Month: February 2025

Introduction: “The Wife’s Lament” (Anglo-Saxon Elegy)

“The Wife’s Lament” (Anglo-Saxon Elegy) first appeared in the Exeter Book around the 10th century, a manuscript published by an unknown scribe. The poem, often attributed to an anonymous author, presents a poignant reflection on grief, betrayal, and isolation through the voice of a woman whose husband has disappeared. The main ideas in the poem revolve around the themes of loss, longing, and emotional desolation as the wife recounts her heartache caused by her husband’s departure. The poem’s popularity can be attributed to its universal exploration of human suffering and its depiction of the powerful emotions associated with abandonment and separation. The text itself exemplifies the intensity of the wife’s loneliness and her internal battle with bitterness and unfulfilled love. As she laments, “I wander the ways all alone, under the oaks, around these graven walls” (35–36), the imagery of solitary wandering reinforces her emotional and physical isolation, making the poem resonate with readers across time as a vivid expression of enduring sorrow and the human condition.

Text: “The Wife’s Lament” (Anglo-Saxon Elegy)

She Laments

Oh, I can relate a tale right here, make myself
a map of miseries & trek right across.
I can say as much as you like —
how many gut-wretched nights ground over me
once I was a full-grown woman,
from early days to later nights,
never ever any more than right now. (1–4)

When is it never a struggle, a torment,
this arc of misfortune, mine alone?
It started when my man up and left,
who knows where, from his tribe
across the sleeplessness of waves.
I conceived a care at the dawning of dawn:
where did that man of a man go? (5–8)

Then I ferried myself forth, trying to dole
my part of the deal, a wretch drained of friends,
out a trembling need inside me. (9–10)

So it begins: his family starts scheming
moling up mountains of secret malice
to delve into our division,
make us survive along the widest wound of us —
could they be any more loathsome? —
and I became a longing inside. (11–14)

My love said to shack up in shadowy groves.
I was light in loved ones anyways in these lands,
in the loyalties of allegiance.
Therefore my brain brims with bitterness,
when I had located my likeness in him,
blessed with hard luck, heart-hollow,
painting over his intentions,
plotting the greatest of heists. (15–20)

Masked content, so many times
we swore that nothing but finality itself
could shave us in two, not them, not nothing.
The pivot was not long in coming,
it’s like, what did I hear a poet say once?
“as if it never was…”
that was our partnership. (21–25a)

Must I flag on flogging through feud,
far & near, of my many-beloved?
He was the one who said I should
go live in the woods or something,
sit under an oak-tree, in a gravel pit.
Let’s make it an earthen hall, musty & old,
where I’m all foreaten with longing:
Dales deep darkly, hills hedge me round,
fortresses of sharpness, bramble biting —
can a home be devoid of joy? (25b–32a)

For too many watches the wrathful from-ways
of my lord grabbed hold of me in this place.
Who could I count on? Buried.
Loved in their lives —
all they care about now are their beds. (32b–34)

Then I, when dawn still rumbles,
I wander the ways all alone,
under the oaks, around these graven walls.
There I can sit an endless summer day,
where I can rain me down for my wracking steps,
my collection of woes. So it goes —
never can I, in no wise, catch a break
from my cracking cares, nor this unfolding tear
that grasps me in this my entire life. (35–41)

The young should always keep their heart in check,
their inner kindlings cool, likewise
they must keep their faces frosty,
also the bubbling in their breast,
though crowded with swarming sorrows. (42–45a)

May all of his joys come at his own hand.
May his name be the name of infamy,
a snarl in faraway mouths, so that my good friend
will be sitting under a stony rain-break,
crusted by the gusty storms,
a man crushed at heart, flowing
in his own water, in his tearful timbering. (45b–50a)

That one, yeah, that man of mine
will drag his days under a mighty mind-caring.
He’ll remember every single morning
how full of pleasure was our home.
What woes are theirs who must
weather their worrying for love. (50b–53)

Annotations: “The Wife’s Lament” (Anglo-Saxon Elegy)

Line(s)	Annotations (Simple English)	Literary Devices
1–4	The speaker says she can tell a story about her suffering, describing how her life has been full of misery from day to night.	Metaphor (“map of miseries”), Hyperbole (“gut-wretched nights”)
5–8	The speaker says that her troubles began when her husband left, and she is left wondering where he went.	Metaphor (“sleeplessness of waves”), Rhetorical Question (“where did that man of a man go?”)
9–10	She tried to deal with her problems but is left feeling drained and abandoned.	Alliteration (“ferried forth”), Metaphor (“a wretch drained of friends”)
11–14	The husband’s family started scheming to create a divide between them. The speaker became consumed by longing and bitterness.	Personification (“mountains of secret malice”), Metaphor (“I became a longing inside”)
15–20	Her love suggested they live in isolation, and the speaker is left with a sense of bitterness and confusion about his actions.	Symbolism (“shadowy groves”), Alliteration (“brain brims with bitterness”), Metaphor (“heart-hollow”)
21–25a	The speaker reflects on their promises to stay together forever, but things eventually fell apart.	Irony (“as if it never was…”), Repetition (“nothing but finality”), Alliteration (“swore that nothing”)
25b–32a	The speaker is told to live in a lonely, harsh place, and she reflects on how home can lack joy.	Imagery (“Dales deep darkly, hills hedge me round”), Metaphor (“fortresses of sharpness”)
32b–34	The speaker feels abandoned, with no one to rely on, and her husband’s wrath has affected her deeply.	Personification (“wrathful from-ways grabbed hold”), Hyperbole (“loved in their lives — all they care about now are their beds”)
35–41	She describes wandering alone, burdened by sorrow, and never finding relief from her troubles.	Alliteration (“wandering ways”), Metaphor (“cracking cares”), Repetition (“never can I, in no wise”)
42–45a	The speaker advises the young to control their emotions, even when troubled by sorrow.	Advice (imperative tone), Metaphor (“inner kindlings cool”)
45b–50a	The speaker curses her husband, wishing him a life of misery and regret, where he will remember their lost joy.	Irony (“name of infamy”), Symbolism (“stony rain-break”), Imagery (“gusty storms, a man crushed at heart”)
50b–53	She ends with a reflection on how her husband will eventually remember their home fondly, even as he suffers.	Irony (“weather their worrying for love”), Imagery (“crushed at heart”)

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Wife’s Lament” (Anglo-Saxon Elegy)

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from Text	Explanation
Alliteration	“ferried forth” (9)	The repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words in close proximity.
Allusion	“as if it never was…” (21-25a)	A reference to something outside the text, suggesting a final end or irreversible loss.
Anaphora	“never can I, in no wise” (35-41)	The repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive clauses for emphasis.
Antithesis	“what woes are theirs who must weather their worrying for love” (50b-53)	The juxtaposition of contrasting ideas, like suffering and love, to highlight the complexity of the speaker’s feelings.
Apostrophe	“Oh, I can relate a tale right here” (1)	The speaker directly addresses an abstract concept or absent figure, as though it could respond.
Assonance	“a man crushed at heart” (50b)	The repetition of vowel sounds within close proximity to create rhythm or enhance meaning.
Consonance	“wracking steps” (35)	The repetition of consonant sounds, especially at the end of words, to create a pleasing effect or emphasize a point.
Enjambment	“For too many watches the wrathful from-ways / of my lord grabbed hold of me in this place.” (32b–34)	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line, couplet, or stanza.
Hyperbole	“gut-wretched nights” (1–4)	Exaggeration for emphasis or effect, such as describing the nights as “gut-wretched,” which exaggerates the sense of suffering.
Imagery	“Dales deep darkly, hills hedge me round” (25b–32a)	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses, creating a vivid mental picture.
Irony	“as if it never was…” (21–25a)	The expression of a sentiment that is opposite to what one would expect, like the idea that the speaker’s partnership is now forgotten, despite once being deeply significant.
Metaphor	“I can make myself a map of miseries” (1–4)	A comparison between two unlike things without using “like” or “as,” suggesting the speaker’s life is like a journey through suffering.
Onomatopoeia	“rain-break” (45b–50a)	A word that imitates a natural sound, enhancing the sensory experience of the text.
Oxymoron	“shadowy groves” (15–20)	The combination of two contradictory terms, like “shadowy” and “groves,” creating a mysterious or paradoxical effect.
Personification	“wrathful from-ways grabbed hold of me” (32b–34)	Giving human characteristics to non-human things, such as “wrathful” forces acting like a person who “grabs hold” of the speaker.
Rhetorical Question	“where did that man of a man go?” (5–8)	A question asked for effect rather than an answer, emphasizing the speaker’s confusion or distress.
Repetition	“never can I, in no wise” (35–41)	Repeating words or phrases to emphasize an idea or emotion, such as the speaker’s ongoing suffering.
Simile	“as if it never was…” (21–25a)	A comparison using “like” or “as,” comparing the former relationship to something that is no longer significant or real.
Symbolism	“oaks” (35–41)	The oak tree can symbolize strength and permanence, contrasting with the wife’s fragile and changing situation.
Tone	Bitter and sorrowful throughout the poem.	The general attitude of the speaker toward her situation, expressed through the choice of words and imagery.
Understatement	“I can relate a tale right here” (1)	A form of expression in which the speaker downplays the severity of the situation, suggesting a personal tragedy without immediately revealing its depth.

Themes: “The Wife’s Lament” (Anglo-Saxon Elegy)

• Grief and Loss: The central theme of “The Wife’s Lament” is grief, particularly the profound sorrow experienced by the wife due to the absence of her husband. She expresses her mourning throughout the poem, emphasizing the depth of her pain and emotional turmoil. The speaker describes how her life has been marked by “gut-wretched nights” (1–4), a metaphor that conveys the intense physical and emotional anguish she endures. Her grief is compounded by the mystery of her husband’s departure, which she refers to as a deep and lasting wound: “Where did that man of a man go?” (5–8). The pain of not knowing where he has gone or why he left intensifies her suffering, and she is left to cope with this uncertainty in solitude. The idea of grief extends beyond the immediate absence of her husband and is reflected in the speaker’s isolation and emotional desolation, as she laments, “I wander the ways all alone” (35–36). This continuous journey of sorrow underscores the theme of unending grief.
• Isolation and Loneliness: The theme of isolation runs throughout the poem, highlighting the speaker’s sense of being alone both emotionally and physically. She begins by recounting her life’s misery and how she has been abandoned by her husband, which leads to her deep loneliness: “I can relate a tale right here, make myself / a map of miseries & trek right across” (1–4). This vivid image of navigating through a map of misery symbolizes the emotional journey the speaker is forced to endure in solitude. Her isolation becomes more apparent when she refers to her physical separation from loved ones, mentioning that she has become “a wretch drained of friends” (9–10), emphasizing the lack of support and companionship in her life. The metaphor of wandering “the ways all alone” (35–36) underlines her loneliness, as she reflects on her estrangement from her family and society. The emotional void left by her husband’s departure amplifies the physical loneliness she feels in her day-to-day existence.
• Betrayal and Deception: The theme of betrayal is explored through the actions of the husband and his family. The speaker’s sense of abandonment is compounded by the sense that his family was actively involved in causing the rupture between them. The wife perceives their actions as malicious, saying, “his family starts scheming / moling up mountains of secret malice” (11–12). This creates an image of hidden, devious actions that have contributed to her suffering. She feels betrayed not only by her husband’s departure but also by the betrayal of trust within the family unit, which makes her feel even more alienated. Furthermore, the wife reflects on how her husband’s promises and their past love now seem hollow: “We swore that nothing but finality itself / could shave us in two” (21–25a). The ironic twist here is that despite their vows, the relationship has been severed by both his disappearance and the betrayal she perceives from his family. This breach of trust is a powerful element of her grief and contributes to the bitterness that permeates the poem.
• Hope and Revenge: Despite the overwhelming sorrow, there is a subtle undercurrent of revenge and the desire for justice in the poem. The wife’s bitterness toward her husband reaches a point where she imagines his future suffering as a form of cosmic justice. She wishes that he will experience a life filled with regret and misfortune: “May his name be the name of infamy, / a snarl in faraway mouths” (45b–50a). This curse suggests that the wife harbors a desire for retribution, wishing that her husband’s life will be marked by as much pain and sorrow as hers has been. Her desire for revenge is not just emotional but also symbolic, representing the urge to restore balance or fairness after experiencing betrayal and suffering. In the final lines, she expresses the hope that her husband will remember their former joy together, but this reflection is tinged with irony as she wishes him to endure the same kind of emotional agony she has experienced: “He’ll remember every single morning / how full of pleasure was our home” (50b–53). This theme of vengeance intertwines with the poem’s exploration of grief, suggesting that while sorrow dominates the speaker’s life, a desire for justice lingers beneath the surface.

Literary Theories and “The Wife’s Lament” (Anglo-Saxon Elegy)

Literary Theory	Explanation	References from the Poem
Feminist Criticism	Feminist criticism explores gender roles, identity, and the treatment of women in literature. In “The Wife’s Lament,” the speaker’s suffering and isolation reflect the societal and marital roles imposed on women. The poem highlights her emotional turmoil as she is abandoned and betrayed by her husband.	“I became a longing inside” (11–14), “I wander the ways all alone” (35–36). These lines highlight the emotional and physical isolation experienced by the wife, emphasizing her powerless position in a patriarchal society.
Historical Criticism	Historical criticism examines the social, political, and historical context of a work. The poem provides insight into the societal norms and gender expectations of Anglo-Saxon England, particularly regarding marriage and the treatment of women. The wife’s suffering reflects the emotional and social consequences of marital abandonment in this historical period.	“When is it never a struggle, a torment, / this arc of misfortune, mine alone?” (5–8), “His family starts scheming” (11–12). These references highlight the wife’s social and familial challenges, illustrating her historical role as a marginalized figure in her community.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Psychoanalytic criticism delves into the unconscious motivations and psychological depth of characters. The wife’s emotions in the poem reflect deep psychological trauma due to abandonment and betrayal. Her self-inflicted isolation and bitterness suggest a fractured emotional state.	“heart-hollow” (15–20), “I conceived a care at the dawning of dawn” (5–8). These lines suggest an emotional emptiness and unresolved internal conflict, reflecting the wife’s psyche as she grapples with feelings of loss and abandonment.
Marxist Criticism	Marxist criticism focuses on class struggles, power dynamics, and material conditions. In “The Wife’s Lament,” the wife’s alienation can be seen as a result of familial and social power structures. Her lower status in the family and society exacerbates her emotional suffering.	“I was a full-grown woman” (1–4), “his family starts scheming” (11–12). These references reflect how the wife’s social position and lack of power in her marital relationship contribute to her sense of betrayal and isolation.

Critical Questions about “The Wife’s Lament” (Anglo-Saxon Elegy)

• What role does the setting play in reflecting the speaker’s emotional state?
• The setting in “The Wife’s Lament” plays a crucial role in mirroring the speaker’s emotional desolation and isolation. The poem’s natural landscape—described as dark, remote, and hostile—symbolizes the speaker’s inner turmoil and grief. Phrases such as “Dales deep darkly, hills hedge me round” (25b–32a) evoke an image of a harsh, unwelcoming environment, underscoring the speaker’s sense of being trapped in her emotional suffering. The setting of “under the oaks, around these graven walls” (35–36) further emphasizes the speaker’s loneliness and emotional imprisonment. The use of nature as a reflection of the speaker’s feelings highlights her separation not just from her husband, but from the world and society, portraying her emotional landscape as barren and unforgiving. The natural world is not a source of comfort or solace but an extension of her grief, amplifying her feelings of abandonment and isolation.
• How does the speaker’s sense of betrayal affect her understanding of love and loyalty?
• The speaker’s sense of betrayal deeply influences her perception of love and loyalty, turning these concepts into sources of bitterness and disillusionment. Initially, love between the speaker and her husband seemed to be grounded in mutual loyalty, as reflected in their promises: “We swore that nothing but finality itself / could shave us in two” (21–25a). However, the betrayal she experiences when her husband abandons her—and the scheming of his family that follows—shatters her idealistic understanding of love. The concept of loyalty, which once seemed unwavering, is exposed as fragile and easily broken by external forces. The speaker expresses this disillusionment when she reflects on how their partnership has collapsed, stating that it feels “as if it never was…” (21–25a), indicating that their vows now seem meaningless in light of her abandonment. This transformation of love from something sacred to a source of pain highlights the depth of her betrayal and the emotional cost of broken promises.
• What is the significance of the speaker’s desire for revenge, and what does it reveal about her emotional state?
• The speaker’s desire for revenge is a critical aspect of her emotional response to the suffering she endures. Although the poem predominantly conveys sorrow and longing, her expression of vengeance reveals the intensity of her emotional distress. She wishes for her husband to experience as much misery as she has, hoping that his name will become one of “infamy” and that he will “sit under a stony rain-break” (45b–50a). This desire for retribution suggests that the speaker is not only grieving her abandonment but is also grappling with feelings of anger and injustice. Her revenge is not merely a wish for punishment but a means of restoring balance to her world, where she has been wronged. This emotional complexity shows that, while grief dominates her experience, anger and a desire for justice are also integral to her emotional state. The speaker’s curse reveals how deeply she feels the betrayal and how this betrayal distorts her perception of love and retribution.
• How does the poem explore the theme of loneliness and its impact on the speaker?
• Loneliness is a pervasive theme in “The Wife’s Lament,” with the speaker repeatedly emphasizing her isolation and emotional emptiness. The poem begins with the speaker’s assertion that she has endured “gut-wretched nights” (1–4), immediately framing her experience as one of prolonged suffering and solitude. She explicitly states, “I wander the ways all alone” (35–36), reinforcing her sense of being abandoned, both physically and emotionally. The poem explores how this loneliness affects her on a profound level, leaving her “heart-hollow” (15–20) and full of longing for a companionship that is no longer present. The wife’s solitude is compounded by her physical separation from others, with no allies to turn to, as seen in her lament, “Who could I count on? Buried” (32b–34). The impact of loneliness is not just emotional; it is physical and existential, as the speaker reflects on the absence of any comfort or support in her life. This isolation shapes her worldview, turning her into a figure whose only solace is in her own grief and bitterness. Through the speaker’s intense loneliness, the poem underscores how isolation can erode one’s sense of self and lead to a desolate emotional state.

Literary Works Similar to “The Wife’s Lament” (Anglo-Saxon Elegy)

1. “The Seafarer” (Anonymous)
   Like “The Wife’s Lament,” this poem explores themes of isolation, longing, and the emotional impact of separation, especially in the context of exile and loneliness.
2. “The Wanderer” (Anonymous)
   Similar to “The Wife’s Lament,” this poem delves into the sorrow and solitude experienced by a lone individual, reflecting on past joys and the deep pain of losing those connections.
3. “The Husband’s Message” (Anonymous)
   Both poems focus on the experience of emotional separation, with “The Husband’s Message” portraying the speaker’s longing and a sense of distance between lovers, akin to the wife’s sorrow in “The Wife’s Lament.”
4. “Fair Elanor” by William Blake
   Much like “The Wife’s Lament,” Blake’s poem portrays the pain of emotional separation and the inner suffering of the speaker, emphasizing feelings of abandonment and longing.
5. “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe
   While different in style, “The Raven” shares a thematic similarity with “The Wife’s Lament” in its portrayal of grief, loneliness, and the haunting nature of emotional loss.

Representative Quotations of “The Wife’s Lament” (Anglo-Saxon Elegy)

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“I can relate a tale right here” (1–4)	The speaker begins by expressing her emotional pain, offering to tell her story of suffering.	Psychoanalytic Criticism: This reflects the speaker’s need to externalize her pain, an act of self-therapy through narration.
“gut-wretched nights” (1–4)	Describes the intense suffering and emotional distress the speaker experiences during the long nights of her loneliness.	Feminist Criticism: Highlights the emotional and physical toll of isolation, especially on women in a patriarchal society.
“Where did that man of a man go?” (5–8)	The speaker questions her husband’s departure, reflecting her confusion and pain over his abandonment.	Historical Criticism: The historical context of marital roles and abandonment in early Anglo-Saxon society informs the wife’s pain.
“I became a longing inside” (11–14)	The speaker reflects on how her emotional state has transformed into longing, marking the depth of her grief.	Feminist Criticism: The internalization of longing signifies a lack of agency and power, as the speaker is consumed by her unrequited desire.
“His family starts scheming” (11–12)	The wife accuses her husband’s family of conspiring against her and their relationship, intensifying her sense of betrayal.	Marxist Criticism: This reflects power struggles within the family, where the wife is oppressed and manipulated by those with power.
“We swore that nothing but finality itself / could shave us in two” (21–25a)	The speaker recalls the promises made between her and her husband, which now seem empty and meaningless after his betrayal.	New Historicism: The ideals of loyalty and commitment were integral in the social fabric of the time, but they are shown to be fragile.
“I wander the ways all alone” (35–36)	The speaker describes her physical and emotional isolation as she roams the landscape, deepening her sense of abandonment.	Ecocriticism: The natural world mirrors the speaker’s emotional landscape, emphasizing the harshness and loneliness of her situation.
“heart-hollow” (15–20)	A metaphor expressing the emotional void the speaker feels due to the loss of her husband and the emotional weight of her situation.	Psychoanalytic Criticism: The phrase “heart-hollow” represents a psychological wound, an emptiness caused by emotional trauma.
“May his name be the name of infamy” (45b–50a)	The speaker curses her husband, wishing that his life be marked by infamy, reflecting a desire for revenge and justice.	Feminist Criticism: The expression of vengeance represents the reclaiming of power by the speaker in response to patriarchal betrayal.
“I was a full-grown woman” (1–4)	The speaker reflects on her past as a woman of strength, before being reduced to a victim of circumstances and betrayal.	Structuralist Feminism: This highlights the transition from agency to passivity, with the wife moving from strength to a powerless state due to societal constraints.

Suggested Readings: “The Wife’s Lament” (Anglo-Saxon Elegy)

1. Bray, Dorothy Ann. “A Woman’s Loss and Lamentation: Heledd’s Song and” The Wife’s Lament”.” Neophilologus 79.1 (1995): 147.
2. Ward, J. A. “‘The Wife’s Lament’: An Interpretation.” The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, vol. 59, no. 1, 1960, pp. 26–33. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27707403. Accessed 24 Feb. 2025.
3. Rissanen, Matti. “THE THEME OF ‘EXILE’ IN ‘THE WIFE’S LAMENT.'” Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, vol. 70, no. 1, 1969, pp. 90–104. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43342501. Accessed 24 Feb. 2025.
4. Stevick, Robert D. “Formal Aspects of ‘The Wife’s Lament.'” The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, vol. 59, no. 1, 1960, pp. 21–25. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27707402. Accessed 24 Feb. 2025.
5. Stevens, Martin. “THE NARRATOR OF ‘THE WIFE’S LAMENT.'” Neuphilologische Mitteilungen, vol. 69, no. 1, 1968, pp. 72–90. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43342401. Accessed 24 Feb. 2025.

Introduction: “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

“The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad) first appeared in print in the late 18th to early 19th century, most notably included in Francis James Child’s The English and Scottish Popular Ballads (1882–1898). The ballad tells the haunting story of a grieving mother who, upon hearing of the death of her three sons, wishes them back from the dead. Her wish is granted, but they return not as living men but as spirits, bound by the laws of the afterlife. The poem is deeply rooted in themes of grief, the supernatural, and the unbreakable bonds between a mother and her children. The spectral return of the sons, wearing hats made of birch that “grew at the gates o’ Paradise,” signifies their otherworldly nature, emphasizing the eerie and tragic beauty of the tale. The ballad’s popularity endures due to its evocative language, supernatural elements, and emotional depth, encapsulated in lines such as: “The cock doth craw, the day doth daw, / The channerin’ worm doth chide; / Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place, / A sair pain we maun bide.” These lines reflect the sorrowful inevitability of fate—the dead cannot remain among the living, no matter the depth of a mother’s love.

Text: “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

There lived a wife at Usher’s Well,
And a wealthy wife was she;
She had three stout and stalwart sons,
And sent them oer the sea.

They hadna been a week from her,
A week but barely ane,
Whan word came to the carline wife
That her three sons were gane.

They hadna been a week from her,
A week but barely three,
Whan word came to the carlin wife
That her sons she’d never see.

‘I wish the wind may never cease,
Nor fashes in the flood,
Till my three sons come hame to me,
In earthly flesh and blood.’

It fell about the Martinmas,
When nights are lang and mirk.
The carline wife’s three sons came hame,
And their hats were o’ the birk.

It neither grew in syke nor ditch,
Nor yet in ony sheugh;
But at the gates o’ Paradise,
That birk grew fair eneugh.

‘Blow up the fire, my maidens,
Bring water from the well;
For a’ my house shall feast this night,
Since my three sons are well.’

And she has made to them a bed,
She’s made it large and wide;
And she’s ta’en her mantle her about,
Sat down at the bed-side.

Up then crew the red, red cock,
And up and crew the gray
The eldest to the youngest said,
‘Tis time we were away.’

The cock he hadna craw’d but once,
And clapp’d his wings at a’,
When the youngest to the eldest said,
‘Brother, we must awa’.

‘The cock doth craw, the day doth daw,
The channerin’ worm doth chide;
Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place,
A sair pain we maun bide.’

‘Lie still, lie still but a little wee while,
Lie still but if we may;
Gin my mother should miss us when she wakes,
She’ll go mad ere it be day.’

‘Fare ye weel, my mother dear!
Fareweel to barn and byre!
And fare ye weel, the bonny lass
That kindles my mother’s fire!’

Annotations: “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

Original Line	Simple English Meaning	Literary, Poetic, & Rhetorical Devices
There lived a wife at Usher’s Well,	There was a woman who lived at Usher’s Well.	Setting (Usher’s Well, a place of mystery)
And a wealthy wife was she;	She was a wealthy woman.	Repetition (wealthy wife emphasizes her status)
She had three stout and stalwart sons,	She had three strong and brave sons.	Alliteration (“stout and stalwart”)
And sent them o’er the sea.	She sent them across the sea.	Symbolism (sea represents the unknown or fate)
They hadna been a week from her,	They had been gone for only a week.	Anaphora (repetition of “They hadna been…”)
A week but barely ane,	Just one week had passed.	Dialect (ane = one, adds regional tone)
Whan word came to the carline wife	Then the old woman heard the news.	Foreshadowing (bad news approaching)
That her three sons were gane.	That her three sons were dead.	Euphemism (“gane” = gone/dead)
They hadna been a week from her,	They had been gone only a week.	Parallelism (repeated phrase builds rhythm)
A week but barely three,	Just barely three weeks had passed.	Suspense (increases tension)
Whan word came to the carlin wife	Then she got the terrible news.	Repetition (emphasizing the grief)
That her sons she’d never see.	That she would never see her sons again.	Irony (later, she sees them as ghosts)
‘I wish the wind may never cease,	She wished that the wind would never stop.	Hyperbole (dramatic intensity)
Nor fashes in the flood,	Or that the floods would never stop flowing.	Symbolism (floods represent overwhelming grief)
Till my three sons come hame to me,	Until her three sons come home.	Supernatural (wishing them back from the dead)
In earthly flesh and blood.’	Alive in their human bodies.	Irony (they do return, but as spirits)
It fell about the Martinmas,	It happened around Martinmas (late autumn).	Foreshadowing (Martinmas is linked to spirits and the afterlife)
When nights are lang and mirk.	When the nights are long and dark.	Imagery (dark, eerie setting)
The carline wife’s three sons came hame,	Her three sons returned home.	Supernatural (ghostly return)
And their hats were o’ the birk.	Their hats were made of birch branches.	Symbolism (birch represents a connection to the afterlife)
It neither grew in syke nor ditch,	The birch did not grow in a ditch or trench.	Contrast (earthly vs. heavenly origins)
Nor yet in ony sheugh;	Nor in any stream.	Personification (the birch “grows beautifully”)
But at the gates o’ Paradise,	But at the gates of Heaven.	Alliteration (“gates o’ Paradise”)
That birk grew fair eneugh.	That birch grew beautifully there.	Symbolism (ties to the supernatural world)
‘Blow up the fire, my maidens,	She told her servants to make a fire.	Imperative (commanding tone)
Bring water from the well;	And to bring water from the well.	Imagery (ritual-like domestic setting)
For a’ my house shall feast this night,	Because she wanted a feast that night.	Irony (celebrating with dead sons)
Since my three sons are well.’	Since her three sons had returned.	Dramatic irony (we know they are not truly alive)
And she has made to them a bed,	She made a large bed for them.	Parallelism (ritualistic preparation)
She’s made it large and wide;	A very big and comfortable bed.	Imagery (sense of comfort and belonging)
And she’s ta’en her mantle her about,	She wrapped herself in a mantle.	Symbolism (protectiveness, warmth)
Sat down at the bed-side.	And sat beside them.	Foreshadowing (she will lose them again)
Up then crew the red, red cock,	Then the red rooster crowed.	Repetition (“red, red cock” emphasizes the moment)
And up and crew the gray	And the gray rooster also crowed.	Symbolism (rooster signifies departure)
The eldest to the youngest said,	The oldest son told the youngest,	Dialogue (gives the dead a voice)
‘Tis time we were away.’	‘It’s time for us to leave.’	Supernatural (spirits must leave at dawn)
The cock he hadna craw’d but once,	The rooster had only crowed once,	Foreshadowing (sign that time is running out)
And clapp’d his wings at a’,	And flapped his wings,	Alliteration (“cock clapped”)
When the youngest to the eldest said,	When the youngest told the oldest,	Contrast (young vs. old, past vs. present)
‘Brother, we must awa’.	‘Brother, we must go.’	Symbolism (return to the afterlife)
‘The cock doth craw, the day doth daw,	‘The rooster crows, and the day is dawning,	Metaphor (dawn represents the transition between life and death)
The channerin’ worm doth chide;	And the spirits of the dead are calling us.	Personification (“worm chiding”)
Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place,	If we are missing from our place,	Foreshadowing (spirits must not linger)
A sair pain we maun bide.’	We will suffer great punishment.’	Supernatural (rules of the afterlife)
‘Lie still, lie still but a little wee while,	‘Stay a little while longer,	Repetition (plea for delay)
Lie still but if we may;	If only for a short time.	Dramatic irony (they cannot stay)
Gin my mother should miss us when she wakes,	If our mother wakes and sees us gone,	Contrast (dream vs. reality)
She’ll go mad ere it be day.’	She will lose her mind.	Foreshadowing (mother’s heartbreak)
‘Fare ye weel, my mother dear!	‘Goodbye, dear mother!	Farewell motif (common in ballads)
Fareweel to barn and byre!	Goodbye to our farm and fields!	Imagery (home and past life)
And fare ye weel, the bonny lass	Goodbye to the beautiful girl,	Contrast (love left behind)
That kindles my mother’s fire!’	Who lights my mother’s fire!’	Symbolism (life going on without them)

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

Literary/Poetic Device	Example from the Ballad	Explanation
Alliteration	“stout and stalwart sons”	Repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words to create rhythm and musicality.
Anaphora	“They hadna been a week from her, / A week but barely ane”	The repetition of the same phrase at the beginning of multiple lines for emphasis.
Contrast	“It neither grew in syke nor ditch, / Nor yet in ony sheugh”	A contrast between earthly and heavenly elements, or life and death.
Dramatic Irony	The mother believes her sons are alive, but the audience knows they are spirits.	When the audience knows something the characters do not, increasing tension.
Euphemism	“That her three sons were gane” (gane = dead)	A mild or indirect word is used to soften a harsh reality.
Farewell Motif	“Fare ye weel, my mother dear!”	A recurring farewell theme, emphasizing parting and loss.
Foreshadowing	“Up then crew the red, red cock”	Hints about future events, as the rooster signals the spirits must leave.
Hyperbole	“I wish the wind may never cease, / Nor fashes in the flood”	Extreme exaggeration to emphasize deep grief and longing.
Imagery	“When nights are lang and mirk”	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses, creating a dark, eerie atmosphere.
Imperative	“Blow up the fire, my maidens, / Bring water from the well”	A direct command given by a character.
Irony	She wishes her sons to return, but they do so as ghosts.	A contrast between expectation and reality.
Metaphor	“The cock doth craw, the day doth daw”	A comparison without “like” or “as”; daybreak symbolizes the transition between life and death.
Parallelism	“They hadna been a week from her, / A week but barely ane”	Repeating similar sentence structures for rhythm and emphasis.
Personification	“The channerin’ worm doth chide”	Giving human qualities to non-human things (the worm is “chiding”).
Repetition	“Lie still, lie still but a little wee while”	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis.
Rhyme	Internal rhymes throughout the ballad.	A consistent pattern of sounds enhances the musicality of the poem.
Setting	The mysterious Usher’s Well and its surroundings.	The environment and location influence the story’s mood and supernatural elements.
Supernatural Elements	The sons returning as spirits, unable to stay in the living world.	Ghosts and supernatural occurrences play a major role in the plot.
Symbolism	“That birk grew fair eneugh” (birch represents the afterlife)	Objects or elements represent deeper meanings.
Tone	Mournful, tragic, and eerie tone reflecting grief and loss.	The overall mood conveyed by the poem.

Themes: “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

1. Grief and Mourning: The central theme of “The Wife of Usher’s Well” is the overwhelming grief of a mother who has lost her three sons. Her sorrow is so deep that she refuses to accept their deaths, wishing them back in “earthly flesh and blood.” Her inability to move on reflects the deep emotional suffering of a parent mourning a child. The poem highlights how grief can be all-consuming, as seen in the mother’s desperate plea:

“I wish the wind may never cease,
Nor fashes in the flood,
Till my three sons come hame to me,
In earthly flesh and blood.”

This illustrates that her sorrow is so immense that she wishes nature itself to remain unsettled until her sons return. However, her wish is granted in a way she did not expect, reinforcing the idea that grief distorts reality and can even invite supernatural consequences.

2. The Supernatural and the Afterlife: The poem is steeped in supernatural elements, with the mother’s sons returning from the dead. Their ghostly nature is subtly revealed when they arrive wearing birch hats, described as:

“It neither grew in syke nor ditch,
Nor yet in ony sheugh;
But at the gates o’ Paradise,
That birk grew fair eneugh.”

This suggests that the birch came from the afterlife, symbolizing their connection to the other world. The eerie and sorrowful tone is further enhanced by the idea that they can only stay for a short time. Their departure is inevitable, following the natural law of the afterlife:

“The cock doth craw, the day doth daw,
The channerin’ worm doth chide;
Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place,
A sair pain we maun bide.”

The rooster crowing signifies the transition between night and day, symbolizing the boundary between life and death. This theme reflects traditional folklore beliefs in spirits and the inability of the dead to remain among the living.

3. Fate and the Inevitability of Death: Death in “The Wife of Usher’s Well” is portrayed as final and inescapable, no matter how much the mother wishes to reverse it. The poem suggests that the natural order cannot be changed, and any attempt to do so comes with consequences. The sons themselves understand this better than their mother, as they acknowledge that they cannot stay and must return to the afterlife:

“Brother, we must awa’.”

Their reluctance to remain emphasizes the idea that death is an unchangeable fate, and interfering with it only brings pain. The fact that they return not as living men but as spirits reinforces the tragic reality that death is permanent, and no human wish can truly undo it. The poem serves as a reflection on mortality, showing how those who remain behind struggle to accept the loss of loved ones.

4. Love and Loss: At its heart, the poem explores the deep love between a mother and her children, as well as the sorrow that follows their loss. The mother’s love is evident in her desperate desire to have her sons return, but it is also her love that makes it painful when they must leave again. In their farewell, the sons express their love and longing for what they left behind:

“Fare ye weel, my mother dear!
Fareweel to barn and byre!
And fare ye weel, the bonny lass
That kindles my mother’s fire!”

This farewell is poignant because it acknowledges not only the love of their mother but also the other bonds they had in life, such as home and romantic love. However, love does not override the laws of life and death, and their departure is inevitable. The poem ultimately conveys the message that while love is powerful, it does not grant immortality. The pain of loss is a part of love, and those left behind must find a way to live with it.

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Literary Theories and “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

Literary Theory	Application to “The Wife of Usher’s Well”	Reference from the Poem
Feminist Criticism	The ballad portrays a woman who is both powerful (wealthy and head of her household) yet powerless in the face of fate. Her grief over her sons reveals the deep emotional dependency placed on male heirs in a patriarchal society.	“There lived a wife at Usher’s Well, / And a wealthy wife was she; / She had three stout and stalwart sons, / And sent them o’er the sea.”
Psychoanalytic Criticism	The mother’s inability to accept her sons’ deaths reflects denial and repression. Her wish to bring them back can be seen as an unconscious refusal to process grief, leading to a supernatural hallucination or symbolic dream.	“I wish the wind may never cease, / Nor fashes in the flood, / Till my three sons come hame to me, / In earthly flesh and blood.”
Marxist Criticism	The poem subtly reflects class tensions; the woman is wealthy but still powerless against fate. The idea that no wealth can bring back the dead suggests an inherent critique of materialism and social hierarchies.	“The carline wife’s three sons came hame, / And their hats were o’ the birk.” (Despite her wealth, she cannot prevent their fate.)
Structuralist Criticism	The structure of the ballad relies on binary oppositions: life vs. death, mother vs. sons, reality vs. supernatural. The repetition and parallelism reinforce the idea of fate and cyclical storytelling in folk traditions.	“The cock doth craw, the day doth daw, / The channerin’ worm doth chide; / Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place, / A sair pain we maun bide.” (Clear structural contrast between night and day, life and death.)

Critical Questions about “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

1. How does the ballad depict the theme of grief, and what does it suggest about the mother’s response to loss?

The ballad portrays grief as an all-consuming force that disrupts the natural order. The mother’s response to loss is one of deep denial—rather than accepting her sons’ deaths, she invokes supernatural forces in her desperate wish to bring them back:

“I wish the wind may never cease, / Nor fashes in the flood, / Till my three sons come hame to me, / In earthly flesh and blood.”

This wish reflects her inability to cope with reality, highlighting the psychological weight of grief. Her longing is so intense that it seemingly bends the laws of nature, allowing her sons to return, though not in the way she had hoped. However, the ballad ultimately suggests that grief cannot defy fate; the dead cannot remain with the living. The sons acknowledge this as they prepare to leave again, emphasizing that death is irreversible, and clinging to the past only prolongs suffering. The ballad thus presents grief as a force that can drive people to extremes, yet ultimately, the living must let go.

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2. What role do supernatural elements play in the ballad, and how do they contribute to its meaning?

The supernatural is central to “The Wife of Usher’s Well,” creating an eerie and tragic atmosphere. The mother’s grief is so powerful that it seems to summon her dead sons back, yet their return is unnatural—they are not truly alive. Their spectral nature is subtly revealed in the imagery of their hats:

“It neither grew in syke nor ditch, / Nor yet in ony sheugh; / But at the gates o’ Paradise, / That birk grew fair eneugh.”

The reference to the birch growing at the gates of Paradise confirms that the sons have not returned as living men, but as spirits. The supernatural serves as both a fulfillment of the mother’s wish and a cruel irony—the sons return, but not as she intended. Furthermore, the ballad adheres to folklore traditions where the dead cannot stay among the living. The rooster crowing at dawn signals their inevitable departure:

“The cock doth craw, the day doth daw, / The channerin’ worm doth chide; / Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place, / A sair pain we maun bide.”

The supernatural elements reinforce the poem’s message about fate and the natural cycle of life and death. No amount of longing or supernatural intervention can alter the ultimate order of the world.

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3. What is the significance of the farewell scene, and how does it reflect the ballad’s broader themes?

The farewell scene is deeply poignant, as the sons must leave their mother once again, reinforcing the theme of loss and the inevitability of death. Their departure is neither sudden nor violent but follows an inescapable rule of the afterlife. The sons themselves express sorrow, recognizing that they cannot stay and that their absence will cause their mother more grief:

“Lie still, lie still but a little wee while, / Lie still but if we may; / Gin my mother should miss us when she wakes, / She’ll go mad ere it be day.”

This moment underscores the tragedy of the ballad—not only is the mother suffering, but the sons, too, understand the pain their departure will bring. Their farewell also acknowledges the different aspects of their lost lives, including the love and warmth they once knew:

“Fare ye weel, my mother dear! / Fareweel to barn and byre! / And fare ye weel, the bonny lass / That kindles my mother’s fire!”

The mention of home and romantic love highlights how much they have lost in death. This scene encapsulates the broader themes of love, grief, and the passage of time. Though the mother summoned them back, they cannot remain, reinforcing the idea that while love endures, it cannot overcome the laws of life and death.

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4. How does the ballad use nature and imagery to enhance its themes?

Nature plays a symbolic role throughout the ballad, mirroring the mother’s grief and reinforcing the supernatural elements. The mother’s wish that the wind never cease and the floods continue reflects her desire to suspend time and prevent her loss from becoming permanent:

“I wish the wind may never cease, / Nor fashes in the flood.”

This imagery suggests that she wants the world itself to remain in turmoil until her sons return. However, the natural cycle inevitably resumes—just as the rooster’s crow marks the coming of dawn, signaling that the sons must leave. The birch tree imagery further connects nature with the supernatural:

“It neither grew in syke nor ditch, / Nor yet in ony sheugh; / But at the gates o’ Paradise.”

The fact that the birch did not grow in any earthly place but at the gates of Heaven reinforces the idea that the sons belong to the afterlife. Nature, in this ballad, becomes a reflection of human emotions and cosmic order—while grief can momentarily disrupt it, the natural balance always returns, reminding the living that they must move forward.

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Literary Works Similar to “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

1. “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad) – This poem, like “The Wife of Usher’s Well,” explores a grieving loved one’s longing for the return of the dead, with supernatural elements as the ghost warns the living that excessive mourning disturbs the peace of the dead.
2. “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Scottish Ballad) – Similar to “The Wife of Usher’s Well,” this ballad features dramatic storytelling and tragic themes, depicting a son’s confession to his mother and the devastating consequences, emphasizing fate and sorrow within a family.
3. “Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe – Like “The Wife of Usher’s Well,” this poem explores undying grief and the supernatural, as the speaker mourns his lost love and believes their souls remain connected beyond death.
4. “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge – This poem resembles “The Wife of Usher’s Well” in its use of supernatural forces and themes of guilt and fate, both showing that disturbing the natural order leads to inevitable consequences.
5. “La Belle Dame sans Merci” by John Keats – Like “The Wife of Usher’s Well,” this poem blurs the line between life and death, using haunting imagery and supernatural elements to explore love, loss, and fate.

Representative Quotations of “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

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Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“There lived a wife at Usher’s Well, / And a wealthy wife was she; / She had three stout and stalwart sons, / And sent them o’er the sea.”	Introduces the mother as wealthy and powerful, yet vulnerable to fate, as she sends her sons away, unknowingly sealing their tragic fate.	Feminist Criticism – Highlights the mother’s role as both powerful and powerless within a patriarchal system, relying on male heirs for stability.
“They hadna been a week from her, / A week but barely ane, / Whan word came to the carline wife / That her three sons were gane.”	The first instance of loss and grief, as the mother learns of her sons’ deaths, setting up the theme of mourning and sorrow.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – The mother’s grief manifests as a supernatural wish fulfillment, showing a refusal to process reality and loss.
“I wish the wind may never cease, / Nor fashes in the flood, / Till my three sons come hame to me, / In earthly flesh and blood.”	The mother’s desperate wish to bring back her sons, showing her inability to accept their deaths and her willingness to disrupt the natural order.	Structuralist Criticism – The repetition and parallel structure reinforce the cyclical nature of fate and the theme of unnatural disturbance.
“It fell about the Martinmas, / When nights are lang and mirk. / The carline wife’s three sons came hame, / And their hats were o’ the birk.”	The sons return as ghosts, with Martinmas marking the seasonal shift towards winter, reinforcing the supernatural and folkloric elements.	Folkloric Analysis – The supernatural return aligns with traditional ghost lore, where spirits visit the living before departing permanently.
“It neither grew in syke nor ditch, / Nor yet in ony sheugh; / But at the gates o’ Paradise, / That birk grew fair eneugh.”	The birch symbolism confirms their otherworldly nature, as their hats come from Paradise, showing that they are not truly alive.	Symbolism – The birch tree represents the transition between life and death, reinforcing the supernatural and religious themes.
“Blow up the fire, my maidens, / Bring water from the well; / For a’ my house shall feast this night, / Since my three sons are well.”	The mother believes her sons are physically alive and celebrates their return, demonstrating her denial and the tragic irony of the situation.	Irony and Tragedy – Dramatic irony as the audience knows the sons are ghosts, while the mother believes them to be alive.
“Up then crew the red, red cock, / And up and crew the gray / The eldest to the youngest said, / ‘Tis time we were away.”	The rooster’s crow signals the inevitable return of the sons to the afterlife, emphasizing the theme of fate and the passage of time.	Fate and the Supernatural – The rooster, a common folklore symbol, signals the boundary between night and day, life and death.
“The cock doth craw, the day doth daw, / The channerin’ worm doth chide; / Gin we be miss’d out o’ our place, / A sair pain we maun bide.”	The sons acknowledge the laws of the supernatural, stating that if they remain, they will suffer, reinforcing the inevitability of death.	Metaphysical Themes – The boundary between worlds is strict, suggesting an unchangeable cosmic order that must be obeyed.
“Lie still, lie still but a little wee while, / Lie still but if we may; / Gin my mother should miss us when she wakes, / She’ll go mad ere it be day.”	The youngest son expresses concern for their mother’s fragile state, showing that grief affects not only the living but also the spirits of the dead.	Psychological Perspective – The youngest son fears his mother’s psychological breakdown, emphasizing the lasting impact of grief.
“Fare ye weel, my mother dear! / Fareweel to barn and byre! / And fare ye weel, the bonny lass / That kindles my mother’s fire!”	The final farewell encapsulates themes of love, loss, and separation, as the sons bid goodbye to their mother, home, and past lives.	Existentialist Perspective – The final goodbye highlights human mortality and the necessity of moving forward despite inevitable loss.

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Suggested Readings: “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad)

1. Bowen, Edwin W. “The Old English Ballad.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 9, no. 3, 1901, pp. 286–95. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27530422. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
2. BRONSON, BERTRAND HARRIS. “The Wife of Usher’s Well.” The Traditional Tunes of the Child Ballads, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, 1962, pp. 246–66. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183pr9s.28. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
3. Bailey, J. O. “What Happens in ‘The Fall of the House of Usher’?” American Literature, vol. 35, no. 4, 1964, pp. 445–66. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2923583. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.

Introduction: “The Twa Sisters” (also known as “The Cruel Sister”)

“The Twa Sisters” (also known as “The Cruel Sister”) first appeared in The Bishopric Garland in 1792 and has been passed down through generations as part of the oral tradition of folk ballads. This haunting tale of sibling rivalry and betrayal is centered around a tragic story where an elder sister pushes her younger sister into a mill-dam, resulting in her drowning. The miller then makes a violin from the drowned sister’s body, using her bones, fingers, and other body parts to create different parts of the instrument, which ultimately plays a melody that reveals the dark truth of her death. The poem’s appeal lies in its dramatic narrative, vivid imagery, and eerie atmosphere. The eerie transformation of the sister’s remains into an instrument of music carries a disturbing yet compelling allure. Its popularity as a textbook folk ballad arises from its tragic yet simple structure, and its ability to captivate with both its moral undercurrent and its blend of mythic and musical elements, as shown in the verse: “What did he doe with her brest-bone? / He made him a violl to play thereupon.” This chilling story, with its supernatural overtones, continues to resonate with audiences as an example of folk artistry intertwined with dark themes.

Text: “The Twa Sisters” (also known as “The Cruel Sister”)

1 THERE were two sisters, they went playing,
With a hie downe done a downe-a
To see their father’s ships come sayling in.
With a hy downe downe a downe-a

2 And when they came unto the sea-brym,
The elder did push the younger in.

3 ‘O sister, O sister, take me by the gowne,
And drawe me up upon the dry ground.’

4 ‘O sister, O sister, that may not bee,
Till salt and oatmeale grow both of a tree.’

5 Somtymes she sanke, somtymes she swam,
Until she came unto the mill-dam.

6 The miller runne hastily downe the cliffe,
And up lie betook her withouten her life.

7 What did he doe with her brest-bone?
He made him a violl to play thereupon.

8 What did lie doe with her fingers so small?
He made him peggs to his violl withall.

9 What did he doe with her nose-ridge?
Unto his violl he made him a bridge.

10 What did he doe with her veynes so blew?
He made him strings to his violl thereto.

11 What did he doe with her eyes so bright?
Upon his violl he played at first sight.

12 What did he doe with her tongue so rough?
Unto the violl it spake enough.

13 What did lie doe with her two shinnes?
Unto the violl they danc’d Moll Syms.

14 Then bespake the treble string,
‘O yonder is my father the king.’

15 Then bespake the second string,
‘O yonder sitts my mother the queen.’

16 And then bespake the strings all three,
‘O yonder is my sister that drowned mee.’

17 ‘Now pay the miller for his payne,
And let him bee gone in the divel’s name.’

Annotations: “The Twa Sisters” (also known as “The Cruel Sister”)

Line	Text	Simple English Explanation	Literary Device
1	THERE were two sisters, they went playing,	Two sisters were playing together.	Connotations (“two sisters”)
2	With a hie downe done a downe-a	This is part of the chorus, a rhythmic refrain.	Repetition (chorus)
3	To see their father’s ships come sayling in.	They went to watch their father’s ships coming in.	Imagery (visual image of ships)
4	With a hy downe downe a downe-a	Another part of the chorus, creating a rhythmic pattern.	Repetition (chorus)
5	And when they came unto the sea-brym,	They arrived at the edge of the sea.	Imagery (the sea’s edge)
6	The elder did push the younger in.	The older sister pushed the younger one into the sea.	Action/Conflict (betrayal)
7	‘O sister, O sister, take me by the gowne,	The younger sister begs her older sister for help.	Dialogue (begging for help)
8	And drawe me up upon the dry ground.’	She asks to be pulled out onto dry land.	Imagery (dry ground)
9	‘O sister, O sister, that may not bee,	The elder sister responds that it cannot happen.	Denial/Rejection
10	Till salt and oatmeale grow both of a tree.’	She says it’s impossible, just like salt and oatmeal growing on trees.	Hyperbole (impossibility)
11	Somtymes she sanke, somtymes she swam,	The younger sister sinks and swims in the water.	Imagery (movement in water)
12	Until she came unto the mill-dam.	She eventually reaches the mill-dam.	Imagery (location of the mill-dam)
13	The miller runne hastily downe the cliffe,	The miller runs quickly down the hill.	Action (miller’s urgency)
14	And up lie betook her withouten her life.	He picks her up, but she is already dead.	Irony (miller unable to save her)
15	What did he doe with her brest-bone?	The miller wonders what to do with her bones.	Question (beginning of the disturbing transformation)
16	He made him a violl to play thereupon.	He makes a violin from her breastbone.	Metaphor (transforming a body part into an instrument)
17	What did he doe with her fingers so small?	He questions what to do with her fingers.	Question (continues disturbing transformation)
18	He made him peggs to his violl withall.	He makes pegs for the violin from her fingers.	Imagery (gruesome transformation)
19	What did he doe with her nose-ridge?	He wonders what to do with her nose.	Question (continuation of transformation)
20	Unto his violl he made him a bridge.	He makes a bridge for the violin from her nose.	Symbolism (nose as bridge)
21	What did he doe with her veynes so blew?	He questions what to do with her veins.	Question (body parts used for violin)
22	He made him strings to his violl thereto.	He makes strings for the violin from her veins.	Symbolism (strings as veins)
23	What did he doe with her eyes so bright?	He wonders what to do with her bright eyes.	Question (body parts used for violin)
24	Upon his violl he played at first sight.	He plays the violin using her eyes.	Imagery (playing the violin with eyes)
25	What did he doe with her tongue so rough?	He wonders what to do with her tongue.	Question (disturbing transformation)
26	Unto the violl it spake enough.	Her tongue speaks through the violin.	Personification (giving voice to the violin)
27	What did lie doe with her two shinnes?	He questions what to do with her shins.	Question (disturbing transformation)
28	Unto the violl they danc’d Moll Syms.	He uses her shins to make the violin dance.	Allusion (Moll Syms, a popular tune)
29	Then bespake the treble string,	The treble string of the violin speaks.	Personification (violin string speaking)
30	‘O yonder is my father the king.’	The treble string mentions the father, the king.	Symbolism (father figure as king)
31	Then bespake the second string,	The second string speaks.	Personification (violin string speaking)
32	‘O yonder sitts my mother the queen.’	The second string mentions the mother, the queen.	Symbolism (mother figure as queen)
33	And then bespake the strings all three,	All three strings speak together.	Personification (all strings speak)
34	‘O yonder is my sister that drowned mee.’	The strings reveal the drowned sister.	Irony (the violin speaks the truth)
35	‘Now pay the miller for his payne,	The strings suggest paying the miller.	Dialogue (violin speaking)
36	And let him bee gone in the divel’s name.’	They suggest sending the miller away.	Symbolism (miller’s payment in devil’s name)

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Twa Sisters” (also known as “The Cruel Sister”)

Device	Example	Explanation	Reference from Poem
Allusion	“Unto the violl they danc’d Moll Syms.”	A reference to the folk tune “Moll Syms,” implying dance or music.	Line 28
Antithesis	“O sister, O sister, that may not bee”	The contrast between the plea and the refusal creates tension and highlights the betrayal.	Line 9
Characterization	“The elder did push the younger in”	The actions of the elder sister characterize her as cruel and malicious.	Line 6
Dialogue	“O sister, O sister, take me by the gowne”	The direct speech between the two sisters adds drama and emotional appeal to the poem.	Lines 3-4
Diction	“She made him a violl to play thereupon”	The use of old-fashioned language (“violl” instead of “violin”) gives the poem an archaic, folk-like tone.	Line 7
Hyperbole	“Till salt and oatmeale grow both of a tree.”	Exaggeration of the impossibility of the situation emphasizes the cruelty of the elder sister.	Line 9
Imagery	“Somtymes she sanke, somtymes she swam”	Visual and physical imagery of the younger sister struggling in the water helps paint a vivid picture.	Line 11
Irony	“What did he doe with her brest-bone? / He made him a violl to play thereupon.”	The miller transforms the dead sister’s body into a musical instrument, creating ironic beauty from death.	Lines 7-8
Metaphor	“He made him a violl to play thereupon”	The breastbone is metaphorically transformed into a violin, symbolizing both death and art.	Line 7
Onomatopoeia	“With a hie downe done a downe-a”	The repeated “downe-a” mimics the sound and rhythm of the song.	Line 2
Personification	“The miller runne hastily downe the cliffe”	The miller’s haste is humanized, suggesting urgency in his actions.	Line 13
Repetition	“With a hy downe downe a downe-a”	The repeated refrain reinforces the song’s rhythm and the sorrowful tone of the poem.	Line 4
Rhyme	“And drawe me up upon the dry ground” / “O sister, O sister, that may not bee”	The rhyme in the poem creates a melodic, song-like structure.	Lines 3-4
Simile	“Till salt and oatmeale grow both of a tree”	A simile is used to emphasize the absurdity of the elder sister’s refusal to help.	Line 9
Symbolism	“He made him strings to his violl thereto”	The strings of the violin symbolize the life force of the drowned sister, now transformed into music.	Line 22
Tone	“What did he doe with her two shinnes?”	The tone is dark and grim as the poem describes the transformation of a human body into a violin.	Line 27
Tragic Irony	“O yonder is my sister that drowned mee”	The violin strings speak the truth of the elder sister’s crime, creating tragic irony.	Line 34
Visual Imagery	“What did he doe with her nose-ridge? / Unto his violl he made him a bridge.”	The vivid imagery of the nose being made into a bridge paints a disturbing picture of the body’s transformation.	Lines 19-20
Voice	“Unto the violl it spake enough”	The violin speaks, representing a supernatural voice that reveals the truth.	Line 26

Themes: “The Twa Sisters” (also known as “The Cruel Sister”)

• Betrayal and Sibling Rivalry: The central theme of betrayal in “The Twa Sisters” is expressed through the actions of the elder sister, who cruelly pushes the younger sister into the sea. This act of jealousy or malice results in the younger sister’s drowning and symbolizes the destructive consequences of sibling rivalry. The elder sister’s refusal to help her drowning sibling is highlighted when the younger one pleads, “O sister, O sister, take me by the gowne, / And drawe me up upon the dry ground” (Lines 3-4), yet the elder sister coldly replies, “O sister, O sister, that may not bee, / Till salt and oatmeale grow both of a tree” (Lines 9-10), reinforcing her heartless indifference. The elder sister’s actions show the theme of betrayal within a family, as she allows her sibling to perish in the water, setting the stage for the poem’s tragic unfolding.
• Death and Transformation: The theme of death and the eerie transformation of the deceased body is a significant element of the poem. After the younger sister’s tragic death, her body is repurposed by the miller, who turns her remains into a violin, each body part contributing to an instrument of music. The miller “made him a violl to play thereupon” from her breastbone (Line 7), and uses her “fingers so small” to make “peggs to his violl” (Line 8), continuing the disturbing process of turning a lifeless body into something both beautiful and grotesque. The theme of transformation is emphasized as the body of the dead sister, through the miller’s crafting, becomes a vessel for music. This transformation turns death into a macabre form of artistic expression, showcasing a chilling juxtaposition of life and death through the creation of the violin.
• Revenge and Justice: The theme of revenge is prevalent in the poem, particularly in the way the truth of the elder sister’s actions is revealed after her death. The violin, crafted from the younger sister’s remains, becomes an instrument of justice, speaking the truth of the elder sister’s crime. The strings of the violin speak, with one saying, “O yonder is my sister that drowned mee” (Line 34), highlighting the younger sister’s spirit seeking revenge from beyond the grave. The instrument is no longer just an object of music; it becomes a voice for the wronged, accusing the elder sister of her deadly betrayal. The appearance of justice in this form, through the revelation of the truth, transforms the poem into a narrative about the inevitability of retribution. The supernatural element of the violin speaking provides a sense of cosmic justice, where the wrongdoer is exposed, even if the system of earthly justice fails.
• Nature and the Supernatural: The poem intertwines elements of nature and the supernatural, using them to underscore the dark events that unfold. The sea, a powerful natural force, is the setting for the initial act of betrayal, where the elder sister pushes the younger into the water. The description of the younger sister’s struggles in the water, “Somtymes she sanke, somtymes she swam” (Line 11), evokes the power of nature as both a physical and metaphorical force. Furthermore, the supernatural aspect of the poem comes into play when the violin itself becomes an instrument of revelation. The violin’s ability to speak and reveal the truth of the drowning connects the natural world (through the violin’s construction from human remains) to the supernatural (the voice of the deceased speaking through the violin). This fusion of nature and the supernatural highlights the mysterious and dark forces at play, guiding the poem’s eerie atmosphere and enhancing its themes of death, justice, and retribution.

Literary Theories and “The Twa Sisters” (also known as “The Cruel Sister”)

Literary Theory	Explanation	References from the Poem
Feminist Theory	This theory explores the roles of women and the dynamics of power, gender, and oppression. In “The Twa Sisters,” the elder sister’s betrayal of the younger sister highlights a relationship filled with jealousy, rivalry, and dominance. The poem can be interpreted as a commentary on the complex and often destructive nature of female relationships, where societal and familial expectations of women may contribute to violent conflict.	The elder sister’s act of pushing the younger sister into the sea is an act of power and control: “And when they came unto the sea-brym, / The elder did push the younger in” (Lines 5-6). The older sister’s cruelty in the face of her sibling’s pleas for help also reveals a deep-seated gendered power imbalance.
Psychoanalytic Theory	Psychoanalytic theory can be applied to examine the unconscious desires, fears, and emotional conflicts that are embodied in the poem. The elder sister’s violent action can be seen as a manifestation of repressed jealousy or a desire to rid herself of competition. The creation of the violin from the sister’s remains symbolizes the reworking of trauma and death into a form of expression or repression.	The elder sister’s actions can be seen as an unconscious manifestation of envy or a desire for self-preservation: “O sister, O sister, take me by the gowne, / And drawe me up upon the dry ground” (Lines 3-4), which represents the younger sister’s plea for life that is rejected out of spite or unconscious desire to eliminate a perceived threat.
Marxist Theory	A Marxist interpretation would focus on the themes of social class and power dynamics. The poem presents the miller as an important figure who manipulates the deceased body for his own gain, creating an instrument of music from the sister’s remains. The miller’s actions can be interpreted as a metaphor for the commodification of the working class or those without power, turning human life into something exploitable for profit.	The miller transforms the dead sister’s body into a violin, suggesting the exploitation of labor or lives for personal gain: “What did he doe with her brest-bone? / He made him a violl to play thereupon” (Lines 7-8). This transformation can be seen as a critique of commodification and exploitation.
New Historicism	New Historicism focuses on understanding texts in the context of the historical and cultural environment in which they were created. “The Twa Sisters” reflects medieval or early modern beliefs in the supernatural and the moral consequences of actions. The poem explores themes of justice, guilt, and the afterlife, reflecting the cultural anxieties of its time regarding retribution and the fate of the soul.	The use of supernatural elements, such as the speaking violin that reveals the truth of the elder sister’s crime, aligns with historical beliefs in divine or supernatural justice: “O yonder is my sister that drowned mee” (Line 34). The supernatural voice of the violin can be interpreted as a reflection of the cultural importance placed on retribution and moral accountability during the time the poem was written.

Critical Questions about “The Twa Sisters” (also known as “The Cruel Sister”)

• What does the miller’s transformation of the younger sister’s body into a violin symbolize in “The Twa Sisters”?
• The miller’s transformation of the younger sister’s body into a violin is a powerful symbol that conveys themes of exploitation and the commodification of human life. In “The Twa Sisters,” the miller takes the remains of the drowned sister and uses her body to create an instrument of music. This disturbing transformation can be interpreted as a commentary on how death and suffering are often repurposed for the benefit of others. The act of crafting a violin from her bones, fingers, and veins reflects a process of turning human remains into something aesthetically valuable, yet grotesque. For example, the miller “made him a violl to play thereupon” from her breastbone (Line 7) and “made him peggs to his violl withall” from her fingers (Line 8). This conversion of the body into an instrument is a stark commentary on the exploitation of the dead for artistic or economic gain, suggesting that in both life and death, people are often valued only for what they can provide for others, rather than for their inherent worth.
• What role does the supernatural play in “The Twa Sisters”?
• The supernatural plays a significant role in “The Twa Sisters,” particularly through the speaking violin. The violin, crafted from the deceased sister’s remains, becomes a vessel for revealing the truth of her death and the elder sister’s betrayal. The strings of the violin, which represent parts of the drowned sister’s body, seem to possess a supernatural ability to speak and convey the wrong that has been done. One of the strings says, “O yonder is my sister that drowned mee” (Line 34), giving voice to the silent, voiceless victim. This supernatural element suggests that justice is inevitable, even if it cannot be achieved through earthly means. The poem implies that the wrongs committed in life, especially within the family, will be revealed and accounted for, whether through the physical world or through supernatural means. The voice of the violin, speaking the truth of the younger sister’s death, serves as a powerful reminder that even in death, the victim’s voice can be heard and justice can prevail.
• How does “The Twa Sisters” portray the theme of sibling rivalry?
• Sibling rivalry is a central theme in “The Twa Sisters,” with the elder sister’s jealousy and cruelty leading to the younger sister’s tragic death. The poem begins with the two sisters playing together, yet it quickly becomes clear that a destructive rivalry exists between them. The elder sister’s jealousy is made manifest when she pushes her younger sibling into the sea, despite the younger one’s pleas for help. The younger sister cries out, “O sister, O sister, take me by the gowne, / And drawe me up upon the dry ground” (Lines 3-4), but the elder sister cruelly rejects her, saying it cannot be done until “salt and oatmeale grow both of a tree” (Lines 9-10). This refusal not only highlights the elder sister’s malice but also her desire to rid herself of what she perceives as competition. The rivalry culminates in an irreversible act of violence, emphasizing the destructive potential of jealousy and competition between siblings. The poem portrays sibling rivalry as a force that can, in extreme cases, lead to betrayal, death, and irreversible loss.
• What does the final revelation in “The Twa Sisters” suggest about the inevitability of justice?
• The final revelation in “The Twa Sisters,” when the violin speaks the truth of the younger sister’s death, suggests that justice, though delayed, is inevitable. The violin strings, which are made from the sister’s veins, fingers, and other body parts, act as the instrument through which the truth is revealed. One of the strings says, “O yonder is my sister that drowned mee” (Line 34), and the rest of the strings join in to confirm the crime. This supernatural unveiling of the elder sister’s guilt suggests that, even if justice is not immediately achieved in life, the truth will eventually come to light. The poem uses the speaking violin as a metaphor for the inescapability of retribution—no wrong can go unpunished, and even in death, the victim’s voice can force the wrongdoer to be held accountable. The final lines, “Now pay the miller for his payne, / And let him bee gone in the divel’s name” (Lines 35-36), further indicate that the miller, who played a role in the transformation of the sister’s body, is also implicated in the wrongdoing. The poem suggests that justice is not only an earthly concern but something that transcends the physical realm, offering a cosmic resolution to the tragedy.

Literary Works Similar to “The Twa Sisters” (also known as “The Cruel Sister”)

1. “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
   Similarity: Both poems feature supernatural elements, including the presence of guilt and retribution, as well as the theme of nature’s power over human actions.
2. “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional Ballad)
   Similarity: Like “The Twa Sisters,” this ballad revolves around family tragedy and the eerie involvement of supernatural forces, with spirits returning to reveal the truth.
3. “La Belle Dame sans Merci” by John Keats
   Similarity: Both poems deal with themes of betrayal and death, where the consequences of unrequited love or jealousy result in the destruction of a victim.
4. “The Ballad of Sir Patrick Spens” (Traditional Ballad)
   Similarity: Similar to “The Twa Sisters,” this ballad portrays a tragic fate brought on by human actions, exploring themes of death, betrayal, and the destructive consequences of fate.
5. “Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)
   Similarity: Like “The Twa Sisters,” this poem involves supernatural elements and explores the theme of sacrifice and the mysterious powers of nature, often linked to love and betrayal.

Representative Quotations of “The Twa Sisters” (also known as “The Cruel Sister”)

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“And when they came unto the sea-brym, / The elder did push the younger in.” (Lines 5-6)	The elder sister pushes the younger into the sea, marking the beginning of the tragic betrayal.	Feminist Theory: This highlights sibling rivalry and the destructive consequences of jealousy between women.
“O sister, O sister, take me by the gowne, / And drawe me up upon the dry ground.” (Lines 3-4)	The younger sister pleads for help as she struggles in the water, demonstrating her vulnerability.	Psychoanalytic Theory: The younger sister’s desperation may represent unconscious desires for survival or protection.
“O sister, O sister, that may not bee, / Till salt and oatmeale grow both of a tree.” (Lines 9-10)	The elder sister rejects her sibling’s plea for help, using a hyperbolic and cruel excuse.	Marxist Theory: This reflects the theme of power dynamics and exploitation, where the elder sister asserts dominance.
“What did he doe with her brest-bone? / He made him a violl to play thereupon.” (Lines 7-8)	The miller transforms the younger sister’s body into a violin, symbolizing the exploitation of human life.	New Historicism: The transformation of the body into a musical instrument reflects historical practices of using human labor.
“Somtymes she sanke, somtymes she swam, / Until she came unto the mill-dam.” (Line 11)	The younger sister struggles in the water, symbolizing the battle between life and death.	Imagery: Vivid depiction of nature’s power and the inner conflict of the drowning sister.
“Now pay the miller for his payne, / And let him bee gone in the divel’s name.” (Lines 35-36)	The violin strings demand justice for the miller’s role in exploiting the younger sister’s body.	Feminist Theory: This suggests the miller’s complicity in the exploitation and victimization of women.
“What did he doe with her eyes so bright? / Upon his violl he played at first sight.” (Lines 21-22)	The miller uses the younger sister’s eyes to play the violin, emphasizing the violation of her body.	Psychoanalytic Theory: The transformation of the eyes into an instrument symbolizes the perverse reworking of trauma.
“What did he doe with her fingers so small? / He made him peggs to his violl withall.” (Lines 8-9)	The miller continues his gruesome repurposing of the sister’s remains to make a functional violin.	Marxist Theory: The commodification of the dead body into a violin reflects how the working class or marginalized are exploited.
“O yonder is my sister that drowned mee.” (Line 34)	The violin strings speak the truth, revealing the elder sister’s guilt and betrayal after the drowning.	New Historicism: The supernatural justice mirrors the moral and spiritual values of the time, where guilt is revealed posthumously.
“He made him strings to his violl thereto.” (Line 22)	The miller uses the younger sister’s veins to create the strings of the violin, symbolizing the connection to life.	Feminist Theory: This final transformation emphasizes the exploitation of the female body for male gain, rendering it a tool for his music.

Suggested Readings: “The Twa Sisters” (also known as “The Cruel Sister”)

1. Niles, John Jacob, et al. “The Twa Sisters (Child No. 10).” The Ballad Book of John Jacob Niles, University Press of Kentucky, 2000, pp. 47–54. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt130jnj1.12. Accessed 23 Feb. 2025.
2. Taylor, Archer. “The English, Scottish, and American Versions of the ‘Twa Sisters.'” The Journal of American Folklore, vol. 42, no. 165, 1929, pp. 238–46. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/535038. Accessed 23 Feb. 2025.
3. Parker, Harbison. “‘The Twa Sisters’. Going Which Way?” The Journal of American Folklore, vol. 64, no. 254, 1951, pp. 347–60. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/537003. Accessed 23 Feb. 2025.
4. Philipose, Lily. “The Twa Sisters: A Santal Folktale Variant of the Ballad.” Folklore, vol. 101, no. 2, 1990, pp. 169–77. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1260320. Accessed 23 Feb. 2025.