfillment, as captured in lines like, “Wealth heap’d on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys, / The dangers gather as the treasures rise.” Its popularity as a textbook poem stems from its moral gravitas, vivid imagery, and timeless relevance, making it a critical reflection on human frailty and the need for divine guidance. Through compelling examples such as Wolsey’s fall from grandeur and the doomed ambitions of Charles XII, the poem underscores the futility of earthly pursuits and champions faith, virtue, and acceptance of divine will. Its enduring resonance lies in its blend of biting satire and profound wisdom, offering solace through its concluding message of spiritual contentment: “Pour forth thy fervors for a healthful mind, / Obedient passions, and a will resign’d.”

Text: “The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson

In Imitation of the Tenth Satire of Juvenal

Let observation with extensive view, 
Survey mankind, from China to Peru; 
Remark each anxious toil, each eager strife, 
And watch the busy scenes of crowded life; 
Then say how hope and fear, desire and hate, 
O’erspread with snares the clouded maze of fate, 
Where wav’ring man, betray’d by vent’rous pride, 
To tread the dreary paths without a guide, 
As treach’rous phantoms in the mist delude, 
Shuns fancied ills, or chases airy good. 
How rarely reason guides the stubborn choice, 
Rules the bold hand, or prompts the suppliant voice, 
How nations sink, by darling schemes oppress’d, 
When vengeance listens to the fool’s request. 
Fate wings with ev’ry wish th’ afflictive dart, 
Each gift of nature, and each grace of art, 
With fatal heat impetuous courage glows, 
With fatal sweetness elocution flows, 
Impeachment stops the speaker’s pow’rful breath, 
And restless fire precipitates on death. 
 But scarce observ’d, the knowing and the bold, 
Fall in the gen’ral massacre of gold; 
Wide-wasting pest! that rages unconfin’d, 
And crowds with crimes the records of mankind;
For gold his sword the hireling ruffian draws, 
For gold the hireling judge distorts the laws; 
Wealth heap’d on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys, 
The dangers gather as the treasures rise. 
Let hist’ry tell where rival kings command, 
And dubious title shakes the madded land, 
When statutes glean the refuse of the sword, 
How much more safe the vassal than the lord:
Low sculks the hind beneath the rage of pow’r, 
And leaves the wealthy traitor in the Tow’r, 
Untouch’d his cottage, and his slumbers sound, 
Tho’ confiscation’s vultures hover round. 
 The needy traveller, serene and gay, 
Walks the wild heath, and sings his toil away. 
Does envy seize thee? crush th’ upbraiding joy, 
Increase his riches and his peace destroy, 
New fears in dire vicissitude invade, 
The rustling brake alarms, and quiv’ring shade, 
Nor light nor darkness bring his pain relief. 
One shews the plunder, and one hides the thief. 
Yet still one gen’ral cry the skies assails, 
And gain and grandeur load the tainted gales, 
Few know the toiling statesman’s fear or care, 
Th’ insidious rival and the gaping heir. 
 Once more, Democritus, arise on earth, 
With cheerful wisdom and instructive mirth, 
See motley life in modern trappings dress’d, 
And feed with varied fools th’ eternal jest: 
Thou who couldst laugh where want enchain’d caprice, 
Toil crush’d conceit, and man was of a piece; 
Where wealth unlov’d without a mourner died; 
And scarce a sycophant was fed by pride; 
Where ne’er was known the form of mock debate, 
Or seen a new-made mayor’s unwieldy state; 
Where change of fav’rites made no change of laws, 
And senates heard before they judg’d a cause; 
How wouldst thou shake at Britain’s modish tribe, 
Dart the quick taunt, and edge the piercing gibe? 
Attentive truth and nature to descry, 
And pierce each scene with philosophic eye. 
To thee were solemn toys or empty show, 
The robes of pleasure and the veils of woe: 
All aid the farce, and all thy mirth maintain, 
Whose joys are causeless, or whose griefs are vain. 
 Such was the scorn that fill’d the sage’s mind, 
Renew’d at ev’ry glance on humankind; 
How just that scorn ere yet thy voice declare, 
Search every state, and canvas ev’ry pray’r. 
 Unnumber’d suppliants crowd Preferment’s gate, 
Athirst for wealth, and burning to be great; 
Delusive Fortune hears the incessant call, 
They mount, they shine, evaporate, and fall. 
On ev’ry stage the foes of peace attend, 
Hate dogs their flight, and insult mocks their end. 
Love ends with hope, the sinking statesman’s door 
Pours in the morning worshiper no more; 
For growing names the weekly scribbler lies, 
To growing wealth the dedicator flies, 
From every room descends the painted face, 
That hung the bright palladium of the place, 
And smok’d in kitchens or in auctions sold, 
To better features yields the frame of gold; 
For now no more we trace in ev’ry line,
Heroic worth, benevolence divine: 
The form distorted justifies the fall, 
And detestation rids th’ indignant wall. 
    But will not Britain hear the last appeal,
Sign her foes doom, or guard her fav’rites’ zeal?
Through freedom’s sons no more remonstrance rings,
Degrading nobles, and controlling kings;
Our supple tribes repress their patriot throats,
And ask no question but the price of votes;
With weekly libels and septennial ale,
Their wish is full to riot and to rail
 In full-blown dignity see Wolsey stand,
Law in his voice, and fortune in his hand;
To him the church, the realm, their powers consign,
Through him the rays of regal bounty shine;
Turn’d by his nod the stream of honour flows,
His smile alone security bestows:
Still to new heights his restless wishes tour;
Claim leads to claim, and pow’r advances pow’r;
Till conquest unresisted ceas’d to please,
And rights submitted, left him none to seize.
At length his sov’reign frowns—the train of state
Mark the keen glance, and watch the sign to hate;
Where’er he turns he meets a stranger’s eye,
His suppliants scorn him, and his followers fly;
Now drops at once the pride of awful state,
The golden canopy, the glitt’ring plate,
The regal palace, the luxurious board,
The liv’ried army, and the menial lord.
With age, with cares, with maladies oppress’d,
He seeks the refuge of monastic rest.
Grief aids disease, remember’d folly stings,
And his last sighs reproach the faith of kings.
Speak thou, whose thoughts at humble peace repine,
Shall Wolsey’s wealth, with Wolsey’s end, be thine?
Or liv’st thou now, with safer pride content,
The wisest justice on the banks of Trent?
For why did Wolsey, near the steeps of fate,
On weak foundations raise th’ enormous weight?
Why but to sink beneath misfortune’s blow
With louder ruin to the gulphs below?
What gave great Villiers to the assassin’s knife,
And fix’d disease on Harley’s closing life?
What murder’d Wentworth, and what exil’d Hyde,
By kings protected, and to kings ally’d?
What but their wish indulg’d, in courts to shine,
And pow’r too great to keep or to resign?
 When first the college rolls receive his name, 
The young enthusiast quits his ease for fame; 
Resistless burns the fever of renown,
Caught from the strong contagion of the gown:
O’er Bodley’s dome his future labours spread, 
And Bacon’s mansion trembles o’er his head. 
Are these thy views? proceed, illustrious youth, 
And virtue guard thee to the throne of Truth! 
Yet should thy soul indulge the gen’rous heat, 
Till captive Science yields her last retreat; 
Should Reason guide thee with her brightest ray,
And pour on misty doubt resistless day; 
Should no false kindness lure to loose delight, 
Nor praise relax, nor difficulty fright; 
Should tempting novelty thy cell refrain, 
And sloth effuse her opiate fumes in vain; 
Should beauty blunt on fops her fatal dart, 
Nor claim the triumph of a letter’d heart; 
Should no disease thy torpid veins invade, 
Nor melancholy’s phantoms haunt thy shade; 
Yet hope not life from grief or danger free, 
Nor think the doom of man revers’d for thee: 
Deign on the passing world to turn thine eyes, 
And pause awhile from learning, to be wise; 
There mark what ills the scholar’s life assail, 
Toil, envy, want, the patron, and the jail. 
See nations slowly wise, and meanly just, 
To buried merit raise the tardy bust. 
If dreams yet flatter, once again attend, 
Hear Lydiat’s life, and Galileo’s end. 
 Nor deem, when learning her last prize bestows 
The glitt’ring eminence exempt from foes; 
See when the vulgar ‘scapes despis’d or aw’d, 
Rebellion’s vengeful talons seize on Laud. 
From meaner minds, though smaller fines content,
The plunder’d palace, or sequester’d rent; 
Mark’d out by dangerous parts he meets the shock, 
And fatal learning leads him to the block: 
Around his tomb let art and genius weep, 
But hear his death, ye blockheads, hear and sleep. 
    The festal blazes, the triumphal show,
The ravish’d standard, and the captive foe,
The senate’s thanks, the Gazette’s pompous tale,
With force resistless o’er the brave prevail.
Such bribes the rapid Greek o’er Asia whirl’d,
For such the steady Romans shook the world;
For such in distant lands the Britons shine,
And stain with blood the Danube or the Rhine;
This power has praise, that virtue scarce can warm,
Till fame supplies the universal charm.
Yet reason frowns on war’s unequal game,
Where wasted nation’s raise a single name,
And mortgag’d states their grandsire’s wreaths regret,
From age to age in everlasting debt;
Wreaths which at last the dear-bought right convey,
To rust on medals, or on stones decay.
    On what foundation stands the warrior’s pride,
How just his hopes, let Swedish Charles decide;
A frame of adamant, a soul of fire,
No dangers fright him, and no labours tire;
O’er love, o’er fear, extends his wide domain,
Unconquer’d lord of pleasure and of pain;
No joys to him pacific scepters yield,
War sounds the trump, he rushes to the field;
Behold surrounding kings their power combine,
And one capitulate, and one resign;
Peace courts his hand, but spreads her charms in vain;
“Think nothing gain’d,” he cries, “till nought remain,
“On Muscow’s walls till Gothic standards fly,
“And all be mine beneath the polar sky.”
The march begins in military state,
And nations on his eye suspended wait;
Stern famine guards the solitary coast,
And winter barricades the realms of frost;
He comes, nor want nor cold his course delay;
Hide, blushing glory, hide Pultowa’s day:
The vanquish’d hero leaves his broken bands,
And shews his miseries in distant lands;
Condemn’d a needy supplicant to wait,
While ladies interpose, and slaves debate.
But did not chance at length her error mend?
Did no subverted empire mark his end?
Did rival monarchs give the fatal wound?
Or hostile millions press him to the ground?
His fall was destin’d to a barren strand,
A petty fortress, and a dubious hand;
He left the name at which the world grew pale,
To point a moral, or adorn a tale.
    All times their scenes of pompous woes afford,
From Persia’s tyrant to Bavaria’s lord,
In gay hostility, and barb’rous pride,
With half mankind embattled at his side,
Great Xerxes comes to seize the certain prey,
And starves exhausted regions in his way;
Attendant flattery counts his myriads o’er,
Till counted myriads sooth his pride no more;
Fresh praise is try’d, till madness fires his mind,
The waves he lashes, and enchains the wind;
New pow’rs are claim’d, new pow’rs are still bestow’d,
Till rude resistance lops the spreading god;
The daring Greeks deride the marital show,
And heap their valleys with the gaudy foe;
Th’ insulted sea with humbler thoughts he gains,
A single skiff to speed his flight remains:
Th’ encumber’d oar scarce leaves the dreaded coast
Through purple billows and a floating host.
   The bold Bavarian, in a luckless hour,
Tries the dread summits of Caesarean power,
With unexpected legions bursts away,
And sees defenceless realms receive his sway;
Short sway! fair Austria spreads her mournful charms,
The queen, the beauty, sets the world in arms;
From hill to hill the beacon’s rousing blaze
Spreads wide the hope of plunder and of praise.
The fierce Croatian, and the wild Hussar,
With all the sons of ravage crowd the war;
The baffled prince in honour’s flattering bloom
Of hasty greatness finds the fatal doom;
His foes’ derision, and his subjects’ blame,
And steals to death from anguish and from shame.
 Enlarge my life with multitude of days, 
In health, in sickness, thus the suppliant prays; 
Hides from himself his state, and shuns to know
That life protracted is protracted woe. 
Time hovers o’er, impatient to destroy, 
And shuts up all the passages of joy: 
In vain their gifts the bounteous seasons pour, 
The fruit autumnal, and the vernal flower, 
With listless eyes the dotard views the store, 
He views, and wonders that they please no more; 
Now pall the tasteless meats, and joyless wines, 
And luxury with sighs her slave resigns. 
Approach, ye minstrels, try the soothing strain, 
And yield the tuneful lenitives of pain: 
No sounds, alas! would touch th’ impervious ear, 
Though dancing mountains witness’d Orpheus near; 
Nor lute nor lyre his feeble pow’rs attend, 
Nor sweeter music of a virtuous friend, 
But everlasting dictates crowd his tongue, 
Perversely grave, or positively wrong. 
The still returning tale, and ling’ring jest, 
Perplex the fawning niece and pamper’d guest;
While growing hopes scarce awe the gathering sneer, 
And scarce a legacy can bribe to hear; 
The watchful guests still hint the last offence, 
The daughter’s petulance, the son’s expence, 
Improve his heady rage with treach’rous skill, 
And mould his passions till they make his will. 
 Unnumber’d maladies his joints invade, 
Lay siege to life and press the dire blockade; 
But unextinguish’d Av’rice still remains, 
And dreaded losses aggravate his pains; 
He turns, with anxious heart and crippled hands, 
His bonds of debt, and mortgages of lands; 
Or views his coffers with suspicious eyes, 
Unlocks his gold, and counts it till he dies. 
 But grant, the virtues of a temp’rate prime 
Bless with an age exempt from scorn or crime; 
An age that melts with unperceiv’d decay, 
And glides in modest innocence away; 
Whose peaceful day benevolence endears, 
Whose night congratulating conscience cheers; 
The gen’ral fav’rite as the gen’ral friend: 
Such age there is, and who could wish its end? 
 Yet ev’n on this her load misfortune flings, 
To press the weary minutes’ flagging wings: 
New sorrow rises as the day returns, 
A sister sickens, or a daughter mourns. 
Now kindred merit fills the sable bier, 
Now lacerated friendship claims a tear. 
Year chases year, decay pursues decay, 
Still drops some joy from with’ring life away; 
New forms arise, and diff’rent views engage, 
Superfluous lags the vet’ran on the stage, 
Till pitying nature signs the last release, 
And bids afflicted worth retire to peace. 
 But few there are whom hours like these await, 
Who set unclouded in the gulfs of fate. 
From Lydia’s monarch should the search descend, 
By Solon caution’d to regard his end, 
In life’s last scene what prodigies surprise, 
Fears of the brave, and follies of the wise? 
From Marlb’rough’s eyes the streams of dotage flow, 
And Swift expires a driv’ler and a show. 
 The teeming mother, anxious for her race, 
Begs for each birth the fortune of a face: 
Yet Vane could tell what ills from beauty spring; 
And Sedley curs’d the form that pleas’d a king. 
Ye nymphs of rosy lips and radiant eyes, 
Whom Pleasure keeps too busy to be wise, 
Whom Joys with soft varieties invite, 
By day the frolic, and the dance by night, 
Who frown with vanity, who smile with art, 
And ask the latest fashion of the heart, 
What care, what rules your heedless charms shall save, 
Each nymph your rival, and each youth your slave? 
Against your fame with fondness hate combines, 
The rival batters, and the lover mines. 
With distant voice neglected virtue calls, 
Less heard and less, the faint remonstrance falls; 
Tir’d with contempt, she quits the slipp’ry reign, 
And pride and prudence take her seat in vain. 
In crowd at once, where none the pass defend, 
The harmless freedom, and the private friend. 
The guardians yield, by force superior plied; 
To int’rest, prudence; and by flatt’ry, pride. 
Here beauty falls betray’d, despis’d, distress’d, 
And hissing infamy proclaims the rest. 
 Where then shall hope and fear their objects find? 
Must dull suspense corrupt the stagnant mind? 
Must helpless man, in ignorance sedate, 
Roll darkling down the torrent of his fate? 
Must no dislike alarm, no wishes rise, 
No cries attempt the mercies of the skies? 
Inquirer, cease, petitions yet remain, 
Which heaven may hear, nor deem religion vain. 
Still raise for good the supplicating voice, 
But leave to heaven the measure and the choice. 
Safe in his pow’r, whose eyes discern afar 
The secret ambush of a specious pray’r. 
Implore his aid, in his decisions rest, 
Secure whate’er he gives, he gives the best. 
Yet when the sense of sacred presence fires, 
And strong devotion to the skies aspires, 
Pour forth thy fervors for a healthful mind, 
Obedient passions, and a will resign’d; 
For love, which scarce collective man can fill; 
For patience, sov’reign o’er transmuted ill; 
For faith, that panting for a happier seat, 
Counts death kind nature’s signal of retreat: 
These goods for man the laws of heaven ordain, 
These goods he grants, who grants the pow’r to gain; 
With these celestial wisdom calms the mind, 
And makes the happiness she does not find.

Annotations: “The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson

Lines	Annotation
1-10	Johnson opens the poem with a sweeping survey of humanity’s struggles, spanning “from China to Peru.” He highlights how hope and fear, desire, and hatred entangle people in a web of fate, causing them to chase illusions and avoid imagined dangers. The focus is on the misguided nature of human ambitions.
11-20	The poet observes how rarely reason guides human decisions and laments the ruin caused by impulsive desires. He critiques how nations collapse under ill-conceived plans, driven by vengeance or unchecked ambitions, emphasizing the destructive consequences of wishful thinking.
21-30	Johnson reflects on the double-edged nature of human talents and attributes, suggesting that even virtues like courage and eloquence can lead to downfall if misused. He observes how powerful traits often hasten people’s demise rather than protect them.
31-40	The poet condemns the pervasive greed for gold, describing it as a “wide-wasting pest” that corrupts humanity. Gold drives violence, distorts justice, and increases danger rather than bringing safety or satisfaction, illustrating its corrupting influence.
41-50	Johnson contrasts the fates of the wealthy and the poor, suggesting that the humble, such as the “needy traveller,” often enjoy greater peace than the rich, who are plagued by fear and envy. He critiques the false security associated with wealth and status.
51-60	Introducing the philosopher Democritus, Johnson calls for a detached, mocking view of human folly. He critiques the superficiality of modern life and governance, contrasting it with a bygone era of genuine virtues and simpler societal structures.
61-70	The poet continues to mock the trappings of power and privilege in contemporary Britain, lamenting how human joys and sorrows often arise from trivial or baseless causes. He underscores the futility and absurdity of societal preoccupations.
71-80	Johnson shifts focus to the pursuit of political power, illustrating its instability. He critiques how ambition leads to fleeting success, leaving individuals like fallen statesmen abandoned by allies and scorned by former supporters.
81-90	Using the example of Cardinal Wolsey, Johnson illustrates how unbridled ambition ends in ruin. Wolsey’s rise to power is mirrored by his catastrophic fall, symbolizing the dangers of overreaching ambition and misplaced trust in worldly authority.
91-100	The poet asks rhetorical questions to explore the common fate of historical figures who pursued power or prominence. He emphasizes how their excessive ambition led to assassination, exile, or disgrace, as seen in figures like Villiers and Wentworth.
101-110	Addressing the young scholar, Johnson encourages the pursuit of virtue and truth but warns against excessive ambition and desire for fame. He reminds the reader that the pursuit of knowledge, while noble, does not guarantee freedom from hardship.
111-120	Johnson outlines the hardships of scholarly life, including toil, envy, and financial struggles. He cautions against idealizing the life of learning, using examples of scholars like Galileo to show how even the pursuit of knowledge often leads to suffering.
121-130	The poet critiques the allure of military fame, illustrating its costs with examples from history. He questions the morality and logic of wars fought for personal glory, which often result in immense suffering and long-lasting debt.
131-140	Focusing on Charles XII of Sweden, Johnson critiques the futility of unrelenting ambition. Despite his courage and determination, Charles’s conquests lead to failure and misery, exemplifying the theme of overreaching ambition.
141-150	The downfall of Xerxes, the Persian king, serves as another example of the dangers of unchecked power. Johnson mocks Xerxes’s hubris and his eventual defeat by the Greeks, emphasizing how arrogance leads to ruin.
151-160	The Bavarian prince, another ambitious figure, faces a similarly tragic fate. Johnson critiques the fleeting nature of power and the inevitable downfall of those who overextend their reach, driven by greed or vanity.
161-170	Johnson reflects on the futility of wishing for long life, describing how old age brings more suffering than joy. He portrays the elderly as disconnected from the pleasures of life and burdened by physical and emotional decay.
171-180	The poet explores how old age is plagued by avarice and paranoia. The elderly hoard wealth, obsess over their possessions, and struggle with fears of loss, illustrating how materialism fails to bring peace even in the twilight years.
181-190	Contrasting this grim vision, Johnson describes an ideal old age characterized by virtue, peace, and a clear conscience. He portrays this as the rare exception, suggesting that most lives end with sorrow and regret.
191-200	Johnson laments the inevitability of suffering in life, from the loss of loved ones to the decay of physical and mental faculties. He highlights how time erodes joy and creates a sense of alienation from the world.
201-210	Turning to historical examples, Johnson reflects on the unpredictability of life’s end, citing figures like Marlborough and Swift. Even the greatest minds and leaders succumb to frailty and folly, reinforcing the poem’s central theme.
211-220	Addressing women, Johnson critiques the pursuit of beauty and superficial pleasures. He warns that such pursuits often lead to ruin, as vanity attracts rivals and detractors, leaving virtue neglected and vulnerable.
221-230	The poet examines the consequences of neglected virtue, showing how it is eroded by pride, flattery, and self-interest. He describes the moral decline of society, where even beauty becomes a source of betrayal and disgrace.
231-240	Johnson concludes with a spiritual plea, urging humanity to trust in divine providence rather than worldly desires. He advocates for a life of faith, patience, and acceptance of God’s will, presenting these virtues as the keys to true contentment.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“Roll darkling down the torrent of his fate”	The repetition of the “d” sound creates a rhythmic emphasis, highlighting the inevitability and ominous nature of fate’s descent.
Allusion	“Imitate the Tenth Satire of Juvenal”	Refers to the Roman satirist Juvenal, whose work serves as the model for Johnson’s critique of human ambition and folly.
Anaphora	“For gold… For gold…”	The repetition of “For gold” at the beginning of successive lines emphasizes the destructive power of greed.
Antithesis	“Shuns fancied ills, or chases airy good”	Contrasting ideas of avoiding imaginary evils and pursuing illusory goods highlight human folly.
Apostrophe	“Speak thou, whose thoughts at humble peace repine”	Johnson directly addresses a hypothetical individual, drawing attention to universal human concerns.
Caesura	“From Persia’s tyrant to Bavaria’s lord, / In gay hostility, and barb’rous pride”	The pause created by the comma provides rhythmic variety and emphasizes the contrast between grandeur and folly.
Consonance	“Fall in the gen’ral massacre of gold”	The repeated “l” and “g” sounds create a harsh tone, reinforcing the destructive impact of greed.
Didacticism	The entire poem	The poem’s intent to instruct on moral and philosophical lessons, such as the futility of ambition and the value of spiritual contentment.
End-stopped Line	“The dangers gather as the treasures rise.”	The sentence concludes within the line, creating a sense of finality that reflects the inevitability of the statement’s truth.
Epigram	“Nor think the doom of man revers’d for thee”	A concise and witty statement capturing a universal truth about human mortality and suffering.
Hyperbole	“Crowds with crimes the records of mankind”	Exaggerates the extent to which greed corrupts humanity, emphasizing its destructive power.
Imagery	“Hide, blushing glory, hide Pultowa’s day”	Vivid description evokes the shame and defeat of Charles XII, creating a strong mental picture.
Irony	“Safe in his pow’r, whose eyes discern afar / The secret ambush of a specious pray’r”	Highlights the irony of human desires, as people often pray for what harms them, underscoring the futility of such petitions.
Juxtaposition	“The needy traveller, serene and gay, / Walks the wild heath, and sings his toil away.”	Contrasts the peace of the poor with the anxiety of the wealthy to critique materialism.
Metaphor	“Fate wings with ev’ry wish th’ afflictive dart”	Fate is metaphorically portrayed as an archer, showing how human desires often lead to suffering.
Parallelism	“Where wav’ring man, betray’d by vent’rous pride, / To tread the dreary paths without a guide”	The balanced structure of the two clauses reinforces the precariousness of human ambition.
Personification	“Time hovers o’er, impatient to destroy”	Time is personified as a figure waiting to erase joy, adding to the theme of life’s transience.
Rhetorical Question	“What gave great Villiers to the assassin’s knife?”	Johnson uses rhetorical questions to provoke thought and emphasize the consequences of unchecked ambition.
Satire	“With weekly libels and septennial ale”	Johnson mocks the corruption and triviality of British politics, using humor and criticism to expose societal flaws.
Symbolism	“The golden canopy, the glitt’ring plate”	Symbols of wealth and power are used to represent human ambition, which ultimately leads to downfall.

Themes: “The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson

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1. The Futility of Ambition: In “The Vanity of Human Wishes,” Johnson critiques the relentless human pursuit of wealth, power, and status, exposing its futility and destructive consequences. Throughout the poem, examples from history highlight how ambition often leads to downfall rather than fulfillment. For instance, Cardinal Wolsey’s rise to immense power ends in disgrace, as he is “Mark’d by the keen glance” of the king’s disfavor and ultimately dies in monastic isolation (“With age, with cares, with maladies oppress’d”). Similarly, Charles XII of Sweden, who seeks conquest at all costs, faces humiliation and destitution: “Condemn’d a needy supplicant to wait, / While ladies interpose, and slaves debate.” The poem asserts that ambition blinds individuals to their limits and the inevitable decay of worldly success. Johnson’s message is clear: striving for greatness often results in ruin rather than lasting satisfaction.

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2. The Corrupting Power of Wealth: In “The Vanity of Human Wishes,” wealth is depicted as a force that corrupts individuals and society. Johnson critiques the obsession with gold, portraying it as a “wide-wasting pest” that fuels greed and crime. He observes that “For gold his sword the hireling ruffian draws, / For gold the hireling judge distorts the laws,” highlighting how wealth undermines morality and justice. The poem emphasizes that the accumulation of riches does not bring safety or happiness; instead, it amplifies danger: “Wealth heap’d on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys, / The dangers gather as the treasures rise.” Johnson’s condemnation of materialism serves as a warning that the pursuit of riches often leads to moral degradation and social instability, leaving individuals more vulnerable than before.

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3. The Inevitable Decline of Human Life: In “The Vanity of Human Wishes,” Johnson meditates on the transient nature of human life and the inescapable decay that accompanies age. He illustrates this theme through the imagery of aging, as seen in the lines: “Enlarge my life with multitude of days, / In health, in sickness, thus the suppliant prays.” Even as individuals seek longevity, they are met with “life protracted [as] protracted woe,” emphasizing that a longer life brings increased suffering. Johnson uses historical figures such as Marlborough and Swift to underscore this point, showing how even the great and wise succumb to “streams of dotage” and folly in their final years. The theme reflects a universal truth about human existence: all lives, regardless of status or achievement, end in decline and mortality.

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4. The Redemptive Power of Faith and Virtue: In “The Vanity of Human Wishes,” amid the bleak observations of human folly and suffering, Johnson presents faith and virtue as sources of redemption and solace. He encourages readers to trust in divine providence, advocating for spiritual submission over worldly desires: “Safe in his pow’r, whose eyes discern afar / The secret ambush of a specious pray’r.” The poet urges individuals to pray not for material gain but for “a healthful mind, / Obedient passions, and a will resign’d.” This faith in divine wisdom offers the only true path to contentment, as worldly pursuits lead to ruin and despair. Johnson concludes with a vision of spiritual fulfillment, contrasting it with the fleeting pleasures of life: “With these celestial wisdom calms the mind, / And makes the happiness she does not find.” Through this theme, Johnson elevates faith and virtue as the antidotes to humanity’s misguided desires.

Literary Theories and “The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson

Literary Theory	Application to “The Vanity of Human Wishes”	References from the Poem
Moral Criticism	The poem serves as a critique of human ambition, greed, and vanity, promoting moral virtues like humility, faith, and contentment.	Johnson condemns greed: “Wealth heap’d on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys”, and promotes faith: “Implore his aid, in his decisions rest.”
Historical/Biographical	Reflects Johnson’s personal struggles and 18th-century concerns about the instability of power, morality, and human aspirations.	Wolsey’s downfall mirrors historical concerns: “With age, with cares, with maladies oppress’d”.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Explores human desires and their unconscious drives, highlighting the tension between ambition and the fear of failure.	The pursuit of greatness leads to ruin: “Delusive Fortune hears the incessant call, / They mount, they shine, evaporate, and fall.”
Existentialism	Examines the futility of human efforts to control fate and the inevitability of suffering, questioning the meaning of life’s pursuits.	Highlights life’s fleeting nature: “Enlarge my life with multitude of days, / In health, in sickness, thus the suppliant prays.”

Critical Questions about “The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson

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Literary Works Similar to “The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson

1. Alexander Pope’s “The Rape of the Lock”
   Similarity: Both poems use satirical tones to critique human folly, with Pope focusing on vanity and trivial pursuits, akin to Johnson’s dissection of ambition and materialism.
2. Thomas Gray’s “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard”
   Similarity: Gray’s meditation on mortality and the inevitable equality of death resonates with Johnson’s exploration of the futility of worldly pursuits.
3. John Milton’s “Lycidas”
   Similarity: Both poems grapple with the themes of mortality and human ambition, with Milton lamenting the transient nature of life and Johnson critiquing misguided desires.
4. Juvenal’s “Satires” (translated or in poetic form)
   Similarity: Johnson’s work is directly modeled on Juvenal’s “Tenth Satire,” sharing a critique of human desires and the transient nature of success and power.
5. Percy Bysshe Shelley’s “Ozymandias”
   Similarity: Shelley’s reflection on the impermanence of power and human achievements parallels Johnson’s commentary on the fleeting nature of ambition and worldly success.

Representative Quotations of “The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Let observation with extensive view, / Survey mankind, from China to Peru.”	Opening lines inviting a broad examination of human nature and universal struggles.	Moral Criticism: Introduces the poem’s moral purpose.
“Remark each anxious toil, each eager strife, / And watch the busy scenes of crowded life.”	Highlights the restless pursuit of ambition and material gains in human life.	Realism: Captures the universal human condition.
“How rarely reason guides the stubborn choice, / Rules the bold hand, or prompts the suppliant voice.”	Observes how irrational desires often overpower reason and wisdom.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Explores the conflict between reason and impulse.
“For gold his sword the hireling ruffian draws, / For gold the hireling judge distorts the laws.”	Critiques the corrupting influence of wealth on morality and justice.	Marxism: Highlights economic corruption and class issues.
“Wealth heap’d on wealth, nor truth nor safety buys, / The dangers gather as the treasures rise.”	Reflects on how wealth increases risk and insecurity rather than peace or happiness.	Moral Criticism: Warns against materialism.
“Low sculks the hind beneath the rage of pow’r, / And leaves the wealthy traitor in the Tow’r.”	Contrasts the relative safety of the poor with the danger of wealth and status during political upheaval.	Social Criticism: Examines societal inequality.
“The needy traveller, serene and gay, / Walks the wild heath, and sings his toil away.”	Portrays the contentment of the humble traveler in contrast to the misery of the wealthy.	Pastoralism: Celebrates the simplicity of rural life.
“Delusive Fortune hears the incessant call, / They mount, they shine, evaporate, and fall.”	Depicts the transient nature of success and the fickleness of fortune.	Existentialism: Questions the meaning of human efforts.
“Fate wings with ev’ry wish th’ afflictive dart, / Each gift of nature, and each grace of art.”	Shows how ambition and natural talents often lead to suffering rather than fulfillment.	Tragic Theory: Highlights the inevitability of downfall.
“Wide-wasting pest! that rages unconfin’d, / And crowds with crimes the records of mankind.”	Describes greed as a pervasive and destructive force throughout history.	Marxism: Analyzes wealth’s societal impact.
“Turn’d by his nod the stream of honour flows, / His smile alone security bestows.”	Reflects on the power wielded by figures like Cardinal Wolsey, whose influence was absolute but fleeting.	Historical/Biographical Criticism: Contextualizes historical figures.
“Time hovers o’er, impatient to destroy, / And shuts up all the passages of joy.”	Expresses the inevitability of aging and its toll on happiness and vitality.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Explores the fear of mortality.
“Life protracted is protracted woe.”	Critiques the desire for longevity, highlighting how extended life often brings increased suffering.	Existentialism: Questions the value of extended life.
“With age, with cares, with maladies oppress’d, / He seeks the refuge of monastic rest.”	Describes the ultimate downfall of Cardinal Wolsey as he retreats from power to a life of solitude and repentance.	Historical Criticism: Reflects historical examples of ambition.
“Enlarge my life with multitude of days, / In health, in sickness, thus the suppliant prays.”	Critiques humanity’s tendency to pray for longevity without understanding its consequences.	Religious Criticism: Examines misguided spiritual petitions.
“Safe in his pow’r, whose eyes discern afar / The secret ambush of a specious pray’r.”	Advocates for trust in divine wisdom over human desires.	Theology: Emphasizes faith in divine providence.
“Implore his aid, in his decisions rest, / Secure whate’er he gives, he gives the best.”	Suggests that true contentment lies in submitting to divine will rather than pursuing personal ambition.	Moral Criticism: Promotes faith over material pursuits.
“With these celestial wisdom calms the mind, / And makes the happiness she does not find.”	Concludes with the idea that spiritual wisdom offers solace, even if material happiness remains elusive.	Spiritual Criticism: Highlights the value of spiritual peace.
“Hide, blushing glory, hide Pultowa’s day.”	References the shameful defeat of Charles XII at Pultowa, illustrating the ultimate failure of unchecked ambition.	Historical Criticism: Links ambition to historical downfall.
“Hear Lydiat’s life, and Galileo’s end.”	Invokes the suffering of scholars and thinkers as examples of the difficulties faced by those who pursue knowledge and truth.	Intellectual Criticism: Reflects on the plight of intellectuals.

Suggested Readings: “The Vanity of Human Wishes” by Samuel Johnson

1. O’Flaherty, Patrick. “Johnson as Satirist: A New Look at the Vanity of Human Wishes.” ELH, vol. 34, no. 1, 1967, pp. 78–91. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2872302. Accessed 6 Jan. 2025.
2. Chapin, Chester. “Johnson’s Intentions in The Vanity of Human Wishes.” Eighteenth-Century Studies, vol. 18, no. 1, 1984, pp. 72–75. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/2738307. Accessed 6 Jan. 2025.
3. Sitter, John E. “To ‘The Vanity of Human Wishes’ through the 1740’s.” Studies in Philology, vol. 74, no. 4, 1977, pp. 445–64. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4173950. Accessed 6 Jan. 2025.
4. Boyd, D. V. “Vanity and Vacuity: A Reading of Johnson’s Verse Satires.” ELH, vol. 39, no. 3, 1972, pp. 387–403. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2872191. Accessed 6 Jan. 2025.
5. Kniskern, William F. “Satire and the ‘Tragic Quartet’ in The Vanity of Human Wishes.” Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 25, no. 3, 1985, pp. 633–49. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/450500. Accessed 6 Jan. 2025.

Introduction: “The Cat And The Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

“The Cat and the Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine first appeared in 1668 as part of the initial collection of his Fables, which drew inspiration from Aesopian tradition while embedding moralistic satire. This particular fable examines themes of mistrust, self-preservation, and the transient nature of alliances formed under duress. Through its vivid anthropomorphism—embodied by the cunning cat and skeptical rat—La Fontaine critiques opportunistic behavior and the folly of expecting loyalty from inherently predatory instincts. Its popularity as a textbook poem lies in its accessible narrative and enduring moral lesson: “Alliance from necessity is safe just while it has to be.” These themes, coupled with the sharp, quotable wit of lines like “To thankfulness, or even pity, / Can cats be ever bound by treaty?” make it a cornerstone of moral education and a perennial favorite in literary studies.

Context: “The Cat And The Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

^[1]

Four creatures, wont to prowl, –
Sly Grab-and-Snatch, the cat,
Grave Evil-bode, the owl,
Thief Nibble-stitch, the rat,
And Madam Weasel, prim and fine, –
Inhabited a rotten pine.
A man their home discover’d there,
And set, one night, a cunning snare.
The cat, a noted early-riser,
Went forth, at break of day,
To hunt her usual prey.
Not much the wiser
For morning’s feeble ray,
The noose did suddenly surprise her.
Waked by her strangling cry,
Grey Nibble-stitch drew nigh:
As full of joy was he
As of despair was she,
For in the noose he saw
His foe of mortal paw.
‘Dear friend,’ said Mrs. Grab-and-Snatch,
‘Do, pray, this cursed cord detach.
I’ve always known your skill,
And often your good-will;
Now help me from this worst of snares,
In which I fell at unawares.
‘Tis by a sacred right,
You, sole of all your race,
By special love and grace,
Have been my favourite –
The darling of my eyes.
‘Twas order’d by celestial cares,
No doubt; I thank the blessed skies,
That, going out to say my prayers,
As cats devout each morning do,
This net has made me pray to you.
Come, fall to work upon the cord.’
Replied the rat, ‘And what reward
Shall pay me, if I dare?’
‘Why,’ said the cat, ‘I swear
To be your firm ally:
Henceforth, eternally,
These powerful claws are yours,
Which safe your life insures.
I’ll guard from quadruped and fowl;
I’ll eat the weasel and the owl.’
‘Ah,’ cried the rat, ‘you fool!
I’m quite too wise to be your tool.’
He said, and sought his snug retreat,
Close at the rotten pine-tree’s feet.
Where plump he did the weasel meet;
Whom shunning by a happy dodge,
He climb’d the hollow trunk to lodge;
And there the savage owl he saw.
Necessity became his law,
And down he went, the rope to gnaw.
Strand after strand in two he bit,
And freed, at last, the hypocrite.
That moment came the man in sight;
The new allies took hasty flight.

A good while after that,
Our liberated cat
Espied her favourite rat,
Quite out of reach, and on his guard.
‘My friend,’ said she, ‘I take your shyness hard;
Your caution wrongs my gratitude;
Approach, and greet your staunch ally.
Do you suppose, dear rat, that I
Forget the solemn oath I mew’d?’
‘Do I forget,’ the rat replied,
‘To what your nature is allied?
To thankfulness, or even pity,
Can cats be ever bound by treaty?’

Alliance from necessity
Is safe just while it has to be.

Annotations: “The Cat And The Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

Line/Section	Annotation
Four creatures, wont to prowl…	Introduces the key characters: the sly cat, grave owl, thieving rat, and prim weasel. The setting—a decayed pine—symbolizes an unstable and decaying moral ground.
A man their home discover’d there…	A human element introduces external threat. The man symbolizes fate or unforeseen danger, setting up the snare as a metaphor for life’s traps.
The cat, a noted early-riser…	The cat’s habitual nature leads it into danger, emphasizing the theme of overconfidence in routine.
The noose did suddenly surprise her…	The snare catches the cat, demonstrating the vulnerability of even the cunning.
Waked by her strangling cry…	The rat’s joy upon seeing the trapped cat underscores the enmity between them and foreshadows the tension between alliance and self-interest.
‘Dear friend,’ said Mrs. Grab-and-Snatch…	The cat employs flattery and deceit, feigning friendship to manipulate the rat. This highlights her cunning and opportunism.
‘Now help me from this worst of snares…’	The cat’s plea reveals desperation, showing how adversity compels even the strong to seek aid from unlikely allies.
‘Tis by a sacred right…have been my favourite	The cat invokes divine favor to convince the rat, showing how rhetoric and manipulation are used to gain trust in desperate times.
Replied the rat, ‘And what reward…’	The rat demands a reward, reflecting a cautious and transactional approach to alliances, a key moral point of the fable.
‘Why,’ said the cat, ‘I swear…’	The cat promises protection, using persuasion and making an oath to secure the rat’s cooperation. This highlights the precarious nature of promises made under duress.
‘Ah,’ cried the rat, ‘you fool!’…	The rat rejects the cat’s appeal, showcasing his wisdom and understanding of her predatory nature, a pivotal moment of insight in the story.
He said, and sought his snug retreat…	The rat’s retreat to safety reflects a tactical withdrawal, symbolizing prudence in the face of danger.
Where plump he did the weasel meet…	Introduces additional danger in the form of the weasel, demonstrating that the rat’s world is fraught with risks.
And there the savage owl he saw…	The owl further compounds the peril, emphasizing that survival often demands navigating multiple threats.
Necessity became his law…	The rat gnaws the rope out of necessity, showing how survival instincts can override caution.
And freed, at last, the hypocrite…	The cat’s release underscores the complexity of alliances formed under duress—necessary but fraught with risk.
That moment came the man in sight…	The sudden appearance of the man intensifies the urgency of escape, symbolizing how external pressures can abruptly upend plans.
A good while after that…	Transition to a later time, showing the aftermath of the temporary alliance and the dynamics of distrust.
‘My friend,’ said she, ‘I take your shyness hard	The cat tries to reestablish contact, illustrating her persistent cunning and ability to adapt her strategy.
‘Do I forget,’ the rat replied…’	The rat’s response is incisive, revealing his understanding of the cat’s true nature and the lesson that trust should not be easily given.
Alliance from necessity…	The moral of the story concludes the fable, reinforcing the idea that partnerships formed out of need are inherently temporary and fragile.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Cat And The Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	Sly Grab-and-Snatch, the cat; Thief Nibble-stitch, the rat	Repetition of initial consonant sounds creates rhythm and emphasis on character traits.
Allegory	The entire fable	The poem acts as an allegory for human behavior, illustrating themes of mistrust and alliances.
Anthropomorphism	Mrs. Grab-and-Snatch, the cat…	Animals are given human traits, such as speaking and reasoning, to convey moral lessons.
Assonance	Grey Nibble-stitch drew nigh; as full of joy was he	Repetition of vowel sounds creates a melodic quality to the narration.
Characterization	The cunning cat vs. the cautious rat	The personalities of the animals are distinct and central to the story’s conflict and moral.
Dialogue	‘Dear friend,’ said Mrs. Grab-and-Snatch…	The characters’ direct speech reveals their intentions, emotions, and strategies.
Foreshadowing	‘Do I forget,’ the rat replied…	The rat’s cautious nature hints at the eventual betrayal of trust between the two characters.
Hyperbole	‘The darling of my eyes’	The cat exaggerates her affection for the rat to manipulate him.
Imagery	Inhabited a rotten pine; The noose did suddenly surprise her	Vivid descriptions create a clear picture of the setting and events.
Irony	The cat pleads for help from her prey	Situational irony is present as the predator becomes dependent on the prey for survival.
Metaphor	The snare as life’s traps	The snare symbolizes unexpected dangers or challenges in life.
Moral	Alliance from necessity is safe just while it has to be.	The explicit lesson at the end encapsulates the fable’s teaching about alliances and self-interest.
Onomatopoeia	Plump he did the weasel meet	The word “plump” imitates the sound of a sudden meeting, enhancing sensory engagement.
Parallelism	I’ll eat the weasel and the owl.	The similar structure of phrases emphasizes the cat’s promises to eliminate threats.
Personification	The man their home discover’d there	The animals behave as humans, with motives and dialogue, to engage readers and illustrate morals.
Rhyme	Grey Nibble-stitch drew nigh; as full of joy was he	The rhyming lines maintain a consistent and musical poetic flow.
Satire	The cat’s devout “prayers”	La Fontaine critiques hypocritical behavior by depicting the cat’s false piety.
Simile	As full of joy was he as of despair was she	Comparing the emotions of the rat and cat using “as” enhances the contrast between their feelings.
Symbolism	The rotten pine as their home	The decaying pine symbolizes instability and the precarious nature of alliances.
Theme	Trust, self-preservation, and betrayal	Central ideas explored through the interactions and outcomes of the characters’ actions.

Themes: “The Cat And The Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

1. Trust and Betrayal: Trust and betrayal are central themes in “The Cat and the Rat,” explored through the complex relationship between the two titular characters. The cat, caught in the noose, pleads for the rat’s help by promising eternal loyalty and protection: “Henceforth, eternally, / These powerful claws are yours.” However, the rat, aware of the cat’s predatory nature, wisely questions her sincerity: “To thankfulness, or even pity, / Can cats be ever bound by treaty?” This skepticism underscores the fragile nature of trust in alliances formed under necessity. By the end of the fable, the rat’s decision to keep his distance after freeing the cat reveals his insight into her true intentions, emphasizing the moral that alliances based on self-interest are inherently unreliable.

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2. Self-Preservation: Self-preservation governs the actions of all the characters in “The Cat and the Rat.” From the moment the rat sees the cat trapped, he weighs the risks and rewards of intervening, ultimately acting out of necessity rather than altruism. The line “Necessity became his law, / And down he went, the rope to gnaw” highlights how survival instincts override moral considerations. Even the cat’s desperate plea reflects her desire to escape danger, not genuine friendship: “Do, pray, this cursed cord detach. / I’ve always known your skill, / And often your goodwill.” This theme underscores that survival often compels individuals to act in self-interest, revealing the pragmatic nature of human (or animal) behavior under duress.

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3. Deception and Manipulation: Deception is a recurring element in “The Cat and the Rat,” particularly in the cat’s attempts to manipulate the rat. The cat employs flattery, calling the rat her “favourite” and claiming their alliance is divinely ordained: “‘Twas order’d by celestial cares, / No doubt; I thank the blessed skies.” Her use of religious imagery and exaggerated gratitude is a calculated strategy to exploit the rat’s abilities. The rat, however, recognizes this manipulation and refuses to be swayed by her words. This interplay of deceit and awareness illustrates the dangers of blindly trusting those who act out of desperation or self-interest, warning against the seductive power of persuasive rhetoric.

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4. The Fragility of Alliances: The fable underscores the fragile and temporary nature of alliances formed out of necessity. The partnership between the cat and the rat in “The Cat and the Rat” is a pragmatic arrangement born of circumstance, rather than mutual respect or trust. The moral at the end explicitly states: “Alliance from necessity / Is safe just while it has to be.” This sentiment is evident when the rat, despite freeing the cat, immediately distances himself, anticipating potential betrayal. Their alliance dissolves the moment external pressure is removed, highlighting the transient and conditional nature of such relationships. Through this theme, La Fontaine critiques the instability of partnerships built on convenience rather than genuine solidarity.

Literary Theories and “The Cat And The Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

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1. Marxist Theory: Marxist literary theory explores class struggles, power dynamics, and exploitation, which are evident in “The Cat and the Rat.” The cat and the rat’s interaction reflects a hierarchical relationship, where the powerful predator (the cat) manipulates the weaker prey (the rat) to serve her interests. When the cat promises protection in return for help—”Henceforth, eternally, / These powerful claws are yours”—she is exploiting the rat’s abilities to escape her predicament. This dynamic mirrors how dominant classes often exploit the working classes under the guise of mutual benefit. However, the rat’s refusal to trust the cat—”I’m quite too wise to be your tool”—shows resistance to such exploitation, embodying the struggle of the oppressed to reclaim agency.

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2. Feminist Theory: Feminist theory often examines power, agency, and manipulation in relationships, and this fable offers a subtle critique of gendered dynamics. The cat, referred to as “Mrs. Grab-and-Snatch,” uses charm and emotional appeals to manipulate the rat: “Do, pray, this cursed cord detach. / I’ve always known your skill, / And often your goodwill.” Her calculated plea for help, framed as a reliance on “special love and grace,” echoes societal expectations of women to use emotional intelligence or subterfuge to navigate patriarchal constraints. Meanwhile, the rat’s skepticism—”To thankfulness, or even pity, / Can cats be ever bound by treaty?”—highlights distrust in relationships where power imbalances prevail.

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3. Psychoanalytic Theory: Psychoanalytic theory, grounded in Freudian and Jungian concepts, focuses on unconscious motivations and fears. The cat’s behavior reflects a survival-driven id, as her desperation to escape the snare overrides her usual predatory nature: “Now help me from this worst of snares, / In which I fell at unawares.” Her flattery and promises are defense mechanisms rooted in fear. Conversely, the rat’s wariness demonstrates a superego-like caution, resisting the temptation to act impulsively. The owl and the weasel, representing external dangers, heighten the rat’s internal conflict, forcing him to balance his instincts for self-preservation with the pragmatism required to navigate threats.

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4. Poststructuralist Theory: Poststructuralism challenges binary oppositions and fixed meanings, making it a relevant lens for analyzing “The Cat and the Rat.” The poem plays with oppositional concepts, such as predator versus prey and trust versus betrayal, showing their fluidity under certain conditions. For instance, the cat and the rat temporarily reverse roles when the trapped predator must rely on her prey for survival: “Dear friend, I swear / To be your firm ally.” This inversion destabilizes the conventional predator-prey hierarchy. The moral—”Alliance from necessity / Is safe just while it has to be”—further questions the permanence of alliances and the stability of relationships, reflecting the poststructuralist view that meaning is contingent and context-dependent.

Critical Questions about “The Cat And The Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

Literary Works Similar to “The Cat And The Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

Literary Work and Author	Similarities to “The Cat and the Rat”	References from “The Cat and the Rat”
“The Tortoise and the Hare” by Aesop	Both are fables that use anthropomorphic animals to teach moral lessons. Themes of overconfidence and self-preservation are explored.	The cat’s desperation in the noose—”Now help me from this worst of snares”—parallels the hare’s realization of his overconfidence when he loses.
“Animal Farm” by George Orwell	Explores the fragility of alliances and the manipulation of trust for personal gain in a political allegory.	The cat’s promise—”These powerful claws are yours”—is reminiscent of Orwell’s characters forming alliances based on deceit and self-interest.
“The Fox and the Crow” by Aesop	A fable involving flattery and manipulation, where the fox deceives the crow to obtain cheese, similar to the cat deceiving the rat.	The cat’s flattery—”The darling of my eyes”—mirrors the fox’s use of praise to manipulate the crow into dropping the cheese.
“The Scorpion and the Frog” (Traditional Fable)	Examines trust and betrayal through the relationship between two creatures, where one’s nature ultimately leads to disaster.	The rat’s question—”Can cats be ever bound by treaty?”—echoes the frog’s realization of the scorpion’s unchangeable nature during their pact.

Representative Quotations of “The Cat And The Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Henceforth, eternally, / These powerful claws are yours.”	The cat promises eternal loyalty to the rat to persuade him to help her escape the snare.	Marxist Theory: Highlights the power imbalance and manipulation between classes (predator-prey dynamic).
“To thankfulness, or even pity, / Can cats be ever bound by treaty?”	The rat questions the sincerity of the cat’s promise, doubting her capacity for loyalty.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Reflects the rat’s superego-like caution against the cat’s manipulative id.
“Necessity became his law, / And down he went, the rope to gnaw.”	The rat, driven by necessity, decides to help the cat despite their enmity.	Existential Theory: Emphasizes human (or animal) actions dictated by circumstances and survival instincts.
“‘Twas order’d by celestial cares, / No doubt; I thank the blessed skies.”	The cat invokes divine intervention to justify her reliance on the rat for help.	Poststructuralist Theory: Questions the use of religious rhetoric to justify actions in morally ambiguous situations.
“Do, pray, this cursed cord detach. / I’ve always known your skill, / And often your goodwill.”	The cat flatters the rat, appealing to his ego and abilities to secure his assistance.	Feminist Theory: Explores the use of charm and persuasion by those in weaker positions to gain agency.
“The darling of my eyes.”	The cat exaggerates her affection for the rat to manipulate him into acting.	Deconstruction: Challenges the sincerity of language when used for manipulation.
“Alliance from necessity / Is safe just while it has to be.”	The moral of the fable, emphasizing the fleeting nature of alliances based on convenience.	Structuralist Theory: Relates to the broader structure of human relationships driven by utility.
“I’m quite too wise to be your tool.”	The rat asserts his awareness of the cat’s manipulation, refusing to act blindly in her favor.	Postcolonial Theory: Reflects resistance against exploitation by the dominant power.
“The noose did suddenly surprise her.”	The cat, accustomed to her dominance, is caught in a trap, shifting the power dynamic.	Psychoanalytic Theory: The noose symbolizes the unconscious forces disrupting the cat’s usual control.
“The new allies took hasty flight.”	After the cat is freed, both she and the rat immediately separate, signaling mutual mistrust.	Realism: Highlights the pragmatic nature of alliances formed for survival, devoid of emotional bonds.

Suggested Readings: “The Cat And The Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

1. Jambeck, Karen K. “Textual Explorations: ‘The Fables’ of Marie de France and Beyond.” Le Cygne, no. 6, 2000, pp. 54–67. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44634948. Accessed 8 Jan. 2025.
2. Lyons, John D. “Author and Reader in the Fables.” The French Review, vol. 49, no. 1, 1975, pp. 59–67. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/389687. Accessed 8 Jan. 2025.
3. GRAHAM, VICTOR E., editor. “Jean de La Fontaine.” Representative French Poetry (Second Edition), University of Toronto Press, 1965, pp. 20–28. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3138/j.ctt1vgw9f8.11. Accessed 8 Jan. 2025.

Introduction: “The Cat And The Old Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

“The Cat And The Old Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine first appeared in 1668 as part of his collection Fables Choisies Mises en Vers. This poem explores themes of cunning, wisdom, and the perpetual struggle between predator and prey, epitomized in the rivalry of the titular characters. The cat, a metaphor for ruthless strategists, embodies ingenuity and relentless pursuit, while the old rat symbolizes skepticism and survival through caution. Its enduring popularity as a textbook poem lies in its moral lesson, conveyed through vivid imagery and relatable characters. Phrases like “Should you a sack of meal become, / I’d let you be, and stay at home,” underscore the value of prudence over recklessness. The poem’s success is further rooted in its accessible narrative style and universal application to human behavior, making it an educational favorite for centuries.

Text: “The Cat And The Old Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

A story-writer of our sort
Historifies, in short,
Of one that may be reckon’d
A Rodilard the Second, – ^[2]
The Alexander of the cats,
The Attila,^[3] the scourge of rats,
Whose fierce and whisker’d head
Among the latter spread,
A league around, its dread;
Who seem’d, indeed, determined
The world should be unvermined.
The planks with props more false than slim,
The tempting heaps of poison’d meal,
The traps of wire and traps of steel,
Were only play compared with him.
At length, so sadly were they scared.
The rats and mice no longer dared
To show their thievish faces
Outside their hiding-places,
Thus shunning all pursuit; whereat
Our crafty General Cat
Contrived to hang himself, as dead,
Beside the wall with downward head,
Resisting gravitation’s laws
By clinging with his hinder claws
To some small bit of string.
The rats esteem’d the thing
A judgment for some naughty deed,
Some thievish snatch,
Or ugly scratch;
And thought their foe had got his meed
By being hung indeed.
With hope elated all
Of laughing at his funeral,
They thrust their noses out in air;
And now to show their heads they dare;
Now dodging back, now venturing more;
At last upon the larder’s store
They fall to filching, as of yore.
A scanty feast enjoy’d these shallows;
Down dropp’d the hung one from his gallows,
And of the hindmost caught.
‘Some other tricks to me are known,’
Said he, while tearing bone from bone,
‘By long experience taught;
The point is settled, free from doubt,
That from your holes you shall come out.’
His threat as good as prophecy
Was proved by Mr. Mildandsly;
For, putting on a mealy robe,
He squatted in an open tub,
And held his purring and his breath; –
Out came the vermin to their death.
On this occasion, one old stager,
A rat as grey as any badger,
Who had in battle lost his tail,
Abstained from smelling at the meal;
And cried, far off, ‘Ah! General Cat,
I much suspect a heap like that;
Your meal is not the thing, perhaps,
For one who knows somewhat of traps;
Should you a sack of meal become,
I’d let you be, and stay at home.’

Well said, I think, and prudently,
By one who knew distrust to be
The parent of security.

Annotations: “The Cat And The Old Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

Line/Segment	Annotation
“A story-writer of our sort / Historifies, in short,”	Sets the tone of the poem as a fable with a moral message, blending storytelling with allegorical meaning.
“Of one that may be reckon’d / A Rodilard the Second,”	References “Rodilard,” a famous character symbolizing cleverness and cunning in French folklore, likening the cat to a master strategist.
“The Alexander of the cats, / The Attila, the scourge of rats,”	Compares the cat to historical conquerors (Alexander the Great, Attila the Hun) to emphasize its dominance and terrifying prowess.
“Whose fierce and whisker’d head / Among the latter spread,”	Highlights the fear the cat instills among the rats, symbolizing unchecked authority or a powerful enemy.
“The world should be unvermined.”	Implies the cat’s mission to eradicate the “vermin” (rats), symbolizing its relentless pursuit of control or justice.
“The planks with props more false than slim,”	Depicts the ineffectiveness of traditional traps compared to the cunning of the cat, reinforcing its superior intellect.
“The rats and mice no longer dared / To show their thievish faces”	Illustrates the overwhelming fear and suppression among the rats, metaphorically addressing fear-driven silence or retreat.
“Our crafty General Cat / Contrived to hang himself, as dead,”	Introduces the cat’s deceptive tactic, feigning death as a strategy to lure the rats into complacency.
“The rats esteem’d the thing / A judgment for some naughty deed,”	The rats interpret the cat’s apparent death as karmic justice, reflecting human tendencies to explain events through moral or ethical reasoning.
“With hope elated all / Of laughing at his funeral,”	The rats’ false sense of security showcases the danger of prematurely celebrating victory without verifying the facts.
“Down dropp’d the hung one from his gallows, / And of the hindmost caught.”	The cat’s trick succeeds, highlighting the consequences of gullibility and lack of caution.
“‘Some other tricks to me are known,’ / Said he, while tearing bone from bone,”	Reinforces the cat’s cunning and experience, with its confidence stemming from past success, symbolizing learned expertise.
“The point is settled, free from doubt, / That from your holes you shall come out.”	The cat proclaims its dominance and inevitability, symbolizing authority that forces submission or risk.
“For, putting on a mealy robe, / He squatted in an open tub,”	The cat devises another trick, donning a disguise to outwit the rats, representing adaptability and creative problem-solving.
“Out came the vermin to their death.”	The strategy works, reinforcing the theme of intelligence overpowering recklessness or complacency.
“On this occasion, one old stager, / A rat as grey as any badger,”	Introduces the old rat, a seasoned survivor representing wisdom gained through experience.
“Who had in battle lost his tail,”	Implies the old rat’s scars of experience, showcasing survival through prudence and past hardships.
“‘Ah! General Cat, / I much suspect a heap like that;”	The old rat’s skepticism demonstrates the importance of caution and critical thinking in avoiding traps.
“Should you a sack of meal become, / I’d let you be, and stay at home.”	The rat resolves to avoid temptation entirely, symbolizing the wisdom of restraint and suspicion in dangerous situations.
“Well said, I think, and prudently,”	The narrator praises the old rat’s cautious approach, reinforcing the moral that distrust can lead to security and survival.
“By one who knew distrust to be / The parent of security.”	Concludes the fable with the lesson: skepticism and vigilance are necessary for safety and long-term survival.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Cat And The Old Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“Planks with props more false than slim”	Repetition of the “p” sound emphasizes the precariousness of the traps.
Allusion	“The Alexander of the cats, / The Attila, the scourge of rats”	References historical figures to highlight the cat’s dominance and cruelty.
Anthropomorphism	“The rats esteem’d the thing / A judgment for some naughty deed”	The rats are given human-like qualities, such as reasoning and moral judgment.
Assonance	“Among the latter spread, / A league around, its dread”	Repetition of the “e” sound creates a rhythmic and flowing quality.
Chiasmus	“Down dropp’d the hung one from his gallows”	The structure of the phrase mirrors itself for emphasis and balance.
Consonance	“Clinging with his hinder claws / To some small bit of string”	Repetition of the “l” and “n” sounds unifies the description of the cat’s action.
Enjambment	“At length, so sadly were they scared. / The rats and mice no longer dared”	A sentence flows over multiple lines, creating suspense and fluidity in the narrative.
Epithet	“Our crafty General Cat”	The adjective “crafty” serves as a descriptor emphasizing the cat’s cunning nature.
Foreshadowing	“The planks with props more false than slim”	Suggests early on that danger and deception will play a key role in the story.
Hyperbole	“The world should be unvermined”	Exaggeration of the cat’s mission to rid the world of vermin highlights its ambition.
Imagery	“Beside the wall with downward head, / Resisting gravitation’s laws”	Vivid visual description of the cat’s trick creates a strong mental picture.
Irony	“With hope elated all / Of laughing at his funeral”	The rats’ hope and joy are ironic as it leads directly to their downfall.
Metaphor	“The Alexander of the cats”	The cat is metaphorically compared to Alexander the Great, emphasizing its supremacy.
Moral	“Distrust to be / The parent of security”	Explicit statement of the fable’s lesson about caution and prudence.
Onomatopoeia	“Purring and his breath”	The word “purring” imitates the sound of a cat, adding realism.
Personification	“The rats esteem’d the thing / A judgment for some naughty deed”	Non-human rats are personified with the ability to judge and moralize.
Rhyme Scheme	“Whose fierce and whisker’d head / Among the latter spread”	Regular rhyming creates musicality and a pleasing rhythm.
Satire	“A judgment for some naughty deed, / Some thievish snatch, / Or ugly scratch”	Subtly mocks the moral reasoning of the rats, suggesting their naïveté.
Simile	“A rat as grey as any badger”	Direct comparison of the old rat to a badger enhances its appearance and age.
Symbolism	“The tempting heaps of poison’d meal”	Represents the dangers of greed and lack of caution.

Themes: “The Cat And The Old Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

1. Cunning and Deception: One of the central themes in “The Cat and the Old Rat” is the role of cunning and deception in achieving dominance or survival. The cat employs various deceptive strategies, including feigning death (“Contrived to hang himself, as dead”) and disguising itself in a “mealy robe” to trick the rats into exposing themselves. These acts of deceit highlight the predator’s ingenuity and adaptability, which are critical for its success. This theme underscores the idea that intelligence and strategy often triumph over brute force, as the cat relies on its wits rather than direct confrontation to outsmart the rats. La Fontaine uses this theme to explore how guile can be a powerful tool, especially when confronting those who underestimate their opponents.

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2. Survival Through Prudence: The old rat represents the theme of survival through prudence, showcasing how caution and critical thinking can protect against danger. Unlike the other rats, the old rat avoids the poisoned meal, proclaiming, “Ah! General Cat, / I much suspect a heap like that.” His wariness stems from past experiences, such as losing his tail in battle, which taught him the value of distrust. The rat’s refusal to be lured by temptation exemplifies how skepticism can be a protective measure in life-threatening situations. La Fontaine emphasizes this theme in the moral conclusion: “By one who knew distrust to be / The parent of security,” reinforcing the importance of vigilance and wisdom in ensuring safety.

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3. The Danger of Complacency: Another key theme in the fable is the danger of complacency and overconfidence, as exemplified by the rats who prematurely celebrate the cat’s supposed death. Believing their enemy has been vanquished, they “thrust their noses out in air” and gleefully begin raiding the larder. This lack of caution leads directly to their demise, as the cat’s trick culminates in their slaughter (“Down dropp’d the hung one from his gallows, / And of the hindmost caught”). La Fontaine uses this theme to warn against the false sense of security that often arises from assuming a problem has been resolved without due diligence.

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4. The Balance of Power: The theme of the balance of power is woven throughout the fable, illustrating the constant struggle between predator and prey. Initially, the cat dominates, driving the rats into hiding (“The rats and mice no longer dared / To show their thievish faces”). However, the old rat’s cautious approach shifts the balance, as his prudence prevents him from falling into the cat’s traps. This dynamic reflects the broader reality of power struggles, where shifts in strategy or perspective can alter outcomes. La Fontaine uses the fable to highlight how power is not absolute but often depends on intelligence, adaptability, and the ability to anticipate the actions of others.

Literary Theories and “The Cat And The Old Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

Literary Theory	Application to “The Cat and the Old Rat”	References from the Poem
Moral Criticism	Focuses on the ethical lesson or moral message conveyed by the text. The fable teaches the importance of prudence and distrust in ensuring survival.	“By one who knew distrust to be / The parent of security” explicitly conveys the moral about the value of caution.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Examines the underlying psychological drives and instincts, such as the cat’s cunning and the rats’ fear-driven behavior, which reflect survival instincts.	The cat’s deceptive tactics (“Contrived to hang himself, as dead”) symbolize its calculated predatory instincts.
Structuralism	Highlights the use of binary oppositions, such as predator vs. prey, cunning vs. trust, and action vs. caution, to structure the narrative and meaning.	The opposition of the cat’s deception and the old rat’s caution is central to the narrative’s structure and resolution.
Reader-Response Theory	Considers the reader’s interpretation of the characters’ actions and the moral. Different readers may empathize with the cat’s strategy or the rat’s prudence.	Readers interpret the old rat’s actions (“Ah! General Cat, / I much suspect a heap like that”) as either wise or overly cautious.

Critical Questions about “The Cat And The Old Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

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Literary Works Similar to “The Cat And The Old Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

1. “The Fox and the Crow” by Jean de La Fontaine
   Both poems use anthropomorphic animals to convey a moral lesson, with themes of cunning and the consequences of gullibility.
2. “The Tortoise and the Hare” by Aesop (in poetic adaptations)
   Similar to La Fontaine’s work, this poem features animals symbolizing human traits and teaches a moral about prudence and persistence.
3. “The Frog and the Ox” by Jean de La Fontaine
   Like “The Cat and the Old Rat”, this poem explores the dangers of arrogance and overestimating one’s abilities, using vivid animal characters.
4. “The Spider and the Fly” by Mary Howitt
   This poem shares themes of deception and the perils of naivety, with the fly falling prey to the spider’s manipulative tactics.
5. “The Owl and the Pussycat” by Edward Lear
   Although more whimsical, this poem employs anthropomorphism and animal characters to explore interactions that mirror human behaviors and emotions.

Representative Quotations of “The Cat And The Old Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“The Alexander of the cats, / The Attila, the scourge of rats”	Describes the cat’s dominance and reputation among the rats, setting the tone of fear and power imbalance.	Structuralism: Highlights binary oppositions (dominator vs. dominated).
“Contrived to hang himself, as dead, / Beside the wall with downward head”	The cat fakes its death to lure the rats out of hiding.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Reflects cunning as a manifestation of predatory instincts.
“The rats esteem’d the thing / A judgment for some naughty deed”	The rats interpret the cat’s apparent death as karmic justice, letting their guard down.	Moral Criticism: Explores how moral assumptions can lead to errors in judgment.
“With hope elated all / Of laughing at his funeral”	The rats prematurely celebrate their enemy’s death, exposing their overconfidence.	Reader-Response Theory: Invites readers to judge the rats’ foolishness from their perspective.
“Down dropp’d the hung one from his gallows, / And of the hindmost caught”	The cat springs its trap and captures unsuspecting rats, showcasing the success of its deceit.	Structuralism: Reinforces the predator-prey dynamic and reversal of expectations.
“Ah! General Cat, / I much suspect a heap like that”	The old rat expresses skepticism about the poisoned meal, demonstrating wisdom through caution.	Moral Criticism: Highlights prudence as a survival strategy.
“Should you a sack of meal become, / I’d let you be, and stay at home”	The old rat decides to avoid temptation entirely, valuing safety over risk.	Existentialism: Reflects individual agency in choosing self-preservation.
“By one who knew distrust to be / The parent of security”	Concludes the moral of the poem, emphasizing the importance of vigilance and skepticism.	Moral Criticism: Clearly defines the lesson the fable imparts.
“The tempting heaps of poison’d meal”	Symbolizes greed and its potential dangers, luring the rats into a deadly trap.	Symbolism: Represents the consequences of unchecked desire.
“For, putting on a mealy robe, / He squatted in an open tub”	Describes another deceptive tactic of the cat, showcasing adaptability and persistence.	Psychoanalytic Theory: Reveals the cat’s calculated and strategic behaviors as an extension of its nature.

Suggested Readings: “The Cat And The Old Rat” by Jean de La Fontaine

1. La Fontaine, Jean. The complete fables of Jean de la Fontaine. University of Illinois Press, 2007.
2. de La Fontaine, Jean. Once Again, La Fontaine: Sixty More Fables. Wesleyan University Press, 2000.
3. Doré, Gustave. Doré’s Illustrations for the Fables of la Fontaine. Courier Corporation, 2013.
4. McGowan, Margaret M. “Moral Intention in the Fables of La Fontaine.” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, vol. 29, 1966, pp. 264–81. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/750719. Accessed 8 Jan. 2025.

Introduction: “A Man’s a Man for A’ That” by Robert Burns

“A Man’s a Man for A’ That” by Robert Burns first appeared in 1795 in the collection The Scots Musical Museum. This poem is celebrated as a timeless anthem of egalitarianism, championing the inherent dignity and worth of every individual regardless of their social rank or material wealth. Its enduring popularity as a textbook poem arises from its universal themes of equality, honesty, and the value of character over superficial status, expressed through Burns’ masterful use of Scots vernacular. Phrases like “The rank is but the guinea’s stamp, The Man’s the gowd for a’ that” underscore the idea that human worth is not determined by titles or riches but by inner virtue. Similarly, “That Man to Man the warld o’er Shall brithers be for a’ that” envisions a future of global fraternity, making the poem a rallying cry for equality and unity. Its resonant message and lyrical charm ensure its place in literary and educational settings worldwide.

Text: “A Man’s a Man for A’ That” by Robert Burns

Is there for honest Poverty
That hings his head, an’ a’ that;
The coward-slave, we pass him by,
We dare be poor for a’ that!
For a’ that, an’ a’ that.
Our toils obscure an’ a’ that,
The rank is but the guinea’s stamp,
The Man’s the gowd for a’ that.

What though on hamely fare we dine,
Wear hoddin grey, an’ a that;
Gie fools their silks, and knaves their wine;
A Man’s a Man for a’ that:
For a’ that, and a’ that,
Their tinsel show, an’ a’ that;
The honest man, tho’ e’er sae poor,
Is king o’ men for a’ that.

Ye see yon birkie ca’d a lord,
Wha struts, an’ stares, an’ a’ that,
Tho’ hundreds worship at his word,
He’s but a coof for a’ that.
For a’ that, an’ a’ that,
His ribband, star, an’ a’ that,
The man o’ independent mind,
He looks an’ laughs at a’ that.

A Prince can mak a belted knight,
A marquis, duke, an’ a’ that!
But an honest man’s aboon his might –
Guid faith, he mauna fa’ that!
For a’ that, an’ a’ that,
Their dignities, an’ a’ that,
The pith o’ Sense an’ pride o’ Worth
Are higher rank than a’ that.

Then let us pray that come it may,
As come it will for a’ that,
That Sense and Worth, o’er a’ the earth
Shall bear the gree an’ a’ that.
For a’ that, an’ a’ that,
It’s comin yet for a’ that,
That Man to Man the warld o’er
Shall brithers be for a’ that.

Annotations: “A Man’s a Man for A’ That” by Robert Burns

Line	Annotation
Is there for honest Poverty	Questions whether honest poverty should be a source of shame. Emphasizes the virtue of honesty over wealth.
That hings his head, an’ a’ that;	Refers to those who feel ashamed due to their poverty. The phrase “hings his head” implies dejection or embarrassment.
The coward-slave, we pass him by,	Criticizes those who lack the courage to face poverty with dignity, labeling them as “coward-slaves.”
We dare be poor for a’ that!	Declares that true dignity lies in the willingness to face poverty without shame.
For a’ that, an’ a’ that.	Refrain that emphasizes the enduring theme of the poem: external circumstances do not define a person’s worth.
Our toils obscure an’ a’ that,	Acknowledges the hard labor and modest lives of the working class, emphasizing that such circumstances do not diminish one’s value.
The rank is but the guinea’s stamp,	Criticizes social rank as superficial and arbitrary, comparing it to a stamp on a coin that does not determine the coin’s actual value.
The Man’s the gowd for a’ that.	Asserts that a person’s character (“Man”) is the true gold (“gowd”), not their social status.
What though on hamely fare we dine,	Accepts humble living conditions (simple food) as unimportant in the larger context of life.
Wear hoddin grey, an’ a’ that;	Refers to wearing coarse, plain clothing (“hoddin grey”), a marker of modesty and labor.
Gie fools their silks, and knaves their wine;	Rejects luxury and wealth, suggesting they belong to fools and dishonest people (“knaves”).
A Man’s a Man for a’ that:	Reiterates the central theme: a man’s worth lies in his intrinsic qualities, not external trappings.
For a’ that, and a’ that,	Continues the refrain, reinforcing the message of human equality and dignity.
Their tinsel show, an’ a’ that;	Derides the shallow display of wealth and power (“tinsel show”) as insignificant.
The honest man, tho’ e’er sae poor,	Praises the moral superiority of an honest man, regardless of his poverty.
Is king o’ men for a’ that.	Declares that an honest man is metaphorically a “king” among others due to his character, not material wealth.
Ye see yon birkie ca’d a lord,	Points out a nobleman (“birkie”), suggesting that their status does not make them inherently superior.
Wha struts, an’ stares, an’ a’ that,	Criticizes the arrogance and pretension of those in high social ranks.
Tho’ hundreds worship at his word,	Observes how people often obey or admire such figures, despite their lack of true merit.
He’s but a coof for a’ that.	Labels the nobleman as a fool (“coof”), implying that titles and admiration do not make one wise or worthy.
For a’ that, an’ a’ that,	Repeats the refrain to reinforce the poem’s central argument.
His ribband, star, an’ a’ that,	Refers to symbols of rank and honor (ribbons, medals), mocking their superficiality.
The man o’ independent mind,	Celebrates the ideal of an individual with self-respect, integrity, and independence of thought.
He looks an’ laughs at a’ that.	Suggests that such an independent person can dismiss societal pretensions with amusement.
A Prince can mak a belted knight,	Highlights the arbitrary nature of social titles, which can be granted by royalty.
A marquis, duke, an’ a’ that!	Lists other noble titles, reinforcing their insignificance in determining true worth.
But an honest man’s aboon his might –	Asserts that even a prince cannot create or bestow the virtue of honesty.
Guid faith, he mauna fa’ that!	Emphasizes the divine or natural origin of honesty, placing it beyond human control or influence.
For a’ that, an’ a’ that,	Continues the refrain, maintaining the poem’s rhythm and focus on its core theme.
Their dignities, an’ a’ that,	Condemns the artificial nature of rank and privilege (“dignities”).
The pith o’ Sense an’ pride o’ Worth	Values intelligence (“pith o’ Sense”) and moral self-worth (“pride o’ Worth”) over social position.
Are higher rank than a’ that.	Declares that these qualities represent a superior form of status.
Then let us pray that come it may,	Invites hope for a future where these ideals are realized globally.
As come it will for a’ that,	Expresses optimism that this vision of equality and dignity will eventually prevail.
That Sense and Worth, o’er a’ the earth	Imagines a world where intelligence and virtue are universally recognized as paramount.
Shall bear the gree an’ a’ that.	Predicts that these qualities will ultimately win the prize (“bear the gree”) over superficial distinctions.
For a’ that, an’ a’ that,	Repeats the refrain to maintain the momentum of the poem’s message.
It’s comin yet for a’ that,	Reaffirms faith in the inevitable triumph of equality and virtue.
That Man to Man the warld o’er	Envisions a world where human beings treat one another as equals.
Shall brithers be for a’ that.	Concludes with the ultimate goal of universal brotherhood, grounded in mutual respect and equality.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Man’s a Man for A’ That” by Robert Burns

Device	Example	Explanation
Alliteration	“pith o’ Sense an’ pride o’ Worth”	The repetition of the initial consonant sounds (“pith” and “pride”) creates rhythm and emphasis on the key ideas.
Anaphora	“For a’ that, an’ a’ that”	Repetition of this phrase at the beginning of lines reinforces the central theme of equality and dignity.
Assonance	“Wear hoddin grey, an’ a’ that”	The repetition of the vowel sound “a” enhances the musicality of the line.
Colloquial Language	“Yon birkie ca’d a lord”	Use of Scots vernacular creates authenticity and connects the poem to Burns’s cultural and social context.
Contrast	“Tho’ hundreds worship at his word, He’s but a coof”	Contrasts external admiration with the lord’s actual foolishness, emphasizing inner worth over outward appearances.
Dialogue	“Ye see yon birkie ca’d a lord”	The conversational tone engages the reader and invites them to reflect on the social criticism.
End Rhyme	“That hings his head, an’ a’ that; We dare be poor for a’ that!”	The rhyming words “that” and “that” provide structure and flow to the stanzas.
Epistrophe	“an’ a’ that”	Repetition of this phrase at the end of multiple lines emphasizes the poem’s refrain and message.
Hyperbole	“The honest man, tho’ e’er sae poor, Is king o’ men”	Exaggerates the moral superiority of the honest man to make a point about the value of character.
Imagery	“Wear hoddin grey, an’ a’ that”	Vivid description of coarse clothing creates a mental image of the humble working-class life.
Irony	“A Prince can mak a belted knight”	Highlights the irony of nobility being bestowed arbitrarily, contrasting it with the inherent worth of honesty and sense.
Juxtaposition	“Tho’ hundreds worship at his word, He’s but a coof”	Places blind admiration alongside the foolishness of the lord, exposing societal absurdities.
Metaphor	“The rank is but the guinea’s stamp, The Man’s the gowd”	Compares social rank to a coin stamp and character to gold, emphasizing intrinsic value over superficial markers.
Optimism	“That Sense and Worth, o’er a’ the earth Shall bear the gree”	The hopeful tone and language envision a better future, inspiring belief in eventual equality.
Personification	“That Sense and Worth… Shall bear the gree”	Attributes human qualities to abstract concepts, portraying them as agents of positive change.
Refrain	“For a’ that, an’ a’ that”	Repeated throughout the poem to unify its structure and reinforce its central message.
Satire	“Ye see yon birkie ca’d a lord, Wha struts, an’ stares”	Mocks the arrogance of the nobility, critiquing societal structures that prioritize rank over character.
Symbolism	“The guinea’s stamp”	Symbolizes artificial markers of worth, contrasting with the “gowd” (gold) of genuine human value.
Tone	“The honest man, tho’ e’er sae poor, Is king o’ men”	The uplifting and defiant tone inspires pride in honesty and equality, rejecting societal hierarchies.
Universal Theme	“That Man to Man the warld o’er Shall brithers be”	Expresses a universal theme of brotherhood and equality, resonating across time and cultures.

Themes: “A Man’s a Man for A’ That” by Robert Burns

1. Equality and Human Dignity: Burns passionately argues that a person’s worth is determined by their character, not by their social rank, wealth, or outward appearance. This theme is encapsulated in the lines, “The rank is but the guinea’s stamp, The Man’s the gowd for a’ that”. Here, Burns metaphorically likens social rank to a mere stamp on a coin, emphasizing that true value lies in the “gold” of one’s humanity. The refrain “For a’ that, an’ a’ that” reinforces the belief that no external trappings of power or status can outweigh the dignity of being honest and virtuous. This universal principle resonates with readers, calling for a reevaluation of societal hierarchies and prejudices.

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2. Critique of Aristocracy and Social Hierarchies: Burns critiques the superficiality of titles and aristocratic privileges, contrasting them with the inherent worth of an independent, honest individual. He derides figures of power with lines like “Tho’ hundreds worship at his word, He’s but a coof for a’ that”, exposing the folly of blindly idolizing those in high ranks. The poem dismisses material markers of status, such as “ribband, star, an’ a’ that”, as meaningless compared to the moral integrity of a “man o’ independent mind.” This theme directly challenges the entrenched class systems of Burns’s time, making the poem a radical statement on social equality.

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3. The Virtue of Honesty and Integrity: Burns places immense value on honesty and integrity, even in the face of poverty or hardship. The line “The honest man, tho’ e’er sae poor, Is king o’ men for a’ that” elevates moral character above all else, declaring that honesty is a regal trait in its own right. Burns celebrates the courage to remain true to one’s principles, as seen in “We dare be poor for a’ that!” This theme resonates deeply with the working-class audience of his era and beyond, highlighting the inner wealth of those who prioritize virtue over material gain.

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4. Hope for Universal Brotherhood: The poem concludes with a vision of a world united by shared humanity and equality. Burns’s optimism shines in the lines, “That Man to Man the warld o’er Shall brithers be for a’ that”. He envisions a future where societal divisions dissolve, and mutual respect prevails. This theme of universal brotherhood is reinforced by the prayer-like plea in “Then let us pray that come it may, As come it will for a’ that”, expressing faith in the eventual triumph of reason, worth, and equality. It speaks to Burns’s belief in the enduring potential for progress and unity among all people.

Literary Theories and “A Man’s a Man for A’ That” by Robert Burns

Literary Theory	Application to the Poem	References from the Poem
Marxist Theory	Explores class struggle and critiques societal hierarchies, emphasizing the dignity of the working class over aristocracy.	“The rank is but the guinea’s stamp, The Man’s the gowd for a’ that” challenges the notion of wealth and status defining human worth.
Romanticism	Focuses on individual worth, emotional sincerity, and rejection of social conventions, all central themes in Burns’s work.	“The honest man, tho’ e’er sae poor, Is king o’ men for a’ that” embodies Romantic ideals of moral and natural superiority over artificial rank.
Humanist Theory	Celebrates human dignity, moral integrity, and the potential for universal brotherhood, reflecting core Humanist principles.	“That Man to Man the warld o’er Shall brithers be for a’ that” envisions equality and unity as the highest human aspirations.
Postcolonial Theory	Critiques power structures and celebrates the value of local culture and language, resonating with Burns’s use of Scots vernacular.	“Ye see yon birkie ca’d a lord, Wha struts, an’ stares, an’ a’ that” mocks colonial and aristocratic power dynamics, empowering the common man and local identity.

Critical Questions about “A Man’s a Man for A’ That” by Robert Burns

Literary Works Similar to “A Man’s a Man for A’ That” by Robert Burns

1. “If—” by Rudyard Kipling
   Similar in its moral emphasis on character and integrity, this poem celebrates the virtues of resilience, humility, and self-worth regardless of circumstances.
2. “Song of Myself” by Walt Whitman
   Whitman’s celebration of individuality and equality resonates with Burns’s themes of intrinsic human dignity and rejection of societal hierarchies.
3. “Invictus” by William Ernest Henley
   This poem shares Burns’s defiant tone and focus on the independent human spirit, emphasizing self-reliance and moral strength in adversity.
4. “Ode to Duty” by William Wordsworth
   Similar to Burns’s poem, it reflects on the virtues of honesty, morality, and responsibility as higher values than wealth or status.
5. “The Village Blacksmith” by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
   Longfellow’s portrayal of the honest laborer echoes Burns’s reverence for the hardworking and virtuous common man over the aristocracy.

Representative Quotations of “A Man’s a Man for A’ That” by Robert Burns

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“The rank is but the guinea’s stamp, The Man’s the gowd for a’ that.”	Critiques the superficiality of social rank and asserts that true worth lies in character.	Marxist Theory: Challenges class-based hierarchies by valuing human worth over material indicators.
“A Man’s a Man for a’ that.”	Repeated refrain emphasizing equality and intrinsic dignity.	Humanist Theory: Celebrates universal human worth beyond social constructs.
“Tho’ hundreds worship at his word, He’s but a coof for a’ that.”	Mocks the blind admiration for aristocrats, highlighting their lack of intrinsic value.	Satirical Critique: Exposes the flaws in societal reverence for unearned power.
“The honest man, tho’ e’er sae poor, Is king o’ men for a’ that.”	Elevates honesty and moral integrity above wealth or status.	Romanticism: Values the inner virtues of the common man, rejecting materialism.
“We dare be poor for a’ that!”	Expresses pride in poverty when accompanied by honesty and self-respect.	Individualism: Emphasizes personal integrity and defiance of societal expectations.
“His ribband, star, an’ a’ that.”	Derides the symbols of aristocratic privilege as meaningless.	Postcolonial Theory: Critiques power structures and the emptiness of symbolic authority.
“What though on hamely fare we dine, Wear hoddin grey, an’ a’ that.”	Acknowledges the humble lifestyle of the working class as virtuous.	Marxist Theory: Glorifies labor and simplicity over wealth and excess.
“A Prince can mak a belted knight, A marquis, duke, an’ a’ that!”	Highlights the arbitrary nature of titles and ranks bestowed by royalty.	Political Critique: Questions the legitimacy of socially constructed hierarchies.
“Sense and Worth, o’er a’ the earth Shall bear the gree an’ a’ that.”	Envisions a future where reason and moral integrity triumph globally.	Optimism: Projects a hopeful vision of societal progress toward justice and equality.
“That Man to Man the warld o’er Shall brithers be for a’ that.”	Concludes with a universal call for brotherhood and unity.	Humanist Theory: Advocates for global solidarity and the shared dignity of humanity.

Suggested Readings: “A Man’s a Man for A’ That” by Robert Burns

1. Butcher, Philip. “Robert Burns and the Democratic Spirit.” Phylon (1940-1956), vol. 10, no. 3, 1949, pp. 265–72. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/272397. Accessed 8 Jan. 2025.
2. David Robb, and Eckhard John. “‘A Man’s a Man for a’ That’ and ‘Trotz Alledem’: Robert Burns, Ferdinand Freiligrath, and Their Reception in the German Folksong Movement.” The Modern Language Review, vol. 106, no. 1, 2011, pp. 17–46. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.5699/modelangrevi.106.1.0017. Accessed 8 Jan. 2025.
3. Whatley, Christopher A. “‘It Is Said That Burns Was a Radical’: Contest, Concession, and the Political Legacy of Robert Burns, ca. 1796—1859.” Journal of British Studies, vol. 50, no. 3, 2011, pp. 639–66. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23265422. Accessed 8 Jan. 2025.
4. Mooney, Martin. “Up to His Neck in the World.” Fortnight, no. 401, 2001, pp. 24–26. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25560475. Accessed 8 Jan. 2025.