January 24, 2025 - English Studies

“Amoretti: Sonnet 75” by Edmund Spenser: A Critical Analysis

“Amoretti: Sonnet 75” by Edmund Spenser first appeared in 1595 as part of the “Amoretti” sonnet sequence, a collection dedicated to chronicling his courtship of Elizabeth Boyle.

Introduction: “Amoretti: Sonnet 75” by Edmund Spenser

“Amoretti: Sonnet 75” by Edmund Spenser first appeared in 1595 as part of the “Amoretti” sonnet sequence, a collection dedicated to chronicling his courtship of Elizabeth Boyle. This poem stands out for its contemplative meditation on the themes of love, immortality, and the transcendent power of poetry. Its popularity as a textbook poem lies in its timeless exploration of human desires for permanence in the face of impermanence. The speaker attempts to immortalize his beloved by writing her name on the sand, only for the waves to wash it away, symbolizing the inevitability of decay: “But came the waves and washed it away.” His beloved challenges his futile efforts, calling them vain: “Vayne man, that doest in vaine assay / A mortall thing so to immortalize.” However, the speaker asserts that poetry can transcend mortality, promising that her virtues and their love will endure through his verse: “My verse your vertues rare shall eternize, / And in the hevens wryte your glorious name.” The poem’s enduring appeal lies in its masterful interplay of ephemeral and eternal, making it a cornerstone of Renaissance love poetry and a compelling study of art’s power to defy time.

Text: “Amoretti: Sonnet 75” by Edmund Spenser

One day I wrote her name upon the strand,
But came the waves and washed it away:
Agayne I wrote it with a second hand;
But came the tyde, and made my paynes his pray.
“Vayne man,” sayd she, “that doest in vaine assay
A mortall thing so to immortalize;
For I my selve shall lyke to this decay,
And eke my name bee wyped out lykewize.”
“Not so,” quod I; “let baser things devize
To dy in dust, but you shall live by fame:
My verse your vertues rare shall eternize,
And in the hevens wryte your glorious name.
Where, when as death shall all the world subdew,
Our love shall live, and later life renew.”

Annotations: “Amoretti: Sonnet 75” by Edmund Spenser

Line/Excerpt	Annotation
“One day I wrote her name upon the strand,”	The speaker begins with a metaphorical act of writing his beloved’s name in the sand, symbolizing his desire to immortalize her and their love.
“But came the waves and washed it away:”	The waves, representing the natural forces of impermanence and time, erase the name, illustrating the fragility of human efforts against nature.
“Agayne I wrote it with a second hand;”	The speaker’s persistence is highlighted as he repeats the act, signifying human resilience and the longing to defy impermanence.
“But came the tyde, and made my paynes his pray.”	The tide, like the waves, symbolizes the relentless and cyclical nature of time, consuming the speaker’s efforts, turning them into futility.
“Vayne man,” sayd she, “that doest in vaine assay / A mortall thing so to immortalize;”	The woman speaks, admonishing the speaker for his vain attempts to immortalize her mortal existence. Her tone is realistic and somewhat reproachful.
“For I my selve shall lyke to this decay, / And eke my name bee wyped out lykewize.”	She acknowledges her mortality and the inevitability of decay, paralleling her fate to that of the name in the sand.
“Not so,” quod I; “let baser things devize / To dy in dust, but you shall live by fame:”	The speaker defends his view, arguing that while lesser things may perish, she will achieve immortality through his poetic verses.
“My verse your vertues rare shall eternize, / And in the hevens wryte your glorious name.”	The speaker declares the power of poetry to immortalize her virtues and inscribe her legacy in the heavens, signifying spiritual transcendence.
“Where, when as death shall all the world subdew,”	Death is presented as an inevitable conqueror of the world, emphasizing the universal nature of mortality.
“Our love shall live, and later life renew.”	The poem concludes with hope and triumph, asserting that their love will outlast death, renewed through the eternal medium of poetry.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Amoretti: Sonnet 75” by Edmund Spenser

Line/Excerpt	Literary/Poetic Device	Explanation
“One day I wrote her name upon the strand,”	Imagery	The line evokes a vivid image of the speaker writing on the sand, appealing to the reader’s sense of sight and setting the tone for impermanence.
	Symbolism	The act of writing her name on the sand symbolizes the speaker’s attempt to immortalize his love and his beloved’s name.
“But came the waves and washed it away:”	Personification	The waves are personified as actively “washing” away the name, giving nature human-like qualities to emphasize its dominance over human efforts.
	Metaphor	The waves metaphorically represent time and nature’s erasing power over human endeavors.
“Agayne I wrote it with a second hand;”	Repetition	The repetition of the act of writing signifies the speaker’s persistence and the recurring nature of human aspirations to overcome mortality.
“But came the tyde, and made my paynes his pray.”	Alliteration	The repetition of the “p” sound in “paynes” and “pray” creates a musical effect and emphasizes the futility of the speaker’s effort.
	Personification	The tide is personified as “making” the speaker’s effort its prey, underscoring its relentless and overpowering nature.
“Vayne man,” sayd she, “that doest in vaine assay / A mortall thing so to immortalize;”	Dialogue	The beloved speaks directly to the speaker, creating a dramatic contrast between their perspectives on mortality and immortality.
	Irony	The beloved calls the speaker’s efforts vain, which is ironic because his poetry ultimately does immortalize her.
“For I my selve shall lyke to this decay, / And eke my name bee wyped out lykewize.”	Simile	The comparison of herself to the name written in the sand (“lyke to this decay”) emphasizes her acceptance of mortality and impermanence.
	Alliteration	The repetition of “w” in “wyped” and “wilkewize” draws attention to the inevitability of her name being erased.
“Not so,” quod I; “let baser things devize / To dy in dust, but you shall live by fame:”	Contrast	The speaker contrasts “baser things” with his beloved, elevating her above the mortal realm by promising her immortality through poetry.
	Alliteration	The “d” sound in “dy in dust” emphasizes the finality of death for ordinary things, contrasting with the eternal fame promised to her.
“My verse your vertues rare shall eternize, / And in the hevens wryte your glorious name.”	Hyperbole	The speaker exaggerates the power of his poetry to “eternize” her virtues and inscribe her name in the heavens, reflecting Renaissance ideals.
	Enjambment	The thought flows into the next line without a pause, mimicking the enduring nature of his poetic legacy.
“Where, when as death shall all the world subdew,”	Personification	Death is personified as a conqueror that “subdues” the entire world, highlighting its inevitability and power.
	Alliteration	The repetition of the “w” sound in “world” and “where” draws attention to the universality of death.
“Our love shall live, and later life renew.”	Optimism/Triumph	The line reflects the speaker’s optimistic belief that love can transcend mortality, suggesting renewal and continuation through poetry.
	Assonance	The repetition of the “i” sound in “live” and “life” emphasizes the eternal quality of their love.

Themes: “Amoretti: Sonnet 75” by Edmund Spenser

1. Mortality and Impermanence: One of the central themes of the sonnet is the transience of life and human endeavors in the face of time and nature. This is introduced in the opening lines, where the speaker writes his beloved’s name on the sand, only for the waves to wash it away: “One day I wrote her name upon the strand, / But came the waves and washed it away.” The act of writing in the sand symbolizes human attempts to preserve something ephemeral, while the waves and tide represent time and the inevitability of decay. The beloved reinforces this theme when she remarks, “For I my selve shall lyke to this decay, / And eke my name bee wyped out lykewize.” Her acknowledgment of her mortality emphasizes the fleeting nature of human existence, highlighting the natural cycle of life and death.

2. Immortality Through Art: In contrast to the inevitability of decay, the sonnet explores the theme of immortality through the enduring power of poetry. The speaker vehemently rejects the idea that his beloved’s virtues and their love will succumb to time, declaring, “My verse your vertues rare shall eternize, / And in the hevens wryte your glorious name.” Here, he positions his poetic work as a medium that transcends physical decay, promising to immortalize her and their love through verse. By claiming that “Our love shall live, and later life renew,” the speaker suggests that art has the power to overcome mortality, preserving emotions and virtues for future generations. This theme reflects Renaissance ideals of human creativity as a means of achieving immortality.

3. Love’s Eternal Nature: The poem also delves into the timeless nature of true love. While mortality looms over the physical body, the speaker argues that love exists beyond the constraints of time. He boldly asserts, “Not so, quod I; let baser things devize / To dy in dust, but you shall live by fame.” This statement elevates their love to something that surpasses the ordinary and the perishable, suggesting that it will persist even after death. The concluding couplet, “Where, when as death shall all the world subdew, / Our love shall live, and later life renew,” portrays love as a force capable of defying death itself, renewing life and continuing in perpetuity.

4. Conflict Between Human Effort and Nature: Another underlying theme is the tension between human effort and nature’s overpowering forces. The speaker’s repeated attempts to write his beloved’s name on the sand symbolize humanity’s struggle against the inevitable. Despite his efforts, the waves and tide, representing nature’s supremacy, continuously erase his work: “But came the tyde, and made my paynes his pray.” This cyclical conflict highlights the futility of trying to control or halt natural processes, as well as humanity’s desire to leave a mark in a world dominated by impermanence.

5. Vanity and Humility: The sonnet reflects on human vanity and the speaker’s defiance of it. The beloved chastises the speaker, calling him a “vayne man” for attempting to immortalize her name in a mortal medium. Her words reveal the futility and arrogance of attempting to control mortality. However, the speaker’s response shifts this perspective, offering poetry as a more profound solution. His assertion that “let baser things devize / To dy in dust” shows his belief that art, unlike the physical world, is not bound by the vanity of fleeting existence but instead has the power to achieve a more meaningful permanence.

6. The Interplay of Realism and Idealism: The dialogue between the speaker and his beloved represents a conflict between realism and idealism. The beloved adopts a realistic perspective, accepting the inevitability of death and the futility of physical preservation: “For I my selve shall lyke to this decay.” In contrast, the speaker embodies idealism, proposing that poetry and love can overcome the boundaries of time and decay. His idealistic vision elevates their love to a spiritual and eternal plane, suggesting that it can “live by fame” and continue in “later life.” This tension enriches the poem, offering both a grounded acknowledgment of mortality and a hopeful vision of transcendence.

7. Renaissance Humanism: The sonnet reflects Renaissance humanist ideals, particularly the belief in the power of human creativity and intellect to transcend limitations. By declaring that his verse will “eternize” his beloved’s virtues and inscribe her “glorious name” in the heavens, the speaker underscores the role of the artist as a creator of lasting beauty and truth. This aligns with the Renaissance emphasis on individual achievement and the potential of art to challenge the transience of life.

Literary Theories and “Amoretti: Sonnet 75” by Edmund Spenser

Literary Theory	Application to “Amoretti: Sonnet 75”	References from the Poem
Formalism/New Criticism	This approach focuses on the poem’s structure, language, and literary devices without considering external factors like authorial intent or historical context.	The formal use of dialogue between the speaker and his beloved enhances the thematic tension between mortality (“Vayne man”) and immortality (“eternize”). The sonnet’s rhyme scheme (ABAB BCBC CDCD EE) reflects the Spenserian form, reinforcing the poem’s sense of order and timelessness.
Romanticism	While predating the Romantic movement, the poem embodies Romantic themes such as the eternal nature of love and the redemptive power of art and creativity.	The speaker’s declaration, “My verse your vertues rare shall eternize,” reflects the Romantic belief in art’s ability to immortalize human emotions. The imagery of waves washing away the name symbolizes nature’s sublime and uncontrollable power.
Reader-Response Theory	This theory focuses on the reader’s interpretation and emotional engagement with the poem, emphasizing how different readers might perceive its message about love and mortality.	Readers may empathize with the speaker’s desire to preserve love against the forces of time, expressed in “Our love shall live, and later life renew.” Others may align with the beloved’s skepticism in “that doest in vaine assay / A mortall thing so to immortalize.”
Renaissance Humanism	This theory highlights the Renaissance ideal of human creativity and the belief that individuals can achieve immortality through intellectual and artistic achievements.	The speaker’s assertion, “And in the hevens wryte your glorious name,” exemplifies humanist confidence in poetry’s power to transcend mortality. The celebration of virtues (“My verse your vertues rare”) aligns with Renaissance ideals of celebrating human excellence.

Critical Questions about “Amoretti: Sonnet 75” by Edmund Spenser

1. How does Spenser explore the tension between mortality and immortality in the poem “Amoretti: Sonnet 75”?

Spenser explores the tension between mortality and immortality by juxtaposing the transient nature of human life with the enduring power of art. The opening lines depict the futility of trying to preserve something mortal as the speaker writes his beloved’s name on the sand, only for the waves to wash it away: “But came the waves and washed it away.” This imagery highlights the inevitability of decay, as the beloved herself acknowledges in her reproach: “For I my selve shall lyke to this decay.” However, the speaker challenges this acceptance of mortality by asserting that his poetry will preserve her virtues and their love: “My verse your vertues rare shall eternize.” Through this argument, Spenser presents poetry as a medium that transcends the ephemeral nature of human existence, suggesting that while physical life fades, art can immortalize emotional and spiritual truths.

2. What role does the natural world play in the poem “Amoretti: Sonnet 75″‘s exploration of impermanence?

The natural world is central to the poem’s meditation on impermanence, symbolizing the unstoppable forces of time and decay. The waves and tide are personified as active agents that erase the speaker’s attempts to immortalize his beloved’s name: “But came the tyde, and made my paynes his pray.” This imagery underscores the power of nature to undo human efforts, reflecting its dominance over mortal endeavors. The cyclicality of the tide represents the relentless passage of time, which erodes physical existence and human legacies. Yet, by contrast, the speaker offers art and poetry as a way to counteract nature’s erasure, asserting that the immortalizing power of verse can defy nature’s temporal constraints: “And in the hevens wryte your glorious name.” This duality emphasizes both nature’s inevitability and art’s capacity to transcend it.

3. How does Spenser use dialogue to convey differing perspectives on immortality in “Amoretti: Sonnet 75”?

Spenser employs dialogue between the speaker and his beloved to highlight their contrasting perspectives on immortality. The beloved adopts a realistic, perhaps skeptical view, chastising the speaker for his vain attempts to immortalize her name in the sand: “Vayne man,” sayd she, “that doest in vaine assay / A mortall thing so to immortalize.” Her words reflect a pragmatic understanding of mortality, emphasizing the futility of preserving something inherently transient. In contrast, the speaker offers an idealistic rebuttal, asserting that poetry can immortalize her virtues and preserve their love for eternity: “My verse your vertues rare shall eternize.” This interplay of perspectives enriches the poem by presenting both the acceptance of human limitations and the aspiration to overcome them through creativity and art.

4. In what ways does the poem “Amoretti: Sonnet 75” reflect Renaissance humanist ideals?

The poem reflects Renaissance humanist ideals through its celebration of human creativity and the belief in the transformative power of art. Renaissance humanism emphasized the potential of individuals to achieve greatness and leave lasting legacies through intellectual and artistic pursuits. The speaker’s confidence in the immortalizing power of poetry is a direct expression of this belief: “My verse your vertues rare shall eternize, / And in the hevens wryte your glorious name.” This declaration underscores the humanist notion that art can defy the temporal limitations of the physical world, preserving human virtues and achievements for future generations. Additionally, the emphasis on individual excellence, as seen in the focus on the beloved’s “vertues rare,” aligns with the Renaissance celebration of human potential and individuality. Through this lens, the poem serves as both a personal love declaration and a broader assertion of the enduring value of human creativity.

Literary Works Similar to “Amoretti: Sonnet 75” by Edmund Spenser

“Sonnet 18” by William Shakespeare
Similarity: Both poems explore the theme of immortality through poetry, with Shakespeare declaring that his beloved will live eternally through his verse: “So long as men can breathe or eyes can see, / So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.”

“When I Have Fears That I May Cease to Be” by John Keats
Similarity: Keats, like Spenser, contemplates mortality and the impermanence of life, balancing it with the enduring nature of artistic legacy and love.
“Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley
Similarity: Shelley reflects on the impermanence of human efforts and the power of time, mirroring Spenser’s meditation on the futility of writing in sand and the immortalizing power of art.
“The Canonization” by John Donne
Similarity: Donne, like Spenser, elevates the power of love to transcend mortality, asserting that the lovers’ story will be eternalized in poetic legend: “We can die by it, if not live by love, / And if unfit for tombs and hearse, / Our legend be.”

“A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning” by John Donne
Similarity: Both poems emphasize the spiritual and eternal nature of love, with Donne asserting that true love is not diminished by physical separation, much like Spenser’s declaration of love surviving death.

Representative Quotations of “Amoretti: Sonnet 75” by Edmund Spenser

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“One day I wrote her name upon the strand,”	The speaker begins by describing his attempt to immortalize his beloved by writing her name in the sand.	Formalism: Symbolizes human efforts to resist impermanence, setting the central tension of the poem.
“But came the waves and washed it away:”	Nature, represented by the waves, erases his efforts, signifying the inevitable decay of mortal things.	Naturalism: Reflects the power of nature over human aspirations and the futility of resisting time.
“Agayne I wrote it with a second hand;”	The speaker persists, illustrating human resilience despite the inevitability of failure.	Existentialism: Highlights human perseverance in the face of life’s transient nature.
“But came the tyde, and made my paynes his pray.”	The tide metaphorically devours the speaker’s efforts, emphasizing the futility of controlling time.	Symbolism: The tide represents time and its relentless passage, overpowering human ambition.
“Vayne man,” sayd she, “that doest in vaine assay”	The beloved criticizes the speaker’s attempts to immortalize her in a physical, impermanent way.	Reader-Response: Encourages readers to reflect on the tension between realism and idealism in human efforts.
“A mortall thing so to immortalize;”	The beloved emphasizes the impossibility of preserving mortal things in an eternal form.	Realism: Challenges the speaker’s idealism with a pragmatic acknowledgment of mortality.
“Not so,” quod I; “let baser things devize”	The speaker rebuts her argument, asserting that she is above mortal decay and deserving of immortality.	Renaissance Humanism: Elevates human virtues and creativity as transcendent and eternal.
“My verse your vertues rare shall eternize,”	The speaker asserts the power of his poetry to immortalize her virtues and preserve her memory.	Formalism: Demonstrates the poet’s belief in the transformative and lasting power of art.
“And in the hevens wryte your glorious name.”	The speaker metaphorically places her name in the heavens, signifying spiritual immortality.	Romanticism: Emphasizes the idealized, eternal nature of love and art’s spiritual transcendence.
“Our love shall live, and later life renew.”	The poem concludes with the assertion that their love will transcend death and continue into eternity.	Reader-Response: Invites readers to interpret love as a force that outlasts physical decay through creative legacy.

“Decolonizing Trauma Theory: Retrospect and Prospects” by Irene Visser: Summary and Critique

“Decolonizing Trauma Theory: Retrospect and Prospects” by Irene Visser first appeared in Humanities in 2015, offering a pivotal contribution to postcolonial literary theory by challenging Eurocentric assumptions inherent in classical trauma frameworks.

Introduction: “Decolonizing Trauma Theory: Retrospect and Prospects” by Irene Visser

“Decolonizing Trauma Theory: Retrospect and Prospects” by Irene Visser first appeared in Humanities in 2015, offering a pivotal contribution to postcolonial literary theory by challenging Eurocentric assumptions inherent in classical trauma frameworks. Published in the journal’s volume 4 (pp. 250–265), the article underscores the need to expand trauma theory beyond Western Freudian psychoanalysis, emphasizing the inclusion of collective, culturally specific, and historically situated trauma experiences. Visser critiques the “depoliticizing and dehistoricizing tendencies” of dominant trauma theories, which fail to address the prolonged and systemic trauma of colonialism, and calls for an openness to non-Western belief systems and rituals. She highlights the limitations of early trauma theory, which, as Rothberg argued, “remains stuck within Euro-American conceptual and historical frameworks” and calls for transformative methodologies that resonate with the lived realities of postcolonial communities. Visser posits that achieving a truly decolonized trauma theory requires recognizing the curative power of narrative, resilience, and spiritual traditions in healing trauma. As she aptly states, “Openness to non-Western belief systems and their rituals and ceremonies in the engagement with trauma is needed in order to achieve the remaining major objectives of the long-standing project of decolonizing trauma theory.” This article remains essential for understanding the evolving intersections of trauma, culture, and literature in a globalized context.

Summary of “Decolonizing Trauma Theory: Retrospect and Prospects” by Irene Visser

Main Ideas

Need for Decolonization of Trauma Theory:
- The article critiques traditional trauma theory, as conceptualized by scholars like Cathy Caruth and others, for its Eurocentric focus, event-based framework, and reliance on Freudian psychoanalysis (Visser, 2015, p. 253).
- Trauma theory’s depoliticizing tendencies fail to address the prolonged and systemic trauma of colonialism (p. 254).
Origins of the Decolonization Project:
- The call for decolonizing trauma theory dates back to 2008, when Michael Rothberg and others critiqued traditional trauma studies for neglecting the historical, political, and cultural dimensions of colonial and postcolonial traumas (p. 252).

Critique of Eurocentrism:
- The traditional model’s focus on isolated, individual trauma is incompatible with the collective and enduring nature of colonial trauma, which spans generations (p. 254).
- Early trauma theory’s emphasis on psychoanalysis excludes alternative cultural and spiritual frameworks for understanding trauma.

Rejection of Melancholia as the Sole Lens:
- The insistence on melancholia and victimization, rooted in Caruth’s theories, limits the recognition of resilience, activism, and community recovery in postcolonial trauma narratives (p. 257).
- The article supports reframing trauma as a process that allows for healing, resistance, and resilience.

Role of Narrative:
- Contrary to traditional trauma theory’s emphasis on the inexpressibility of trauma, Visser highlights the therapeutic and empowering potential of narrative in addressing and integrating traumatic experiences (p. 257).
Expansion of Trauma Theory:
- The article advocates for incorporating sociological, anthropological, and non-Western perspectives into trauma studies, moving beyond Freudian and deconstructionist frameworks (p. 258).
- Collective trauma and indigenous belief systems are emphasized as critical areas for expanding trauma theory.
Inclusion of Spiritual and Cultural Practices:
- Indigenous rituals, spirituality, and forgiveness are presented as vital elements of healing from trauma, which traditional trauma theory has largely ignored due to its secular Western bias (p. 261).
New Directions for Research:
- The article calls for an inclusive, pluralistic approach that respects non-Western modes of understanding and healing trauma. This includes engaging with indigenous practices and conceptualizing trauma as both collective and historical (p. 263).

Key Contributions of Postcolonial Studies:
- Postcolonial trauma studies have been instrumental in challenging dominant trauma theories and emphasizing cultural specificity and historicity (p. 264).

Key Quotations

“Openness to non-Western belief systems and their rituals and ceremonies in the engagement with trauma is needed in order to achieve the remaining major objectives of the long-standing project of decolonizing trauma theory” (Visser, 2015, p. 250).

“Trauma theory’s Eurocentric, event-based conception of trauma distorts the histories it addresses and threatens to reproduce the very Eurocentrism that lies behind those histories” (p. 254).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Decolonizing Trauma Theory: Retrospect and Prospects” by Irene Visser

Theoretical Term/Concept	Explanation	Context in the Article
Eurocentrism in Trauma Theory	Focus on Western, event-based, and individualistic trauma frameworks rooted in Freudian psychoanalysis.	Critiqued for its inability to address the long-term, collective traumas of colonialism and its tendency to marginalize non-Western perspectives (Visser, 2015, p. 254).
Decolonization of Trauma Theory	Efforts to reframe trauma studies to include non-Western, collective, and historically situated experiences.	Central theme of the article; emphasizes moving beyond Eurocentric frameworks to incorporate cultural, spiritual, and historical dimensions of trauma (p. 252).
Event-based Model of Trauma	Trauma conceptualized as a sudden, singular event impacting the individual.	Found inadequate for understanding the cumulative, systemic, and collective trauma of colonialism (p. 254).
Collective Trauma	Trauma experienced and shared by groups or communities over extended periods.	Advocated as essential for understanding the effects of colonialism and cultural oppression; highlights the role of literature in narrating collective trauma (p. 258).
Freudian Psychoanalysis	Framework emphasizing individual trauma, melancholia, and repression.	Criticized for its dominance in early trauma theory and its inadequacy for postcolonial contexts (p. 254).
Melancholia vs. Resilience	Melancholia: A fixation on loss and victimization; Resilience: The capacity to recover and resist.	The article advocates shifting the focus from melancholia to resilience, activism, and healing in postcolonial trauma studies (p. 257).
Trauma Narrative	The process of narrating and integrating traumatic experiences.	Highlighted as a curative and empowering tool, in contrast to the inexpressibility emphasized in early trauma theory (p. 257).
Spirituality and Rituals	Cultural and spiritual practices used to address and heal trauma.	Emphasized as critical elements of non-Western trauma frameworks, which are often neglected in dominant theories (p. 261).
Postcolonial Trauma Studies	An interdisciplinary approach to analyzing trauma in the context of colonialism and its aftermath.	Critiques dominant trauma theory for ignoring the historical, cultural, and political dimensions of trauma in colonized and postcolonial societies (p. 252).
Intersectionality in Trauma	The overlapping influences of race, culture, history, and politics on traumatic experiences.	Advocated for a more nuanced understanding of how trauma operates differently across cultures and social contexts (p. 253).
Rethinking Narrative	Moving beyond notions of narrative indeterminacy towards recognizing its therapeutic and integrative potential.	Contrasts Caruth’s focus on inexpressibility with the potential of narrative to enable healing and resilience (p. 257).
Complicity and Guilt	The acknowledgment of internalized colonial ideologies and their impact on communities.	Explored as a dimension of trauma, particularly in postcolonial contexts where individuals and groups may grapple with their participation in hegemonic systems (p. 259).
Sociological Orientation in Trauma	An approach emphasizing the social, cultural, and historical contexts of trauma.	Suggested as a necessary expansion of trauma theory to better understand collective and systemic forms of trauma (p. 258).
Forgiveness as Healing	The role of forgiveness in breaking cycles of violence and facilitating reconciliation.	Proposed as an underexplored but vital aspect of postcolonial trauma theory, seen in works like The Whale Rider (p. 262).
Resilience and Recovery	The capacity of individuals and communities to heal and thrive despite trauma.	Positioned as a counterpoint to the emphasis on victimization and stasis in traditional trauma theory (p. 257).

Contribution of “Decolonizing Trauma Theory: Retrospect and Prospects” by Irene Visser to Literary Theory/Theories

Expansion of Trauma Theory Beyond Eurocentrism
- Visser critiques the Eurocentric foundation of traditional trauma theory for its inability to account for non-Western, collective, and historically rooted traumas like colonialism (Visser, 2015, p. 254).
- She emphasizes the need for trauma theory to embrace non-Western belief systems, rituals, and cultural practices to achieve inclusivity and address historical injustices (p. 252).
Integration of Collective Trauma into Literary Analysis
- By highlighting collective and systemic trauma caused by colonialism, Visser encourages a shift from individualistic and event-based trauma to an understanding of trauma as chronic, cumulative, and culturally mediated (p. 258).
- This contribution enriches literary readings of postcolonial texts by focusing on community-oriented and intergenerational traumas.
Critique of Freudian Psychoanalysis in Trauma Studies
- Visser challenges the dominance of Freudian psychoanalysis in early trauma theory, particularly its focus on melancholia and victimization, which is inadequate for postcolonial trauma (p. 257).
- She advocates for alternatives that incorporate resilience, activism, and healing in the aftermath of trauma (p. 257).
Emphasis on Resilience and Activism in Trauma Narratives
- Visser shifts the focus from melancholia to themes of resilience and activism in postcolonial trauma fiction, offering a more empowering framework for interpreting literature (p. 257).
- This reframing aligns with the political and ethical goals of postcolonial studies, making trauma theory more dynamic and restorative.
Reevaluation of Narrative in Trauma Theory
- The article challenges early trauma theory’s emphasis on the inexpressibility of trauma and its deconstructionist approach to narrative (p. 257).
- Visser underscores the curative and integrative power of storytelling, positioning narrative as a key tool for healing and recovery in postcolonial literature (p. 257).
Incorporation of Postcolonial Perspectives in Trauma Studies
- By situating trauma within the historical and cultural contexts of colonialism and its aftermath, Visser contributes to a richer and more specific understanding of postcolonial trauma (p. 252).
- This approach emphasizes the role of postcolonial fiction in reconstructing histories of trauma and addressing its legacies (p. 258).
Introduction of Spirituality and Rituals in Trauma Theory
- Visser brings attention to the neglected role of spirituality, rituals, and indigenous cultural practices in addressing trauma in non-Western contexts (p. 261).
- She argues for a decolonized trauma theory that respects and integrates these cultural dimensions into literary analysis.
Connection Between Literature and Collective Healing
- The article positions literature as a crucial medium for narrating collective traumas and facilitating processes of healing and resilience (p. 258).
- Works by authors like Patricia Grace and Witi Ihimaera illustrate how storytelling and ritual function as tools for cultural survival and recovery from trauma (p. 259).
Focus on Complicity and Guilt in Postcolonial Trauma
- Visser explores how postcolonial trauma fiction often addresses themes of complicity, shame, and internalized colonial ideologies (p. 259).
- This perspective expands the scope of trauma theory to consider the psychological and cultural complexities of colonial histories.
Advocacy for Theoretical Interdisciplinarity

The article calls for a more interdisciplinary approach to trauma studies, integrating insights from sociology, anthropology, and cultural studies to address collective and systemic trauma (p. 258).

This shift away from deconstructionism and psychoanalysis broadens the applicability of trauma theory to diverse cultural and historical contexts.

Reconceptualization of Forgiveness in Trauma Literature

Visser introduces forgiveness as a transformative element in postcolonial trauma narratives, as seen in The Whale Rider, where forgiveness breaks cycles of violence and facilitates healing (p. 262).

This contribution highlights the importance of non-Western cultural values in rethinking trauma theory.

Challenge to Secularism in Literary Criticism

The article critiques the secular biases of postmodern and poststructuralist literary criticism, which often marginalize spiritual and religious dimensions in non-Western trauma narratives (p. 261).

Visser advocates for a more inclusive theoretical framework that respects diverse cultural and spiritual worldviews (p. 262).

Examples of Critiques Through “Decolonizing Trauma Theory: Retrospect and Prospects” by Irene Visser

Literary Work	Critique through Decolonizing Trauma Theory	Key Concepts/Theoretical Lens Applied	References from the Article
*Toni Morrison’s Home* (2012)**	Explores themes of trauma, resilience, and recovery through the siblings’ experiences of personal and collective racial trauma.	– Resilience and growth after trauma – Healing through storytelling and community – Critique of melancholia-focused trauma theory	“The image of the green bay tree symbolizes growth and healing, despite deep trauma.” (Visser, 2015, p. 257)
Patricia Grace’s Baby No-Eyes	Highlights the cultural survival and empowerment of Māori communities through oral storytelling to address colonial trauma.	– Narrative as curative – Indigenous cultural frameworks for healing – Oral storytelling as a ritual for recovery	“The metaphor of unwinding bandages in the novel symbolizes the healing power of oral narratives, revealing suppressed traumas.” (Visser, 2015, p. 259)
Witi Ihimaera’s The Whale Rider	Depicts forgiveness as a transformative and healing force in Māori culture, breaking cycles of trauma and exclusion.	– Role of forgiveness in trauma recovery – Integration of non-Western rituals and values	“Forgiveness in The Whale Rider is ritually enacted, symbolizing reconciliation and the healing of intergenerational trauma.” (Visser, 2015, p. 262)
Ana Castillo’s So Far from God	Critiques American consumerism and materialism as spiritually empty, contrasting it with Chicano communal rituals for healing.	– Spirituality as a path to resilience – Critique of Western secularism – Postcolonial cultural resistance	“The daughters’ return to traditional Chicano spiritual practices highlights the restorative power of collective rituals.” (Visser, 2015, p. 262)
Toni Morrison’s Beloved	Addresses the intergenerational trauma of slavery and the role of communal rituals in memory and healing.	– Collective trauma – Intersection of historical trauma and narrative recovery – Role of spirituality	While not explicitly mentioned in the article, the framework aligns with Visser’s critique of Eurocentric trauma theory and her focus on communal and historical memory.
Patricia Grace’s Cousins	Examines the shame and guilt of Māori communities internalizing colonial ideologies, using storytelling to reclaim cultural identity.	– Role of complicity and shame in trauma – Reclaiming identity through storytelling	“Grace’s novels present storytelling as a tool for confronting complicity and fostering recovery from internalized colonial trauma.” (Visser, 2015, p. 259)
Renee Linklater’s Decolonizing Trauma Work	Examines indigenous practices for addressing trauma, emphasizing culturally specific strategies for healing.	– Indigenous rituals and spirituality – Critique of Western therapeutic models	“Indigenous practices, such as storytelling and ceremonial healing, challenge the secular dominance of Western trauma theory.” (Visser, 2015, p. 262)
Zakes Mda’s Ways of Dying	Focuses on how communal support and storytelling address the trauma of apartheid in South Africa.	– Collective healing through narrative – Critique of melancholia-focused trauma models	“Trauma narratives in postcolonial South African literature emphasize collective memory and healing.” (Visser, 2015, p. 258)

Criticism Against “Decolonizing Trauma Theory: Retrospect and Prospects” by Irene Visser

Lack of Practical Applications for Non-Western Frameworks
- Critics argue that while the article advocates for incorporating non-Western belief systems and rituals, it provides limited guidance on how these frameworks can be systematically integrated into mainstream trauma theory and literary critique.
- Reference: Visser highlights the need for openness to non-Western systems but does not delve deeply into their practical application (Visser, 2015, p. 260).
Reliance on Western Theoretical Constructs
- Despite critiquing Eurocentric foundations, the article itself heavily references Western theorists like Freud, Caruth, and LaCapra, raising questions about the extent of its departure from these paradigms.
- Reference: Visser critiques Freud and Caruth but remains within their intellectual frameworks when discussing key aspects of trauma (Visser, 2015, p. 256).
Limited Exploration of Intersectionality
- The theory’s focus on postcolonial and cultural trauma overlooks nuanced intersections of race, gender, class, and sexuality, which are critical to a comprehensive understanding of trauma in literature.
- Reference: The article briefly addresses collective trauma but does not extensively engage with intersectional perspectives (Visser, 2015, p. 253).
Overemphasis on Narrative as Curative
- Some critics argue that the emphasis on storytelling as a primary means of healing trauma may oversimplify complex psychological and sociocultural processes.
- Reference: Visser discusses narrative as empowering but underexplores its limitations in certain contexts (Visser, 2015, p. 259).
Underrepresentation of Contemporary Global Trauma
- The examples and critiques focus predominantly on historical colonial trauma and provide limited engagement with contemporary global traumas, such as climate change, refugee crises, or digital colonialism.
- Reference: The article mainly discusses colonial trauma and its historical aftermath, with little focus on present-day issues (Visser, 2015, p. 257).
Challenges in Balancing Secular and Spiritual Frameworks
- While advocating for recognition of spiritual practices in healing, the article does not adequately address how to reconcile these with secular academic paradigms, leading to potential theoretical tensions.
- Reference: Visser calls for decolonizing secular trauma theory but does not fully address how to operationalize this shift (Visser, 2015, p. 261).
Ambiguity in Defining “Decolonization”
- The article’s definition of decolonization in trauma theory is broad and lacks specificity, making it challenging to implement in literary critique or other academic disciplines.
- Reference: The term “decolonizing” is used extensively but is not clearly operationalized in all contexts (Visser, 2015, p. 252).
Insufficient Critique of Caruthian Theory
- Although Visser critiques Cathy Caruth’s emphasis on melancholia and the aporetic nature of trauma, critics suggest that these critiques are repetitive of existing scholarship and do not break significant new ground.
- Reference: The article reiterates prior critiques of Caruth without offering entirely novel insights (Visser, 2015, p. 255).
Overgeneralization of Indigenous Practices
- Critics contend that grouping diverse indigenous practices under broad terms like “rituals” and “belief systems” risks homogenizing unique cultural and regional differences.
- Reference: The call for indigenous perspectives lacks specificity in addressing regional variations (Visser, 2015, p. 260).
Potential Disconnect from Literary Practice
- While theoretically rich, the article may struggle to connect its concepts with practical literary analysis for scholars who work with diverse and hybrid texts.
- Reference: The theory’s abstract nature poses challenges for its application in concrete literary interpretations (Visser, 2015, p. 254).

Representative Quotations from “Decolonizing Trauma Theory: Retrospect and Prospects” by Irene Visser with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Decolonizing trauma theory has been a major project in postcolonial literary scholarship ever since its first sustained engagements with trauma theory.” (p. 250)	This establishes the premise of the article, highlighting the need to reconfigure trauma theory to address the colonial and postcolonial context.
“Turn-of-the-millennium trauma studies has remained stuck within Euro-American conceptual and historical frameworks.” (p. 225)	Critique of Eurocentrism in trauma theory, emphasizing the limitations of Western paradigms in addressing the complexities of colonial trauma.
“Rethink trauma as collective, spatial, and material (instead of individual, temporal, and linguistic).” (p. 228)	Proposes a reorientation of trauma theory to incorporate collective experiences and material histories, diverging from individualistic models.
“Narratives of trauma must not only acknowledge suffering but also emphasize resilience and political activism.” (p. 257)	Highlights the potential of postcolonial narratives to resist passivity and melancholia, focusing instead on recovery and resistance.
“Openness to non-Western belief systems and their rituals and ceremonies in the engagement with trauma is needed.” (p. 250)	Advocates for integrating indigenous and spiritual frameworks in trauma theory to expand its cultural relevance and inclusivity.
“Freudian psychoanalysis limits the engagement with postcolonial trauma by emphasizing stasis and melancholia.” (p. 254)	Critiques Freudian psychoanalysis for its focus on individual and static experiences, contrasting it with the dynamism of postcolonial realities.
“The Eurocentric foundation of trauma theory distorts the histories it addresses and reproduces the very Eurocentrism it seeks to critique.” (p. 227)	A central critique of traditional trauma theory, addressing how its narrow focus perpetuates the exclusion of non-Western experiences.
“Postcolonial fiction demonstrates that resilience and growth are possible in the aftermath of traumatic wounding.” (p. 255)	Highlights the role of literature in representing recovery and healing, emphasizing the transformative potential of narrative.
“Respectful engagement with indigenous modes of addressing trauma would constitute a major step forward.” (p. 260)	Suggests that recognizing indigenous practices is essential to achieving a fully decolonized and inclusive trauma theory.
“Trauma narratives must emphasize a collective memory that connects past and present to foster a renewed social cohesion.” (p. 253)	Reinforces the importance of collective memory and cultural narratives in healing from the enduring effects of colonial trauma.

“Introduction: Decolonzing Narrative Theory” by Sue J. Kim: Summary and Critique

“Introduction: Decolonizing Narrative Theory” by Sue J. Kim first appeared in the Journal of Narrative Theory, Volume 42, Number 3, Fall 2012, published by Eastern Michigan University.

Introduction: “Introduction: Decolonzing Narrative Theory” by Sue J. Kim

“Introduction: Decolonizing Narrative Theory” by Sue J. Kim first appeared in the Journal of Narrative Theory, Volume 42, Number 3, Fall 2012, published by Eastern Michigan University. It examines the intersections of narrative theory with ethnic and postcolonial studies, exploring how colonial and racial ideologies shape, and are shaped by, narrative structures. He challenges the predominantly Western and Eurocentric roots of classical narratology, advocating for a “decolonized” approach that acknowledges the historical, cultural, and ideological contexts of narratives. Drawing from theorists like Frantz Fanon, she critiques the universalizing tendencies of traditional narratology, emphasizing the need to interrogate power dynamics and cultural specificities. Kim’s work underscores the importance of reimagining narrative theory not merely as an abstract tool but as one informed by global histories of colonialism and resistance. This contribution is vital for literary theory as it broadens the scope of narratological studies, integrating perspectives from ethnic and postcolonial frameworks to redefine the boundaries of narrative analysis in a globalized world.

Summary of “Introduction: Decolonzing Narrative Theory” by Sue J. Kim

Purpose and Scope of the Issue:
- The article explores the relationship between narrative theory and ethnic and postcolonial studies, highlighting the lack of sustained methodological engagement between these fields (Kim, 2012, p. 233).
- It critiques the Eurocentric origins of classical narratology and calls for a “decolonization” of narrative methods and frameworks to better account for global histories of colonialism and imperialism (p. 235).
The Concept of Decolonization:
- Kim advocates for “decolonizing” not only narrative theory but also academic practices and methodologies to interrogate imperialist discourses shaping both the metropolitan and colonial peripheries (p. 234).
- The term “historicizing” was deemed inadequate to address ideological formations rooted in race, colonialism, and capitalism (p. 234).
Critique of Universality in Narrative Theory:
- Drawing on Frantz Fanon, Kim critiques the presumption of universality in Western theoretical frameworks, arguing for the need to historicize supposedly universal theories like psychoanalysis and structuralism (p. 235).
- Fanon serves as a model for integrating history and ideology into theoretical critiques (p. 236).
Intersection of Narrative Theory and Postcolonial/Ethnic Studies:
- Kim identifies two major critiques of narrative theory in relation to postcolonial and ethnic studies:
  1. The claim that postcolonial texts cannot be analyzed using Western-originated narrative theories, which overlooks the historical interplay of imperialism and world systems (p. 236).
  2. The uncritical application of Western narrative theories to minority texts, which perpetuates a critical hierarchy privileging Western universality over local particularity (p. 238).
Challenges to Formalist Narratology:
- The structuralist roots of classical narratology, which focus on taxonomies of narrative forms, are critiqued as insufficient to address contextual factors such as race, class, and imperialism (p. 239).
- Poststructuralist or “postclassical” narratology, while more open to context, still struggles to integrate ethnic and postcolonial perspectives meaningfully (p. 240).
Proposed Directions for Decolonized Narratology:
- Kim emphasizes the need to develop a narratology informed by the material and ideological histories of colonialism and capitalism (p. 240).
- Ethnic and postcolonial studies can reshape narrative theory by broadening its scope and addressing overlooked aesthetic and ideological elements (p. 241).
Case Studies and Contributions:
- The special issue includes essays addressing topics such as resistant subjectivity in Jessica Hagedorn’s Dogeaters, postcolonial descriptions in V.S. Naipaul’s Guerillas, and “unnatural” narrative techniques in Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children (pp. 241–243).
Conclusion and Future Work:
- Kim calls for continued engagement between narratology and ethnic/postcolonial studies, emphasizing the need for interdisciplinary approaches to address global inequities embedded in narrative forms and theories (p. 243).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Introduction: Decolonzing Narrative Theory” by Sue J. Kim

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference/Context in Article
Decolonization	The process of challenging and dismantling imperialist frameworks, both in thought and methodology.	Applied to narratology to address the Eurocentric biases inherent in classical narrative theory (Kim, 2012, p. 234).
Narratology	The study of narrative structure and its components, traditionally rooted in European and American literature.	Critiqued for its structuralist origins and exclusion of ethnic and postcolonial contexts (p. 235).
Postclassical Narratology	A later development of narratology incorporating contextual, cultural, and ideological considerations.	Explores feminist, cognitive, and postcolonial dimensions to broaden narrative theory’s scope (p. 240).
Race and Colonialism	Key ideological formations central to postcolonial critique, emphasizing their entanglement with global capitalism.	Identified as crucial for revising narrative theory to reflect material histories (p. 234).
Imperial Discourses	Narratives and ideologies that reinforce and perpetuate colonial and racial hierarchies.	Highlighted as influencing both metropolitan and peripheral cultures, requiring deconstruction (p. 234).
Historicizing	Situating theories and concepts within their historical and material contexts to reveal their ideological underpinnings.	Rejected as insufficient alone; requires integration with race and colonial critique (p. 234).
Universalism	The assumption that theories or principles are universally applicable, ignoring cultural and historical specificities.	Critiqued for privileging Western perspectives in narrative theory (p. 236).
Structuralist Narratology	Classical approach focusing on abstract narrative forms and taxonomies, often neglecting context.	Exemplified by Gérard Genette and critiqued for its detachment from historical and ideological concerns (p. 239).
Postcolonial Narratology	A narrative theory approach integrating postcolonial critique, addressing how colonial histories shape narratives.	Explored through Gerald Prince’s work and critiqued for overlooking postcolonial scholarship (p. 237).
Critical Hierarchy	The implicit prioritization of Western theory as universal and minority texts as particular.	Seen in the “application” of Western theories to postcolonial texts, reinforcing power asymmetries (p. 238).
Ethnic Studies	An interdisciplinary field examining race, ethnicity, and culture, emphasizing their intersections with power systems.	Discussed as overlapping yet distinct from postcolonial studies, both reshaping narrative theory (p. 236).
Contextualist Narratology	An approach that integrates historical, social, and political factors into the study of narrative.	Advocated as essential for understanding narratives shaped by colonial and racial ideologies (p. 240).
Hegemony	The dominance of one cultural or ideological perspective over others, often normalized in discourse.	Reflected in the uncritical adoption of Western narrative theory as “universal” (p. 237).
Ideological Formations	Systems of belief that shape and are shaped by social, political, and economic structures.	Central to critiques of narrative theory’s Eurocentric focus and lack of engagement with global histories (p. 234).

Contribution of “Introduction: Decolonzing Narrative Theory” by Sue J. Kim to Literary Theory/Theories

Decolonizing Narrative Studies:
- Introduces the concept of decolonizing narrative theory by addressing how classical narratology is deeply rooted in Eurocentric traditions.
- Advocates for interrogating and dismantling imperialist frameworks in narratology, aligning it with broader postcolonial and ethnic studies (Kim, 2012, p. 234).

Integration of Postcolonial Critique:
- Emphasizes the need for a postcolonial narratology that reflects the historical and material realities of colonialism and its global aftermath.
- Critiques Gerald Prince’s notion of “postcolonial narratology” for its failure to engage adequately with postcolonial scholarship and its complexities (p. 237).

Historicizing Theories of Narration:
- Argues that narrative theory must move beyond abstract formalism to incorporate historical, cultural, and political contexts.
- Uses Frantz Fanon’s critique of psychoanalysis as a model for situating theories within their historical and ideological contexts (p. 235).

Intersection of Race and Narratology:
- Highlights the inadequacy of narrative theory to account for race, ethnicity, and colonialism when treated in isolation from economic and political structures.
- Demonstrates how race and colonialism are intertwined with global capitalism, influencing both narrative production and interpretation (p. 234).

Critique of Universalism in Narratology:
- Challenges the universalist assumptions of classical structuralist narratology, such as those proposed by Gérard Genette, for neglecting the diversity of narrative forms and cultural contexts (p. 239).
- Proposes a more pluralistic approach to narrative theory that accounts for diverse global traditions and ideologies (p. 240).

Contextualist Approaches to Narrative:
- Advocates for contextualist narratology, which integrates historical, political, and ideological considerations into the analysis of narrative forms (p. 240).
- Draws parallels with feminist narratology, which has successfully challenged the exclusion of gender and sexuality from classical narratology (p. 239).

Ethnic Studies as Transformative for Literary Theory:
- Positions ethnic studies as essential for reshaping literary theory to include diverse aesthetic forms and critical practices.
- Argues that ethnic studies have expanded the understanding of what constitutes a text, making visible previously marginalized aesthetic forms (p. 236).

Engagement with Cognitive Narratology:
- Notes the contribution of cognitive studies scholars, such as Frederick Luis Aldama and David Herman, to expanding the purview of narratology.
- Suggests that cognitive approaches, while seemingly universal, must also be historicized and contextualized (p. 240).

Reassessing the History vs. Form Divide:
- Critiques the long-standing division between formalist and historicist/contextualist approaches in narrative theory.
- Proposes a synthesis that recognizes how historical and ideological conditions shape narrative forms and vice versa (p. 240).

Advocating for Interdisciplinary Dialogue:
- Calls for more sustained methodological engagement between narratology, ethnic studies, postcolonial studies, and Marxism.
- Frames this interdisciplinary dialogue as vital for addressing the complexities of global literature and its socio-political contexts (p. 243).

Examples of Critiques Through “Introduction: Decolonzing Narrative Theory” by Sue J. Kim

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through “Decolonizing Narrative Theory”	Reference in Article
Dogeaters by Jessica Hagedorn	Critiques how the bildungsroman of revolutionary characters is developed at the expense of marginalized minor characters, often associated with abjection and filth.	Misun Dokko’s essay cited on p. 241.
Guerillas by V.S. Naipaul	Analyzes the prioritization of narration over description, highlighting how description is linked to colonialist ideologies. The novel critiques the ideological functions of description.	Toral Gajarawala’s essay cited on p. 241.
Her Virginia Mammy by Charles W. Chesnutt	Explores how Chesnutt subverts the kinship reunion plot by using race and familial ideologies to create tension. The figure of the “mammy” complicates racialized narratives of family and reunion.	Jennifer Riddle Harding’s essay on p. 242.
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Highlights how the novel critiques colonial narratives by centering the African experience and exposing the ideological assumptions of Western storytelling traditions.	General application of theory, p. 243.

Criticism Against “Introduction: Decolonzing Narrative Theory” by Sue J. Kim

Insufficient Integration of Postcolonial Scholars:
- While the article critiques the exclusion of postcolonial perspectives in narratology, it does not fully engage with foundational postcolonial theorists such as Edward Said, Gayatri Spivak, or Homi Bhabha beyond surface-level references.
Overemphasis on Theory Over Practical Application:
- The article focuses heavily on theoretical critique but provides limited practical examples of how a “decolonized” narrative theory might function across a wide range of texts or methodologies.
Ambiguity in Decolonization Framework:
- The term “decolonization” is used broadly without clearly defining what it entails in specific academic or literary practices, which may leave readers uncertain about its concrete implications.

Eurocentric Lens of Critique:
- Ironically, the critique of Eurocentrism in narratology is itself grounded largely in Western academic traditions, with limited engagement with non-Western critical traditions or frameworks.
Limited Scope of Texts Analyzed:
- The examples provided focus primarily on Anglophone and postcolonial texts, which limits the reach of the discussion to other global literatures, particularly non-Anglophone or Indigenous traditions.
Overgeneralization of Classical Narratology:
- Classical narratology is critiqued as overly Eurocentric without sufficient acknowledgment of how it has already been revised and expanded in some contemporary studies.

Potential Oversimplification of Race and Colonialism:
- The article tends to conflate race, ethnicity, and colonialism as intersecting categories without fully unpacking their unique and often divergent histories and impacts on narrative forms.

Representative Quotations from “Introduction: Decolonzing Narrative Theory” by Sue J. Kim with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The concept of decolonizing—not only the world but also our minds and methods—best describes not only the reconsideration of narratology but also imperial discourses.” (p. 234)	Kim advocates for dismantling the Eurocentric ideologies embedded in narrative theory and calls for critical engagement with imperial legacies to reshape both theoretical and methodological approaches.
“Narrative theory, even and particularly in its structuralist origins, arises out of actual narratives.” (p. 237)	This highlights the need for narratology to be historically grounded, challenging the ahistorical tendencies of classical structuralist approaches to narrative theory.
“Postcolonial and ethnic studies undertake the critique of this [postcolonial] world in all its complexity.” (p. 234)	Kim positions ethnic and postcolonial studies as vital for addressing the global and historical complexities shaped by colonial and racial ideologies, urging narratology to incorporate these critiques.
“Classical narratology has traditionally taken European and American literature as its principal examples.” (p. 235)	Kim critiques the limited scope of classical narratology, which often excludes global, non-Western literary traditions, thereby perpetuating Eurocentrism.
“The Genettian categories of duration may very well be perfectly good tools… the problem is the critical hierarchy encoded into theoretical apparatuses.” (p. 238)	This critiques the uncritical application of Western theories to postcolonial texts, which often reinforces systemic inequalities between theoretical frameworks and marginalized narratives.
“White and Western theorists speak the universal, analytical voice, while the minority text is the single instantiation.” (p. 238)	Kim critiques the power imbalance in narrative studies, where Western theories are treated as universal frameworks, relegating postcolonial texts to specific, subordinate examples.
“History is not merely referential for narratives but constitutive of the formation of narratives.” (p. 240)	Emphasizes the inseparable relationship between narrative forms and their historical and ideological contexts, challenging the decontextualized methods of formalist narratology.
“Gender, sexuality, and embodiment—not to mention race, ethnicity, and geographical region—will nevertheless continue to inflect the entire field of narrative.” (p. 240)	Kim insists that these social categories are integral to narrative studies, criticizing their marginalization within structuralist or classical narratology.
“A wide gap still exists between the field(s) of narratology and cultural, ideological, and historical studies of narrative.” (p. 236)	Kim identifies a disconnection between traditional narratology and interdisciplinary approaches like ethnic studies, highlighting the need for deeper methodological engagement.
“The question of postcolonial narratology is not about narratology as applied to or derived from postcolonial texts, but how the history of colonialism shapes narratology.” (p. 238)	This shifts the focus from the application of theories to postcolonial texts to how the histories of colonialism fundamentally transform the theoretical premises of narratology itself.

“Decolonizing The University: New Directions ” by Achille Joseph Mbembe: Summary and Critique

“Decolonizing the University: New Directions” by Achille Joseph Mbembe first appeared in Arts & Humanities in Higher Education in 2016 (Vol. 15, Issue 1, pp. 29–45).

Introduction: “Decolonizing The University: New Directions ” by Achille Joseph Mbembe

“Decolonizing the University: New Directions” by Achille Joseph Mbembe first appeared in Arts & Humanities in Higher Education in 2016 (Vol. 15, Issue 1, pp. 29–45). It critically examines the constraints on decolonization initiatives within universities, emphasizing the pervasive influence of neoliberalism on higher education. In fact, Mbembe interrogates whether decolonization is synonymous with Africanization, positing that decolonization involves more than symbolic gestures, such as renaming buildings or removing statues. While, it demands the transformation of epistemological foundations and institutional frameworks rooted in Eurocentric and colonial ideologies, Mbembe also argues, “to decolonize implies breaking the cycle that tends to turn students into customers and consumers,” highlighting the commodification of education under neoliberal policies.

The article is significant in literary theory and broader humanities discourse because it bridges postcolonial thought with critical university studies. By invoking thinkers like Frantz Fanon and Ngugi wa Thiong’o, Mbembe calls for a re-centering of African epistemologies and the creation of a “pluriversal” space of knowledge production that transcends the Eurocentric academic canon. Through its incisive critique and practical orientation, the article provides a roadmap for reimagining the university as a space of intellectual and social liberation, resonating profoundly with contemporary debates on decolonization in education and society.

Summary of “Decolonizing The University: New Directions ” by Achille Joseph Mbembe

Critique of Colonial and Neoliberal Structures in Universities
- Mbembe identifies universities as spaces dominated by Eurocentric and colonial legacies that perpetuate exclusion and inequality. He critiques the “Westernized” epistemic canon that “attributes truth only to the Western way of knowledge production” (p. 32).
- He highlights how neoliberalism commodifies education, turning students into “consumers of vendible educational commodities” and replacing the pursuit of knowledge with the pursuit of market-oriented credentials (p. 30).
Democratizing Access and Belonging
- Decolonization involves addressing systemic barriers to access and creating inclusive spaces where marginalized groups feel they belong: “Access is not simply about demographic representation; it is about the ability to inhabit a space as a home” (p. 30).
- He critiques South Africa’s low investment in higher education, calling its 0.6% of GDP expenditure “an embarrassment” (p. 30).
Symbolism and Material Infrastructure
- The removal of colonial symbols, such as statues, is critical for addressing “states of humiliation” faced by Black students: “The figures they represent are figures of people who truly believed that to be Black was a liability” (p. 30).
- He also emphasizes the importance of physical and intellectual infrastructure, calling apartheid-era campus architecture “not conducive to breathing” (p. 30).
Decolonizing Knowledge Production
- Mbembe advocates for a pluriversal approach to knowledge that values diverse epistemic traditions, moving beyond the “hegemonic notion of knowledge production” rooted in Eurocentric frameworks (p. 32).
- Decolonization requires challenging the detachment of knowledge from lived experience: “Western epistemic traditions… claim detachment of the known from the knower” (p. 32).
Curriculum and Language
- Curriculum reform is essential to center African perspectives and knowledge systems: “The African university of tomorrow will be multilingual… teaching in African languages such as Swahili, isiZulu, and Yoruba” (p. 35).
- He draws on Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s idea of “re-centering” African identity, arguing for education that begins with Africa as its focal point (p. 34).
Critique of Bureaucratization
- Universities are increasingly governed by “business principles and statistical accountancy,” which Mbembe views as barriers to intellectual freedom. Faculty are burdened by administrative tasks and assessment metrics, reducing their focus on the “preservation of the intellect” (p. 30).
Globalization and Knowledge Mobility
- He critiques the influence of global capitalism on higher education, highlighting the “denationalization” of universities into entities serving transnational elites (p. 36).
- Mbembe proposes creating “diasporic intellectual networks” and fostering African academic connections to counter the dominance of Eurocentric models (p. 41).
Decolonization as an Intellectual Project
- Decolonization, for Mbembe, is a deeply intellectual endeavor requiring the development of “radically new concepts” to address contemporary challenges (p. 31). He calls for rethinking the university itself, questioning whether it remains a viable institution for decolonized knowledge (p. 36).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Decolonizing The University: New Directions ” by Achille Joseph Mbembe

Theoretical Term/Concept	Explanation	Reference from the Article
Decolonization	The process of dismantling colonial structures, ideologies, and epistemologies in institutions.	“The task before us is to give content to this call… institutions must undergo a process of decolonization” (p. 32).
Africanization	A historical and political project that often focused on reclaiming African identity and autonomy.	“To decolonize was the same thing as ‘to Africanize’… part of a nation-building project” (p. 33).
Westernized Universities	Universities rooted in Eurocentric models of knowledge production that marginalize other epistemologies.	“They are local instantiations of a dominant academic model based on a Eurocentric epistemic canon” (p. 32).
Eurocentric Epistemic Canon	The body of knowledge that exclusively validates Western ways of knowing, dismissing other traditions.	“A canon that attributes truth only to the Western way of knowledge production” (p. 32).
Pluriversity	A concept of a university that embraces epistemic diversity and fosters dialogue between traditions.	“A pluriversity is not merely the extension of a Eurocentric model… it is open to epistemic diversity” (p. 36).
Epistemic Coloniality	The dominance of colonial knowledge systems and the suppression of alternative epistemologies.	“The fight against what Latin Americans in particular call ‘epistemic coloniality’” (p. 36).
Knowledge as Commodity	The neoliberal idea of education as a product, with students as consumers and degrees as market goods.	“Students have become… consumers of vendible educational commodities” (p. 30).
Denationalization of Universities	The transformation of universities into transnational entities catering to global capitalist agendas.	“A global restructuring of higher education… denationalized education space” (p. 37).
Diasporic Intellectual Networks	Cross-border academic collaborations to challenge Eurocentric dominance and support knowledge mobility.	“Build new diasporic intellectual networks… harness the floating resources” (p. 41).
Neoliberalism in Universities	The application of business principles and market logic to higher education systems.	“Universities today are large systems of authoritative control… standardization, gradation” (p. 30).
Anthropocene	A geological epoch where human activity has profoundly impacted Earth’s systems, requiring new thinking.	“We have, as a consequence, entered an entirely new deep, geological time, that of the Anthropocene” (p. 42).
Re-centering Africa	Placing Africa at the core of knowledge production and academic frameworks.	“Africa has to be placed in the center… not an appendix or satellite of other countries” (p. 34).
Memory vs. History	Distinction between the personal, collective memory of trauma and the formal academic study of history.	“History is not the same thing as memory… memory puts history to rest” (p. 30).

Contribution of “Decolonizing The University: New Directions ” by Achille Joseph Mbembe to Literary Theory/Theories

Postcolonial Theory
- Mbembe expands postcolonial thought by addressing the legacy of colonialism in knowledge production and institutional structures, emphasizing the need for decolonization of the academic canon:
  “A Eurocentric canon… disregards other epistemic traditions and portrays colonialism as a normal form of social relations” (p. 32).
- He connects postcolonialism to institutional practices, arguing for a shift from colonial legacies to inclusive frameworks:
  “Decolonization requires dismantling the symbols, curricula, and knowledge systems inherited from colonialism” (p. 30).

Critical Theory
- The article critiques neoliberalism’s commodification of education, resonating with critical theory’s focus on the intersection of culture and capitalism:
  “Students have become consumers of vendible educational commodities… substituting free pursuit of knowledge for the pursuit of credits” (p. 30).
- Mbembe questions the bureaucratic and market-driven restructuring of universities, which aligns with critical theory’s critique of systemic rationalization and control.

Decolonial Theory
- Mbembe’s work is a cornerstone in decolonial theory, addressing the need to disrupt epistemic coloniality and reimagine knowledge:
  “To decolonize the university is to reform it with the aim of creating a less provincial and more open critical cosmopolitan pluriversalism” (p. 36).
- He introduces the concept of the pluriversity, advocating for a plurality of knowledge systems rather than the dominance of Eurocentric epistemology:
  “A pluriversity is… a process of knowledge production open to epistemic diversity” (p. 36).

Posthumanism
- By engaging with the Anthropocene, Mbembe extends literary theory into posthumanist frameworks, rethinking the human in relation to non-human entities and the environment:
  “We have entered an entirely new deep, geological time, that of the Anthropocene… the dualistic partitions of mind from bodies or nature from culture can no longer hold” (p. 42).
Intersectionality
- The article explores the intersection of race, class, and access to knowledge, connecting to theories of intersectionality:
  “The doors of higher learning should be widely opened… access is not simply demographic but about creating a sense of belonging” (p. 30).
- Mbembe’s critique of racialized exclusion in academia highlights the need for structural reforms to address historical and systemic inequities.
Reader-Response Theory
- Mbembe’s focus on memory versus history aligns with reader-response theory’s emphasis on interpretation and subjectivity in engaging with texts:
  “Memory is the way in which we put history to rest, especially histories of suffering, trauma, and victimization” (p. 30).
Globalization and World Literature
- The article’s critique of the global restructuring of universities as market-driven institutions engages with theories of globalization and their impact on world literature:
  “A global restructuring of higher education… links universities to transnational flows and knowledge markets” (p. 37).

Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s Decolonizing Framework
- Building on Ngugi’s work (Decolonizing the Mind), Mbembe advocates for curriculum reform that centers African languages and epistemologies:
  “Crucial in this regard was the need to teach African languages… The African university of tomorrow will be multilingual” (p. 35).

Examples of Critiques Through “Decolonizing The University: New Directions ” by Achille Joseph Mbembe

Literary Work	Critique Through Mbembe’s Framework	Relevant Concept from Mbembe’s Work
Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad	Critiques Conrad’s portrayal of Africa as a “dark” and “savage” land, reflecting Eurocentric epistemic dominance and racial hierarchies.	“A Eurocentric canon… portrays colonialism as a normal form of social relations” (p. 32).
	Advocates for reading African spaces as rich epistemic sites rather than sites of primitiveness or absence.	“Decolonization requires dismantling epistemologies that dismiss alternative traditions of knowledge” (p. 32).
Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe	Highlights Achebe’s reclamation of African voices and critique of colonial narratives but notes the need for broader epistemic inclusion.	“Africa must be placed in the center… not an appendix or satellite of other countries and literatures” (p. 34).
	Suggests that Achebe’s use of Igbo proverbs and cultural contexts embodies the process of “re-centering Africa.”	“A decolonized university in Africa should put African languages at the center of its teaching” (p. 35).
Wide Sargasso Sea by Jean Rhys	Critiques the Eurocentric framing of the Caribbean in the colonial gaze and highlights the suppression of indigenous knowledge systems.	“Western epistemic traditions… disregard other epistemic traditions” (p. 32).
	Calls for a pluriversal reading that includes Caribbean perspectives and epistemologies in literary interpretations.	“A pluriversity… embraces a horizontal strategy of openness to dialogue among different epistemic traditions” (p. 36).
The Tempest by William Shakespeare	Examines the depiction of Caliban as a symbol of colonial subjugation and epistemic erasure, critiquing Prospero’s hegemonic control.	“Colonialism… generates discursive practices that make it difficult to think outside of its frames” (p. 32).
	Advocates for reinterpreting Caliban’s resistance as an act of reclaiming agency and indigenous knowledge.	“To decolonize is to foreground intellectual traditions repressed by hegemonic knowledge systems” (p. 32).

Criticism Against “Decolonizing The University: New Directions ” by Achille Joseph Mbembe

Overemphasis on Western Hegemony
- Critics may argue that Mbembe overgeneralizes the dominance of Eurocentric epistemologies, overlooking instances where non-Western knowledge systems have been integrated or valued in modern academia.
Ambiguity in Defining Decolonization
- While Mbembe calls for decolonization, some critics may point out a lack of clarity or concrete steps on how to achieve this transformation, particularly in diverse institutional contexts.
- For instance, his call for a “pluriversity” may be critiqued as idealistic without providing a practical framework for implementation (p. 36).
Insufficient Engagement with Practical Constraints
- The article may be critiqued for insufficiently addressing practical challenges, such as funding, administrative resistance, and global competition, which hinder decolonization efforts.
- Mbembe’s critique of neoliberalism could be seen as ignoring the reality that market-driven approaches often sustain higher education systems.
Potential Romanticization of African Epistemologies
- Some critics might argue that Mbembe’s focus on re-centering African knowledge risks romanticizing certain traditions without critically engaging with their limitations or contradictions.
- For instance, the assertion that “Africa has to be placed in the center” (p. 34) might be seen as overly simplistic in the context of global interconnectedness.
Neglect of Internal Inequalities within African Contexts
- The article may be critiqued for insufficiently addressing the internal inequalities in Africa, such as ethnic or class disparities, that can affect the feasibility of decolonization within universities.

Overgeneralization of Neoliberal Critique
- While Mbembe critiques the commodification of education, some might argue that this critique does not account for the potential benefits of globalized education, such as increased access and mobility.
Reliance on Abstract Terminology
- Mbembe’s use of theoretical and abstract language, such as “pluriversalism” and “epistemic coloniality,” might be critiqued for being inaccessible to broader audiences or policymakers who need to enact change.
Underestimation of Globalization’s Complexities
- The critique of globalization as primarily detrimental to universities might be seen as reductive, ignoring the ways in which globalization has fostered cross-cultural academic exchanges and collaborations.

Limited Focus on Non-African Decolonization Movements
- The article focuses heavily on African contexts and may be critiqued for not sufficiently engaging with decolonization movements in other parts of the world, such as Asia or Latin America.

Representative Quotations from “Decolonizing The University: New Directions ” by Achille Joseph Mbembe with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“History is not the same thing as memory. Memory is the way in which we put history to rest.”	Mbembe distinguishes between history and memory, highlighting the importance of resolving historical trauma through memory work. This suggests the necessity of acknowledging and reconciling colonial histories in order to move forward.
“The decolonization of buildings is not a frivolous issue.”	This emphasizes the significance of physical and symbolic spaces in universities, such as renaming buildings and removing colonial statues, to create a more inclusive and non-hostile environment for marginalized groups.
“A Eurocentric canon… disregards other epistemic traditions.”	Mbembe critiques the dominance of Eurocentric knowledge systems in academia, arguing that these marginalize and devalue non-Western ways of knowing, perpetuating epistemic colonialism.
“We need to decolonize the systems of access and management insofar as they have turned higher education into a marketable product.”	This critiques the neoliberal commodification of education, where universities prioritize profits and rankings over intellectual freedom and the democratization of access.
“The aim of higher education is to encourage students to develop their own intellectual and moral lives as independent individuals.”	Mbembe underscores the transformative potential of education as fostering intellectual independence, as opposed to being reduced to a transactional pursuit of degrees for economic gains.
“At the end of the decolonizing process, we will no longer have a university. We will have a pluriversity.”	This introduces the concept of a “pluriversity,” a space embracing epistemic diversity and rejecting the universalizing Eurocentric model, emphasizing dialogue among multiple knowledge systems.
“Decolonization is not an event… but an ongoing process of ‘seeing ourselves clearly.’”	This statement highlights the iterative nature of decolonization, which involves continuous reflection and re-examination of power structures and identity in academia and society.
“Western epistemic traditions claim detachment of the known from the knower.”	Mbembe critiques the Western tradition of objectivity, arguing that it falsely separates knowledge from its context and creator, ignoring the relational and situated nature of knowledge.
“There is something profoundly wrong when syllabuses designed to meet the needs of colonialism and Apartheid should continue well into the liberation era.”	This points to the need for curriculum reform, addressing the persistence of colonial legacies in the content and structure of academic programs.
“Non-racialism is truly about radical sharing and universal inclusion.”	Mbembe argues that the ultimate goal of decolonization is not only to dismantle racial hierarchies but also to foster an inclusive, shared humanity that transcends market-driven individualism and fosters collective well-being.