February 4, 2025 - English Studies

“Stars” by Sara Teasdale: A Critical Analysis

“Stars” by Sara Teasdale, appeared in her 1926 poetry collection Flame and Shadow, captures the quiet majesty and eternal beauty of the night sky, using vivid imagery and lyrical simplicity to evoke a sense of wonder and contemplation.

Introduction: “Stars” by Sara Teasdale

“Stars” by Sara Teasdale, appeared in her 1926 poetry collection Flame and Shadow, captures the quiet majesty and eternal beauty of the night sky, using vivid imagery and lyrical simplicity to evoke a sense of wonder and contemplation. Teasdale’s work often reflects themes of nature, solitude, and emotional depth, and “Stars” is no exception. Its concise yet profound meditation on the cosmos and human insignificance resonates deeply with readers. The poem’s popularity as a textbook selection stems from its accessible language, rich symbolism, and its ability to introduce students to key literary devices such as metaphor, personification, and tone. Moreover, its universal theme of finding solace in nature makes it a timeless piece for literary study.

Annotations: “Stars” by Sara Teasdale

Line	Annotation
Alone in the night	I am alone at night.
On a dark hill	I am standing on a dark hill.
With pines around me	There are pine trees around me.
Spicy and still,	The air smells fresh, and everything is quiet.
And a heaven full of stars	Above me, the sky is full of stars.
Over my head	The stars are shining above me.
White and topaz	Some stars are bright white, others golden.
And misty red;	Some stars look hazy and red.
Myriads with beating	There are countless stars, twinkling like they are alive.
Hearts of fire	The stars burn brightly like flames.
The aeons	The stars have existed for ages.
Cannot vex or tire;	Time does not affect or weaken them.
Up the dome of heaven	The sky looks like a giant dome.
Like a great hill	The sky seems as big as a vast hill.
I watch them marching	The stars appear to move slowly.
Stately and still.	They move with grace and in silence.
And I know that I	I realize that I am fortunate.
Am honored to be	I feel honored to witness this moment.
Witness	I am watching this incredible sight.
Of so much majesty.	The night sky is truly beautiful and grand.

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Stars” by Sara Teasdale

Poetic Device	Example from Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	“Spicy and still”	Repetition of consonant sounds creates rhythm and emphasis.
Allusion	Reference to the heavens (implying divine or eternal nature)	An indirect reference to something greater, like mythology or spirituality.
Assonance	“White and topaz / And misty red”	Repetition of vowel sounds creates a musical effect.
Atmosphere	The poem creates a quiet, reflective mood	The overall feeling or mood created by the poem.
Connotation	“Hearts of fire” (suggests warmth, passion, or vitality)	An implied meaning beyond the literal words.
Contrast	“Stately and still” (contrast between movement and stillness)	Placing two opposing ideas together for emphasis.
Enjambment	Lines flow into the next without punctuation	Continuing a sentence beyond one line without a pause for natural flow.
Epiphany	Realizing the vastness of the universe and feeling honored	A sudden realization or moment of clarity.
Extended Metaphor	“Up the dome of heaven / Like a great hill” (The sky is compared to a great hill)	A sustained comparison throughout the poem.
Hyperbole	“The aeons / Cannot vex or tire” (exaggeration of timelessness)	Exaggeration to emphasize the eternal nature of stars.
Imagery	“A heaven full of stars”	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.
Metaphor	“Myriads with beating / Hearts of fire” (stars compared to living beings)	A direct comparison of unlike things without using “like” or “as”.
Mood	Awe-inspiring and peaceful	The feeling the poem evokes in readers.
Paradox	“Stately and still” (stars appear to move yet remain still)	A self-contradictory statement that holds deeper meaning.
Personification	“Myriads with beating / Hearts of fire”	Giving human qualities to non-human things (the stars have ‘hearts’).
Repetition	Repetition of “still” and “hill” enhances rhythm	Repeating words or phrases for emphasis and rhythm.
Rhyme	Rhyming pairs (hill/still, be/majesty)	The pattern of similar-sounding words at the end of lines.
Rhythm	Balanced flow and beat in the poem	The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables.
Symbolism	Stars symbolize eternity and majesty	Using objects to represent deeper meanings or themes.
Tone	The tone is reverent and appreciative	The poet’s attitude toward the subject, conveying admiration and awe.

Themes: “Stars” by Sara Teasdale

1. The Majesty and Timelessness of Nature: One of the central themes in “Stars” is the awe-inspiring majesty and eternal nature of the universe. Teasdale emphasizes the grandeur of the night sky, filled with “a heaven full of stars” that appear vast and untouchable. The poem conveys a sense of deep reverence as the speaker acknowledges the stars’ endurance over “aeons” that “cannot vex or tire.” This line highlights the idea that, while human life is fleeting, nature remains eternal and unchanged. The stars become a symbol of permanence, standing as witnesses to the passage of time while remaining “stately and still.” This timelessness invites reflection on human transience, reinforcing the contrast between the enduring cosmos and our brief existence.

2. Human Insignificance in the Universe

Teasdale’s “Stars” also explores the theme of human insignificance in comparison to the vast universe. The speaker stands alone on a “dark hill,” surrounded by towering pines and looking up at an infinite sky. The description of “myriads with beating / hearts of fire” emphasizes the countless number of stars, each burning brightly, dwarfing the speaker in their celestial presence. Despite this vastness, the speaker does not feel despair but instead states, “And I know that I / am honored to be / witness / of so much majesty.” This suggests a humbling realization—that while humanity may be small in the grand scheme of things, there is beauty in simply witnessing the magnificence of the universe. The poem encourages readers to embrace their place in the cosmos, finding wonder instead of insignificance.

3. Solitude and Reflection: The imagery of the speaker standing “alone in the night / on a dark hill” in “Stars” conveys a theme of solitude and deep contemplation. The isolation allows for an intimate moment of reflection, undisturbed by the distractions of the world. This solitude is not depicted as loneliness but rather as an opportunity for personal introspection and connection with nature. The “spicy and still” atmosphere suggests a peaceful stillness, a setting where the speaker can fully absorb the grandeur of the stars. This theme resonates with the idea that solitude can lead to profound insights and a greater appreciation for the world beyond oneself. Teasdale presents solitude as a path to discovering beauty and a deeper understanding of existence.

4. The Beauty of Observation and Appreciation: Throughout “Stars”, Teasdale conveys the idea that simply observing the natural world is a source of joy and fulfillment. The speaker does not interact with the stars; instead, they stand in awe, taking in the grandeur of the celestial display. The act of looking up at the sky and recognizing its majesty is a profound experience in itself. The final lines—”And I know that I / am honored to be / witness / of so much majesty”—reinforce the idea that true appreciation requires no action beyond observation. The poem celebrates the ability to find beauty in the simple act of watching the stars, encouraging readers to cherish the world around them. This theme highlights the importance of mindfulness and taking time to admire nature’s wonders.

Literary Theories and “Stars” by Sara Teasdale

Literary Theory	Application to “Stars” by Sara Teasdale	Reference from Poem
Formalism	Focuses on the poem’s structure, imagery, and sound devices. The use of alliteration (“Spicy and still”), assonance (“White and topaz / And misty red”), and rhyme scheme contribute to the poem’s lyrical quality.	“Spicy and still”, “White and topaz / And misty red”, “hill/still” (rhyme scheme)
Romanticism	Emphasizes individual emotion and nature’s grandeur. The speaker’s awe toward the stars (“And I know that I / am honored to be / witness / of so much majesty”) reflects the Romantic ideal of deep personal connection with nature.	“And I know that I / am honored to be / witness / of so much majesty”
Existentialism	Explores human insignificance and individual reflection in an immense universe. The line “The aeons / Cannot vex or tire” suggests the eternal nature of the stars, highlighting human transience.	“The aeons / Cannot vex or tire”
Ecocriticism	Examines nature’s power and beauty without human interference. The poem’s imagery (“A heaven full of stars”) portrays nature as something untouched and superior to human existence, aligning with ecocritical perspectives.	“A heaven full of stars”

Critical Questions about “Stars” by Sara Teasdale

How does Teasdale use imagery to create a sense of wonder and admiration in “Stars”?
Sara Teasdale employs vivid and evocative imagery to immerse the reader in the beauty of the night sky. The opening lines, “Alone in the night / On a dark hill,” immediately establish a quiet and contemplative setting, allowing the reader to experience the speaker’s solitude. The description of “a heaven full of stars”, with stars appearing “white and topaz / And misty red,” paints a rich visual picture of a celestial spectacle. The colors and descriptive details give the stars a mystical, almost dreamlike quality, reinforcing the speaker’s deep admiration. Additionally, the metaphor “Myriads with beating / Hearts of fire” imbues the stars with life, suggesting their energy and eternal presence. Through these images, Teasdale transforms the night sky into a majestic and almost sacred experience, inviting the reader to share in the awe and wonder that the speaker feels.

What role does solitude play in the speaker’s experience in “Stars”?
Solitude is a crucial element of “Stars,” as it allows the speaker to fully absorb the majesty of the universe without distraction. The poem begins with the speaker stating they are “Alone in the night,” setting a tone of quiet introspection. This solitude is not presented as loneliness but as an opportunity for a deeper connection with nature. The stillness of the setting is emphasized by the phrase “Spicy and still,” suggesting a moment of peace and reflection. Without the presence of others, the speaker is able to contemplate their small place in the grand scheme of the universe and feel “honored to be / witness / of so much majesty.” This suggests that solitude allows for a profound realization of beauty, something that might be overlooked in the presence of distractions. Teasdale presents solitude as a gift rather than a burden, encouraging readers to embrace moments of quiet reflection.
How does “Stars” reflect the theme of human insignificance in the universe?

The poem subtly explores the insignificance of human life compared to the vastness of the cosmos. The stars are described as existing through “aeons” and being immune to the wear of time: “The aeons / Cannot vex or tire.” This suggests that while human lives are temporary and fleeting, the stars remain unchanged and eternal. The speaker acknowledges their smallness in comparison to the grandeur of the night sky but does not express despair; instead, they feel privileged to witness such majesty. The phrase “Up the dome of heaven / Like a great hill / I watch them marching / Stately and still” reinforces the image of the stars as distant and powerful forces, completely unaffected by human existence. Rather than inducing feelings of insignificance in a negative sense, the poem encourages an appreciation for nature’s permanence and a humble acceptance of our place in the universe.
What is the significance of the poem’s final lines, and how do they shape its overall message?
The final lines of “Stars”—”And I know that I / am honored to be / witness / of so much majesty”—serve as the emotional and philosophical conclusion of the poem. Rather than focusing on action or change, Teasdale emphasizes the importance of observation and appreciation. The word “honored” conveys a deep sense of gratitude, as the speaker recognizes the privilege of experiencing such beauty. This ending reinforces the idea that true fulfillment comes from recognizing and appreciating the wonders of the natural world. It suggests that sometimes, merely witnessing something magnificent is enough; no further action is needed. The poem’s quiet, reflective tone culminates in this realization, encouraging the reader to find joy in stillness and observation. By ending on this note, Teasdale leaves the reader with a sense of peace and reverence, solidifying the poem’s message about the power of nature and the beauty of simply being present.

Literary Works Similar to “Stars” by Sara Teasdale

“When I Heard the Learn’d Astronomer” by Walt Whitman – Similar to “Stars”, this poem contrasts scientific analysis with the personal, emotional experience of observing the night sky, emphasizing the beauty of simply witnessing nature.
“Bright Star” by John Keats – Like “Stars”, Keats’ poem admires the eternal and unwavering nature of the stars, drawing parallels between their constancy and human longing for permanence.
“The Starlight Night” by Gerard Manley Hopkins – This poem, like “Stars”, vividly describes the night sky with rich imagery, using celestial metaphors to evoke a sense of wonder and divine beauty.

“To the Evening Star” by William Blake – Both poems personify stars, depicting them as symbols of guidance and serenity while expressing admiration for their presence in the vast sky.
“A Night-Piece” by William Wordsworth – Similar to “Stars”, Wordsworth’s poem reflects on the majesty of the night sky, emphasizing the deep emotional and spiritual connection between nature and the observer.

Representative Quotations of “Stars” by Sara Teasdale

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Alone in the night”	The poem opens with the speaker alone at night, setting a tone of solitude and introspection.	Existentialism – The individual in solitude confronting the universe.
“On a dark hill”	The speaker is positioned on a hill, emphasizing their smallness compared to the vast sky.	Romanticism – The power and beauty of nature as a source of reflection.
“A heaven full of stars”	This line introduces the grandeur of the stars, highlighting their overwhelming presence.	Ecocriticism – Nature’s overwhelming presence and significance.
“White and topaz / And misty red”	The stars are described in colorful and vivid detail, creating a striking celestial image.	Formalism – Vivid imagery and poetic craftsmanship.
“Myriads with beating / Hearts of fire”	Stars are given human-like qualities, suggesting they have a living presence.	Personification – Stars given human characteristics, reinforcing poetic depth.
“The aeons / Cannot vex or tire”	The stars are depicted as timeless, unaffected by the passage of time.	Philosophical Naturalism – The permanence of nature versus human transience.
“Up the dome of heaven / Like a great hill”	The sky is metaphorically compared to a great hill, emphasizing its vastness.	Metaphor – The sky as a great hill, a powerful image of scale and majesty.
“I watch them marching / Stately and still”	The stars are seen as moving with a slow, majestic grace, reinforcing their grandeur.	Symbolism – The steady march of the stars representing the unchanging order of the universe.
“And I know that I / Am honored to be”	The speaker expresses personal reverence for witnessing such beauty.	Spiritualism – Finding meaning and reverence in witnessing nature’s beauty.
“Witness / Of so much majesty”	The closing lines emphasize the theme of appreciation and admiration for nature’s majesty.	Aestheticism – Pure appreciation of beauty as a philosophical end.

“The Scapegoat Archetype” by Roger De Verteuil: Summary and Critique

“The Scapegoat Archetype” by Roger De Verteuil, first appeared in the Journal of Religion and Health in 1966, explores psychological, religious, and sociological dimensions of the scapegoat archetype, arguing that its presence in human societies reflects deep-seated unconscious patterns.

Introduction: “The Scapegoat Archetype” by Roger De Verteuil

“The Scapegoat Archetype” by Roger De Verteuil, first appeared in the Journal of Religion and Health in 1966, explores psychological, religious, and sociological dimensions of the scapegoat archetype, arguing that its presence in human societies reflects deep-seated unconscious patterns. Drawing from Jungian analytical psychology, De Verteuil defines the scapegoat as a “primordial image” embedded in the collective unconscious, serving as both an expiatory figure and a mechanism for societal cohesion. He traces the historical origins of the scapegoat to the Old Testament, particularly the rituals described in Leviticus, where a goat symbolically carries the collective sins of the people into the wilderness. The study extends this concept to broader religious traditions, including Christianity, where Christ is seen as the ultimate scapegoat. De Verteuil also explores how the scapegoat archetype manifests in modern contexts, such as criminal justice, racial and political persecution, and even mental illness, where individuals often unconsciously assume the role of societal scapegoats. He argues that societies with a high dependence on scapegoating are often in states of psychological and moral crisis. Ultimately, De Verteuil critiques the persistence of the scapegoat mechanism in contemporary society, warning that in an era of mass destruction and advanced knowledge, reliance on scapegoating as a defense mechanism is both outdated and dangerous. His study remains a crucial contribution to literary theory and cultural studies, offering insights into how myths and archetypes shape human perception and societal structures.

Summary of “The Scapegoat Archetype” by Roger De Verteuil

1. The Paradox of the Modern Age

Despite scientific and social advancements, modern society continues to rely on scapegoating, highlighting deep-rooted human instincts.

De Verteuil states that “the age of maximum enlightenment” is also “the age of maximum peril” as society still identifies “a human enemy” (p. 209).

2. The Scapegoat as a Primordial Archetype

The scapegoat functions as a collective psychological construct rooted in the unconscious, as described in Jungian theory.

Jung defines the primordial image as “an inherited organisation of psychic energy,” which gives “apprehension of the given situation” and provides meaning beyond instinct (p. 210).

3. Biblical and Historical Origins of the Scapegoat

The concept of the scapegoat appears in the Old Testament, particularly in the ritual described in Leviticus 16:5-22, where a goat symbolically carries the sins of the people into the desert.

The scapegoat ritual predates other sacrificial customs and may indicate an earlier form of “sacrificial behavior” (p. 209).

4. The Role of Sacrifice in Society

Human societies originally used human sacrifice but later transitioned to animal substitutes, as seen in the biblical story of Abraham and Isaac (p. 210).

The idea that “man is still a wolf to man” suggests that the scapegoat serves as a survival mechanism, channeling collective aggression toward an external victim rather than internal destruction (p. 211).

5. The Scapegoat and the Angry God

The image of an “angry god” demanding sacrifice is a projection of early human survival instincts, where divine wrath was a reflection of mankind’s own savagery (p. 212).

The biblical sacrifice of two goats—one to Yahweh and one to Azazel—illustrates the tension between divine mercy and wrath, showing the incomplete transition from primitive deities to a monotheistic God (p. 213).

6. The Scapegoat in Criminal Justice

Societies have historically used criminals as scapegoats to maintain social order.

In ancient Israel, blasphemers were executed in a manner resembling the scapegoat ritual: “Take the blasphemer outside the camp… let the whole community stone him” (Leviticus 24:14-16, p. 214).
In 19th-century England, even children were publicly hanged for petty crimes, reinforcing society’s dependence on scapegoats (p. 215).

7. Political and Racial Scapegoating

Scapegoating extends beyond criminal justice to racial and political persecution.
The Holocaust and apartheid South Africa are cited as modern manifestations of this phenomenon (p. 216).
De Verteuil warns against condemning past societies while failing to recognize that scapegoating persists today (p. 217).

8. The Scapegoat in Judaeo-Christian History

Christianity transformed the scapegoat into a figure of redemption, with Christ as the ultimate scapegoat.
However, medieval Christianity reverted to scapegoating, condemning “the souls of the damned” and fostering an obsession with sin and damnation (p. 219).

The Middle Ages saw the re-emergence of Satan as a scapegoat, particularly in witch hunts and the persecution of heretics (p. 220).

9. The Scapegoat in Mental Illness

Psychological scapegoating occurs in individuals diagnosed with mental illness, who are often alienated rather than helped.

The mentally ill, like traditional scapegoats, “invite rejection” because they unconsciously expose the hidden tensions of society (p. 221).
Families may reinforce scapegoating dynamics, as seen in a mother’s statement: “If my daughter and I have to be the sufferers, let it be so” (p. 222).

10. The Need to Transcend the Scapegoat Archetype

De Verteuil argues that modern societies must move beyond the need for scapegoats, as this mechanism is an outdated and dangerous form of social cohesion.
The persistence of scapegoating in a “great society” is a sign of moral and psychological regression (p. 223).
He concludes that “the scapegoat is an anachronism that the human race has outgrown” and that recognizing this is vital for societal progress (p. 224).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “The Scapegoat Archetype” by Roger De Verteuil

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Reference in the Article
Scapegoat Archetype	A primordial psychological image in the collective unconscious that represents the societal need to transfer guilt or blame onto a single victim.	“The phenomenon of the scapegoat, or rather of the primordial image in the human unconscious that we have identified as the ‘scapegoat archetype'” (p. 209).
Primordial Image	A deeply embedded symbol in the human unconscious that structures perception and experience, as per Jungian analytical psychology.	“An inherited organization of psychic energy,” which “apprehends the given situation” and influences instinct and idea (p. 210).
Collective Unconscious	The part of the unconscious mind that contains universal symbols and experiences shared across human cultures.	“The primordial image is to be found in the deepest layers of the human unconscious, the ‘collective’ as distinct from the ‘personal’ unconscious” (p. 215).
Sacrificial Behavior	The ritualistic or instinctual practice of offering a victim (human or animal) to appease divine forces or maintain social order.	“What may be called ‘sacrificial behavior’ on the part of human beings” (p. 209).
Projection	The psychological mechanism by which internal fears, conflicts, or instincts are transferred onto an external entity.	“Primitive man’s still untamed savagery” is projected onto the concept of the “angry god” (p. 212).
The Angry God Archetype	A primitive deity that reflects early human fears, requiring sacrifice to be appeased.	“The angry god is, therefore, a deification of destructive natural forces” (p. 212).
Duality in Sacrifice	The concept that sacrifice embodies both divine blessing and curse, as represented in the biblical scapegoat ritual (one goat for Yahve, one for Azazel).	“Two goats, one, chosen by lot, is blessed, the other cursed” (p. 213).
Transitional Image of God	The evolving concept of God from a wrathful deity to one of love and mercy.	“The cleavage in the God-image… from a God of wrath to a God of love” (p. 219).
Scapegoating in Criminal Justice	The use of individuals, particularly criminals, as scapegoats to satisfy societal need for retribution.	“Take the blasphemer outside the camp… let the whole community stone him” (Leviticus 24:14-16, p. 214).
Political and Racial Scapegoating	The targeting of specific racial or political groups as scapegoats for broader societal issues.	“It is in the form of racial oppression and political persecution that scapegoating is being carried out today” (p. 216).
Scapegoat Role in Mental Illness	The unconscious identification of mentally ill individuals as societal outcasts or symbolic scapegoats.	“The psychotic individual invites rejection” as they “bring out the hidden tensions in a group” (p. 221).
Regression to the Law of the Jungle	The idea that societies that rely on scapegoating are reverting to primitive instincts of violence and survival.	“The law of the jungle is back: kill or be killed, devour or be devoured” (p. 220).
Archetypal Patterns in History	The cyclical repetition of scapegoating behaviors in different historical periods.	“The twentieth century… has seen cycles that are uncomfortably close to that far-off Age of ‘Darkness'” (p. 220).
Symbolic Substitution in Sacrifice	The historical shift from human to animal sacrifice as a means of transferring guilt or divine appeasement.	“The providential appearance of the ram averted the slaughter of the son by his father, Abraham” (Genesis 22:13, p. 210).
Therapeutic Approach to the Scapegoat Role	The necessity of reintegration and dialogue in healing individuals cast as scapegoats, especially in mental illness.	“The key to the ‘cure’ is establishing and maintaining a genuine dialogue with the ‘scapegoat'” (p. 222).
End of the Scapegoat Era	The argument that modern societies must transcend the scapegoat archetype to progress morally and psychologically.	“The scapegoat is an anachronism that the human race has outgrown” (p. 224).

Contribution of “The Scapegoat Archetype” by Roger De Verteuil to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Archetypal Criticism (Carl Jung)

De Verteuil’s concept of the scapegoat as a primordial image aligns with Jungian archetypal criticism, which explores recurring symbols and narratives in literature.
“The phenomenon of the scapegoat, or rather of the primordial image in the human unconscious that we have identified as the ‘scapegoat archetype'” (p. 209).

The scapegoat functions as a collective archetype that influences literature and mythology, appearing in various forms, such as Christ in Christianity or Oedipus in Greek tragedy.

2. Mythological Criticism (Northrop Frye)

The study supports Frye’s theory of mythic structures, particularly in how literature repeatedly draws from the scapegoat motif.

“Biblical scholars agree that the scapegoat ritual has a more archaic character than the other sacrificial rites associated with it” (p. 209).
Mythic structures of sacrificial figures—such as in King Lear and The Crucible—demonstrate how literature continually reinterprets the scapegoat narrative.

3. Psychoanalytic Literary Criticism (Freud & Lacan)

The text applies psychoanalytic theory to literature, arguing that the scapegoat archetype satisfies an unconscious need for externalizing guilt.
“The primordial image is to be found in the deepest layers of the human unconscious, the ‘collective’ as distinct from the ‘personal’ unconscious” (p. 215).
Literature often reveals societal projections of guilt and fear onto scapegoat figures, such as Frankenstein’s creature or Kafka’s The Trial.

4. Structuralism (Claude Lévi-Strauss)

De Verteuil’s work aligns with structuralist analysis by showing how the scapegoat archetype operates as a binary opposition in myth and literature (good vs. evil, divine vs. cursed).
“Two goats, one, chosen by lot, is blessed, the other cursed; one is purified, ‘made holy,’ and calls forth the image of a merciful God, the other is abandoned, unforgiven” (p. 213).

This duality can be seen in literature, such as in Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde or Milton’s Paradise Lost.

5. Postcolonial Theory (Edward Said, Frantz Fanon)

The text contributes to postcolonial criticism by demonstrating how scapegoating is used to justify racial and political oppression.

“It is in the form of racial oppression and political persecution that scapegoating is being carried out today, and on a scale that even the most primitive societies of antiquity might have considered excessive” (p. 216).
Works like Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart and Toni Morrison’s Beloved depict how colonial societies create scapegoats to maintain power structures.

6. New Historicism (Stephen Greenblatt)

De Verteuil emphasizes how historical contexts shape the use of scapegoats in literature, resonating with New Historicist methods.
“The ‘Age of Darkness’ seems reassuringly far behind us—or is it? The twentieth century… has seen cycles that are uncomfortably close to that far-off Age of ‘Darkness'” (p. 220).
Literature like Arthur Miller’s The Crucible and Orwell’s 1984 reflects historical moments of scapegoating (McCarthyism, totalitarianism).

7. Feminist Literary Criticism (Simone de Beauvoir, Judith Butler)

The text supports feminist analysis by acknowledging how women have been historically scapegoated in literature and society.
“The destructive tensions in such a society would create such a need for scapegoats that we are hardly surprised to find the old archetypal images emerging once more: Satan, the Satyr, the Scapegoat” (p. 220).

This applies to works like The Scarlet Letter (Hester Prynne as a scapegoat) and The Handmaid’s Tale (women bearing collective guilt for societal downfall).

8. Trauma and Memory Studies (Cathy Caruth, Marianne Hirsch)

The study aligns with trauma theory, exploring how scapegoats carry the burden of collective historical trauma.

“The psychotic scapegoat, especially if introverted, tends rather to suffer the same experience inwardly through nightmarish perceptions, disturbed emotions, and disordered thinking” (p. 221).
Literature like Beloved or Slaughterhouse-Five explores how scapegoating affects individual and collective memory.

9. Political Literary Theory (Michel Foucault, Giorgio Agamben)

The text aligns with biopolitical and Foucauldian theories, showing how power structures create scapegoats to control populations.
“Imagine one further stage of regression, and the law of the jungle is back: kill or be killed, devour or be devoured” (p. 220).
Agamben’s Homo Sacer and Orwell’s 1984 show how political scapegoating dehumanizes individuals to justify persecution.

10. Existentialism and Absurdism (Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus)

The article contributes to existentialist and absurdist readings by emphasizing how scapegoats are alienated figures confronting an irrational society.
“The scapegoating of the mentally ill is thus not so much a matter of condemnation as one of alienation; society accepts, not that the patient is ‘bad,’ but that he is just ‘not one of us'” (p. 222).

This aligns with works like Camus’ The Stranger or Kafka’s The Trial, where the protagonist becomes an outcast.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Scapegoat Archetype” by Roger De Verteuil

Literary Work	Scapegoat Archetype Analysis	Reference to De Verteuil
King Lear by William Shakespeare	Lear and Cordelia function as scapegoats for a corrupt kingdom, absorbing blame and suffering to cleanse societal disorder. Lear’s banishment mirrors the ritualistic expulsion of the biblical scapegoat.	“The scapegoat was, therefore, considered as accursed or unholy (by reason of its weight of collective guilt)… yet it could fulfill another important expiatory function by ‘taking away’ guilt” (p. 209).
The Crucible by Arthur Miller	The Salem witch trials are a classic case of social scapegoating, where innocent individuals are sacrificed to preserve the illusion of communal purity. John Proctor becomes a conscious scapegoat, embracing his role to expose societal hypocrisy.	“It is in the form of racial oppression and political persecution that scapegoating is being carried out today, and on a scale that even the most primitive societies of antiquity might have considered excessive” (p. 216).
Frankenstein by Mary Shelley	The Creature is cast as a scapegoat for Victor Frankenstein’s moral failings. He is rejected and demonized, embodying the archetypal outsider whose suffering absolves society of its deeper ethical failings.	“The scapegoating of the mentally ill is thus not so much a matter of condemnation as one of alienation; society accepts, not that the patient is ‘bad,’ but that he is just ‘not one of us'” (p. 222).
Beloved by Toni Morrison	Sethe, as a former slave, becomes the scapegoat of a society that refuses to acknowledge its historical guilt. Her act of infanticide is misinterpreted as individual sin rather than a collective trauma imposed by systemic oppression.	“A realization of this fact is important for the times in which we live: the scapegoat is an anachronism that the human race has outgrown, a luxury we can no longer afford to keep” (p. 224).

Criticism Against “The Scapegoat Archetype” by Roger De Verteuil

1. Over-Reliance on Jungian Analytical Psychology

De Verteuil heavily depends on Jungian archetypes, which some critics argue are too universalist and ignore historical and cultural specificity.

Critics of Jungian theory argue that archetypes are constructed rather than innate, making the scapegoat archetype a culturally contingent phenomenon rather than a universal truth.

2. Limited Engagement with Socio-Political Power Structures

While De Verteuil discusses scapegoating in politics and history, he does not fully engage with Marxist, Foucauldian, or postcolonial theories that analyze scapegoating as a function of institutional power.

His analysis focuses more on psychological necessity rather than economic, political, or ideological manipulation of scapegoating by elites.

3. Essentialist View of Human Nature

The claim that the scapegoat mechanism is an inherent human instinct assumes a fixed human nature, which contradicts poststructuralist and constructivist perspectives.

Critics might argue that scapegoating is socially conditioned rather than biologically or psychologically predetermined.

4. Lack of Feminist and Intersectional Analysis

De Verteuil does not specifically address how gender, race, and class shape scapegoating differently, making his framework less applicable to intersectional critiques.

Feminist critics might argue that scapegoating in literature and history often targets women and marginalized identities differently, a nuance missing from his work.

5. Oversimplification of Religious Evolution

The text implies a linear progression from primitive sacrifice to enlightened morality, suggesting that society is “outgrowing” scapegoating.

Religious historians might criticize this as too simplistic, failing to account for the complexity and persistence of sacrificial motifs in modern religious and secular institutions.

6. Weak Empirical Support

The analysis is largely theoretical and interpretative, with minimal empirical or anthropological evidence to support the claim that societies with greater scapegoating tendencies are necessarily “sicker.”

Critics might argue that De Verteuil’s conclusions require more concrete sociological or historical data rather than relying on literary and mythological examples.

7. Limited Exploration of Alternative Mechanisms for Social Cohesion

The text suggests that scapegoating is a primary means of social cohesion, but it does not explore alternative conflict-resolution strategies in historical or modern societies.

Sociologists might argue that some societies have developed non-scapegoating mechanisms for collective harmony that De Verteuil fails to consider.

8. Lack of Literary Textual Analysis

Despite its relevance to literary theory, the work does not deeply analyze specific literary texts, making it less effective for literary scholars seeking close readings.

His theoretical framework is useful but lacks applied literary criticism beyond broad historical and religious references.

9. Ambiguity in the “End of the Scapegoat Era” Claim

The idea that modern society should move beyond scapegoating is idealistic and ignores how contemporary politics, media, and law continue to function through scapegoating mechanisms.

Postmodern critics might argue that scapegoating has evolved rather than disappeared, now operating through digital media, corporate blame culture, and scapegoating of social groups in new forms.

Representative Quotations from “The Scapegoat Archetype” by Roger De Verteuil with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“It is a strange paradox that the time in which we live, which by reason of accumulated knowledge and rapid communication can rightly claim to be the age of maximum enlightenment, should also be the age of maximum peril.” (De Verteuil, p. 209)	De Verteuil highlights the contradiction of modern civilization—technological and social progress has not eradicated humanity’s violent instincts, leading to an era of both enlightenment and destruction.
“If, as we here affirm, the mental health of a society can be said to vary inversely with its need for scapegoats, then we are, indeed, a very sick society.” (De Verteuil, p. 209)	This statement suggests that societies dependent on scapegoating reveal underlying dysfunction. The healthier a society, the less it requires scapegoats to maintain order.
“The primordial image has advantage over the clarity of the idea in its vitality: it may thus be said to give life to the coldness of intellect.” (De Verteuil, p. 210)	Drawing from Jungian psychology, this quotation emphasizes that archetypal images, including the scapegoat, hold a unique power that rational thought alone cannot provide.
“Without the scapegoat… these destructive energies would lead a society at this stage of its development to destroy itself.” (De Verteuil, p. 211)	The scapegoat archetype functions as a release valve for societal aggression, preventing internal collapse by channeling collective violence toward a designated target.
“The angry god is, therefore, a deification of destructive natural forces such as lightning, flood, famine, war, and pestilence; but it is also, and even more clearly, a projection of primitive man’s still untamed savagery.” (De Verteuil, p. 212)	The concept of an “angry god” is not purely theological but psychological, representing humanity’s own fears, aggression, and struggle for survival.
“The two goats, separated by lot, are yet bound together by a primordial image: they are both ‘scapegoats.'” (De Verteuil, p. 213)	The ritual of the two goats in Leviticus symbolizes an incomplete transition from the wrathful to the merciful divine. The duality suggests that scapegoating is deeply ingrained in religious and social structures.
“The persistence of capital punishment to the present day… betrays the reluctance of societies to give up their scapegoats.” (De Verteuil, p. 216)	Capital punishment is framed as a modern continuation of scapegoating, reinforcing the idea that societies still seek ritualistic expiation of collective guilt.
“The light of God would be eclipsed again and the scapegoat come into his own.” (De Verteuil, p. 219)	Historical cycles of persecution and regression into scapegoating reflect societal collapses into barbarism, particularly during times of fear and uncertainty.
“The ‘Age of Darkness’ seems reassuringly far behind us—or is it?” (De Verteuil, p. 220)	De Verteuil warns against historical amnesia, cautioning that modern societies continue to repeat the scapegoating patterns of past civilizations despite perceiving themselves as enlightened.
“In a ‘great society,’ the use of the scapegoat, to paraphrase a famous line of Shakespeare, ‘soileth him that gives and him that takes.'” (De Verteuil, p. 223)	Borrowing from Merchant of Venice, De Verteuil critiques scapegoating as a morally corrosive act that degrades both the persecutor and the victim, ultimately harming society as a whole.

“Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer: Summary and Critique

“Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer first appeared in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 87 (1983), published by the Department of the Classics, Harvard University.

Introduction: “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer

“Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer first appeared in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 87 (1983), published by the Department of the Classics, Harvard University. The article provides a detailed examination of the scapegoat ritual, or pharmakos practice, in ancient Greece, where an individual—often an outcast, criminal, or marginalized figure—was symbolically expelled or executed to cleanse the community of misfortune, plague, or famine. Bremmer situates these Greek practices within a broader anthropological and comparative context, linking them to similar rituals in other cultures, such as the biblical scapegoat ritual in Leviticus, Hittite practices, and even Tibetan ceremonies. He explores the symbolic meaning of the pharmakos figure, analyzing its connection to marginality, social hierarchy, and mythological narratives. A key argument of the article is that while historical rituals typically involved the expulsion rather than the killing of the scapegoat, mythological versions often portrayed a sacrificial death, reinforcing the ritual’s symbolic gravity. Bremmer also discusses the role of specific plants, such as squills and agnus castus, used in the ritual, and examines the relationship between the scapegoat expulsion and seasonal renewal festivals like the Thargelia. His work is significant in literature and literary theory, as it intersects with René Girard’s ideas on violence and sacrifice, demonstrating how societies project collective guilt and seek purification through ritual. By contextualizing the pharmakos within both historical and mythological frameworks, Bremmer’s study contributes to the understanding of sacrificial motifs in Greek tragedy, the construction of otherness, and the use of ritual in shaping communal identity. His research remains a crucial reference in classical studies, anthropology, and comparative religion, shedding light on the enduring legacy of scapegoat mechanisms in literature and culture.

Summary of “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer

1. Definition and Comparative Context

Bremmer discusses the scapegoat ritual in various ancient societies, including the Old Testament (Leviticus 16:21-22), Greece, Rome, Hittites, India, and Tibet (p. 299).
The term “scapegoat” originates from the Hebrew purification ritual, where sins are symbolically transferred onto a goat that is then sent into the wilderness (p. 299).
Greek rituals had a similar function, involving the sacrifice or expulsion of a marginal individual to purify society (p. 299-300).

“Similar rituals can be found among the Greeks, Romans, Hittites, in India, and even in mountainous Tibet” (p. 299).

2. The Ritual in Greek Society

The Greek scapegoat (pharmakos) was often a marginalized person (criminal, slave, poor, or physically deformed) chosen for expulsion or sacrifice.

Evidence comes from Hipponax (6th-century BC), Tzetzes, and Aristophanes, detailing ritualistic abuse and expulsion (p. 300-301).
In some cases, the scapegoat was burned and its ashes cast into the sea (Tzetzes, p. 301).
The Thargelia festival (for Apollo) in Athens featured the ritual annually (p. 301-302).

“In Abdera, a poor man was feasted once, led around the walls of the city and finally chased over the borders with stones” (p. 302).
“The Athenian pharmakoi are described as ‘of low origin and useless'” (p. 303).

3. The Role of the Scapegoat

The scapegoat was a marginal figure—criminals, slaves, foreigners, young men and women, and sometimes even kings (p. 303-305).

The ritual symbolized community purification by transferring collective guilt onto the scapegoat (p. 304).
Sometimes, important figures (like the daughters of Erechtheus or King Kodros) sacrificed themselves for the city’s welfare (p. 305).

“The myth shows, however, that high and low are interchangeable: the Athenian king Kodros who saved the Athenian community by his death was killed dressed up as a woodworker” (p. 304).

4. Voluntariness of the Sacrifice

Mythological and some historical cases depict the scapegoat as voluntarily sacrificing themselves for the good of society (p. 307-308).
However, some sources suggest they were tricked or bribed into the role (p. 307).

Christian texts compare Jesus to Greek scapegoats (Origen, p. 307).

“The mythical tales, as so often, give a valuable insight into Greek sacrificial ideology” (p. 307).

5. The Use of Symbolic Plants

The pharmakos was beaten with squills, twigs of wild fig, and agnus castus, all considered “wild” plants (p. 308-310).
The use of infertile plants (squill, wild fig, and lygos) reinforced the scapegoat’s marginality (p. 309-311).

“The Greeks made the same connection as ancient Rome between wild trees and persons who had to be removed from the community” (p. 309).

6. Expulsion from the City

The scapegoat was led out of the city in a formal procession, starting from the prytaneion (town hall) (p. 313-314).
Special gates were used for executions and purifications (Plutarch, p. 314).

Music played during the procession was disharmonious, creating a chaotic atmosphere (p. 314).

“After chasing the scapegoats over the border people probably returned without looking back, as was the rule in the case of purificatory offerings” (p. 315).

7. Was the Scapegoat Killed?

Scholars debate whether the scapegoat was killed or merely expelled.
Mythical versions suggest death, but historical sources indicate expulsion (p. 316-317).
Examples from Abdera, Athens, Massilia, and Leukas show that the scapegoat was typically stoned but allowed to escape (p. 317).

“When we discount the death of the scapegoats in the myths, we are left with two cases. In Philostratus’ Life of Apollonius of Tyana (4.10), it is described how during a plague in Ephesus, Apollonius pointed to a squalid beggar and ordered him to be killed” (p. 316-317).

8. Connection to the Thargelia Festival

The scapegoat ritual occurred on the first day of the Thargelia festival (p. 318).

The second day involved offerings, songs, and feasting, marking a seasonal renewal (p. 319).
Similar purificatory rituals occurred in Tibet and Rome before New Year celebrations (p. 319-320).

“No new beginning before a complete katharsis of the old situation” (p. 320).

Conclusion

The Greek scapegoat ritual was a structured purification process aimed at transferring community guilt onto a marginalized individual (p. 320).
Though myth and history diverge, the fundamental idea remains: society protects itself by eliminating an outsider (p. 320).

Compared to other cultures, the Greek practice was more violent, possibly indicating a deeper societal fear of pollution and disorder (p. 320).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference from the Article
Scapegoat (Pharmakos)	A marginalized individual (criminal, slave, poor, foreigner, or deformed) chosen for ritual expulsion or sacrifice to purify society.	“The Greek scapegoat (pharmakos) was often a marginalized person chosen for expulsion or sacrifice.” (p. 300-301)
Katharsis (Purification)	Ritual removal of impurity, pollution, or societal disorder through symbolic acts, such as expelling the scapegoat.	“No new beginning before a complete katharsis of the old situation.” (p. 320)
Marginality	The status of being on the outskirts of society, applied to scapegoats who were criminals, slaves, foreigners, or physically deformed.	“All these categories have in common that they are situated at the margin of Greek society.” (p. 303)
Sacrificial Substitution	The idea that the scapegoat takes on the sins or pollution of the community and is expelled or killed in its place.	“The community sacrifices one of its members to save its own skin.” (p. 300)
Symbolic Death	The idea that expulsion from the city equates to a form of death, as the scapegoat is removed from communal life.	“The expulsion of the scapegoats in practice amounted to a killing, since, like the dead, they disappeared from the community, never to return.” (p. 316-317)
Voluntariness of Sacrifice	The ideological belief that the scapegoat willingly accepts their fate, though some were coerced or bribed.	“The mythical tales, as so often, give a valuable insight into Greek sacrificial ideology.” (p. 307)
Myth vs. Ritual	The distinction between the mythological representation of scapegoat rituals (which often involves actual death) and historical practices (which generally involved expulsion).	“Mythical versions suggest death, but historical sources indicate expulsion.” (p. 316)
Seasonal Renewal	The idea that scapegoat rituals precede festivals that celebrate agricultural cycles, such as the Thargelia.	“The Thargelia festival combined expulsion rituals with first-fruit offerings, symbolizing seasonal renewal.” (p. 319)
Use of “Wild” Elements	The use of wild plants (squills, wild fig, agnus castus) and unproductive trees in scapegoat rituals to symbolize exclusion from civilization.	“Ancient Greece evidently made the same connection as ancient Rome between wild trees and persons who had to be removed from the community.” (p. 309)
Aetiology (Aetiological Myths)	Stories that explain the origins of rituals, often portraying scapegoat deaths that contrast with actual historical practices.	“The killing of scapegoats in myths is an aetiological explanation rather than historical fact.” (p. 316)
Expulsion as Social Reintegration	The idea that removing the scapegoat reinforces social cohesion by eliminating disorder or impurity.	“The involvement of all persons in the expulsion helps reconstitute that group.” (p. 315)
Stoning as Imponierverhalten (Imposing Behavior)	A public demonstration of aggression that does not necessarily aim to kill but reinforces collective action.	“Stoning was not always meant to kill; it was often only a kind of Imponierverhalten.” (p. 315)
Charivari (Disharmonious Music)	The use of chaotic or discordant music to create an unsettling atmosphere during the scapegoat’s expulsion.	“Music in traditional rites can be divided into harmonious and unharmonious… The latter was used in expelling persons from the community.” (p. 314)
Pollution and Miasma	The concept that impurities (such as plagues, famine, and societal disorder) must be ritually removed to restore balance.	“These rituals were performed during extraordinary circumstances such as plague, famine, and drought.” (p. 302)
Human vs. Animal Scapegoats	The contrast between societies that use human scapegoats (Greeks) and those that use animals (Hittites, Israelites).	“However, it remains enigmatic why the Greeks had to use a human being, whereas the Hittites sometimes and the Israelites always found an animal sufficient.” (p. 320)
Social Inversion	The temporary elevation of the scapegoat (e.g., dressing them in fine clothes) before expulsion, reflecting a ritual reversal of hierarchy.	“Nevertheless, the people realized that they could not save their own skin by sacrificing the scum of the polis. For that reason, the scapegoat was always treated as a very important person.” (p. 305)
Ritualized Violence	The controlled use of physical aggression, such as whipping or stoning, in ritual contexts to symbolically purge evil.	“The whipping of the scapegoat with squills and wild fig twigs was part of the ritual purification process.” (p. 308)

Contribution of “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution of Bremmer’s Work	Reference from the Article
Structuralism (Claude Lévi-Strauss)	Bremmer examines binary oppositions (civilized vs. wild, inclusion vs. exclusion, life vs. death) in scapegoat rituals, aligning with structuralist approaches to myth and ritual.	“The myth shows, however, that high and low are interchangeable: the Athenian king Kodros who saved the Athenian community by his death was killed dressed up as a woodworker.” (p. 304)
Myth and Ritual Theory (James Frazer, Jane Ellen Harrison, Walter Burkert)	Demonstrates that Greek scapegoat rituals emerge from earlier purification practices and reflect mythic structures that encode communal anxieties and agricultural cycles.	“With these rituals in which the elimination of one or two members saves the whole of the community we may compare those stories in which the death of one or two people saves the city from destruction.” (p. 302)
Girardian Mimetic Theory (René Girard)	Bremmer’s analysis supports René Girard’s theory of sacrificial scapegoating, in which a community unites by transferring violence onto a surrogate victim.	“Burkert has rightly pointed out that in these rituals the community sacrifices one of its members to save its own skin.” (p. 300)
Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud, Lacan)	The scapegoat ritual reflects Freudian notions of collective guilt and repression, as well as Lacanian symbolic displacement (the scapegoat absorbing societal “sins”).	“The involvement of all persons in the expulsion helps reconstitute that group.” (p. 315)
Poststructuralism & Myth Criticism (Roland Barthes, Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida)	Explores how scapegoat myths function as cultural narratives that define power, exclusion, and identity, resonating with Foucault’s discourse analysis.	“Ancient Greece evidently made the same connection as ancient Rome between wild trees and persons who had to be removed from the community.” (p. 309)
Performance and Ritual Studies (Victor Turner, Richard Schechner)	The study highlights the liminality of the scapegoat ritual, supporting Turner’s theory of rites of passage and the performative aspects of cultural purification.	“It was typical of stoning that everybody present took part in it… the involvement of all persons in the expulsion of one member of the group helps reconstitute that group.” (p. 315)
Feminist Literary Theory & Gender Studies	Analyzes how women are often depicted as scapegoats in myth, reinforcing gendered power structures. Bremmer also contrasts male vs. female roles in purification rituals.	“The girl Polykrite was honored with sacrifices during the Thargelia festival, because, as was told, she had died after saving the city from destruction.” (p. 303)
New Historicism (Stephen Greenblatt)	Argues that scapegoat rituals must be understood in their historical and political contexts, contributing to the cultural poetics of ritual violence.	“Evidently, the expulsion of evil was felt so intensely that this seemed to be the appropriate day to celebrate these victories.” (p. 319)
Semiotics (Umberto Eco, Julia Kristeva, Algirdas Greimas)	The scapegoat figure functions as a semiotic sign representing pollution, sin, and communal catharsis.	“The word pharmakos soon became a term of abuse, reflecting its transformation into a cultural signifier of impurity.” (p. 304)
Cultural Anthropology (Clifford Geertz, Mary Douglas)	Links scapegoat rituals to anthropological studies of purity, pollution, and societal boundaries, similar to Douglas’ work on ritual danger.	“Pollution (miasma) must be ritually removed to restore balance, as these rituals were performed during extraordinary circumstances such as plague, famine, and drought.” (p. 302)
Carnival and Inversion Theory (Mikhail Bakhtin)	The temporary elevation of the scapegoat (being honored before expulsion) mirrors the ritual of inversion in Bakhtin’s carnival theory.	“For that reason, the scapegoat was always treated as a very important person.” (p. 305)

Key Takeaways:

Bremmer’s study strengthens Girardian theories of sacrifice by showing how Greek scapegoats absorbed communal guilt.
He provides structuralist insights into the symbolic nature of expulsion, marginality, and purification.

His discussion aligns with psychoanalysis in its exploration of repression and communal violence.
He connects scapegoat rituals to performance studies, illustrating their role in social cohesion and liminality.
His approach has a strong New Historicist dimension, emphasizing how ritual violence reflects the power structures of ancient societies.

His analysis of gender and myth contributes to feminist literary theory by showing how women’s bodies were used as sites of symbolic purification.

Examples of Critiques Through “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer

1. Oedipus Rex (Sophocles)

Scapegoating as Purification: Oedipus is exiled to rid Thebes of its pollution, mirroring the pharmakos ritual where a marginalized figure is expelled to restore order.

“Pollution (miasma) must be ritually removed to restore balance, as these rituals were performed during extraordinary circumstances such as plague, famine, and drought.” (p. 302)

King as the Ultimate Scapegoat: Oedipus, once at the pinnacle of power, is reduced to a liminal figure (a trait seen in both scapegoats and sacrificial kings).

“The king distinguished himself from the rest of the population in that he alone could claim contact with the divine… the lonely marginal at the top.” (p. 304)

Voluntary Exile Reflects Mythic Patterns: Oedipus’ self-imposed exile aligns with myths of voluntary sacrifice, reinforcing Greek belief in communal salvation through individual suffering.

“In our mythical examples, the victims always sacrifice themselves voluntarily.” (p. 307)

2. The Lottery (Shirley Jackson)

Collective Violence as Catharsis: The town’s ritualized stoning of a chosen victim resembles the pharmakos ceremony, where communities purge sin by transferring it onto a single person.

“The involvement of all persons in the expulsion of one member of the group helps reconstitute that group.” (p. 315)

Scapegoating as a Social Necessity: The ritual is unquestioned, much like the scapegoat festivals in Athens and Abdera, showing how societies justify ritual violence as tradition.

“The Thargelia festival included annual scapegoat expulsions, reinforcing collective unity through ritualized exclusion.” (p. 319)

The Victim is Chosen from Within: Unlike myths where outsiders serve as scapegoats, Jackson’s story critiques how even the most integrated members can become targets.

“Strangers naturally do not belong to the community, but even young men and women were considered marginal figures.” (p. 304)

3. The Crucible (Arthur Miller)

Witch Trials as Scapegoat Rituals: Salem’s accused witches function as pharmakoi, expelled to purge the community of imagined sins.

“Where earlier generations saw fertility rituals in the scapegoat complex, Burkert rightly pointed out that these rituals were about sacrificing one to save the many.” (p. 300)

Public Participation in Persecution: Miller critiques mob mentality by showing how communal fear fuels false accusations, paralleling scapegoat expulsions in ancient Greece.

“It was typical of stoning that everybody present took part in it, ensuring collective involvement in expulsion.” (p. 315)

The “Other” as a Necessary Sacrifice: Women, particularly outspoken or independent ones, are cast as dangerous liminal figures—echoing the gendered aspect of scapegoat myths.

“Polykrite, a girl who was sacrificed, was honored during the Thargelia, reinforcing the gendered nature of purification rituals.” (p. 303)

4. Lord of the Flies (William Golding)

The Death of Simon as a Scapegoat Event: Simon is ritualistically killed as an “outsider” who threatens the group’s fragile order. His murder reflects the pharmakos tradition.

“The word pharmakos soon became a term of abuse, reflecting its transformation into a cultural signifier of impurity.” (p. 304)

Scapegoating and Social Collapse: Golding’s novel explores how communities turn on weaker members when faced with chaos, much like Greek societies during times of famine or plague.

“Scapegoat rituals were performed during extraordinary circumstances such as plague, famine, and drought.” (p. 302)

Purification through Bloodshed: The boys’ descent into savagery is solidified by ritualized violence, reflecting how Greek scapegoat expulsions functioned as symbolic purification.

“The expulsion of a citizen from the polis was a serious matter, performed through ritualized processions and symbolic acts.” (p. 314)

Criticism Against “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer

Overemphasis on Structuralism and Ritual Patterning
- Bremmer heavily relies on structuralist interpretations, often reducing historical complexity into rigid ritual structures.
- Critics argue that scapegoat rituals were not uniform across Greece and should not be analyzed as a single, cohesive framework.

Limited Engagement with Political and Social Power Dynamics
- The study focuses more on ritual mechanics than the socio-political functions of scapegoating.
- It does not fully explore how elite power structures used scapegoat rituals to control and manipulate lower-class populations.

Selective Use of Mythological and Historical Sources
- Bremmer integrates both mythic and historical accounts but does not clearly distinguish between them, leading to potential historical inaccuracies.
- Some scholars argue that myths of voluntary sacrifice (e.g., Kodros’ self-sacrifice) should not be equated with actual scapegoat rituals.

Insufficient Analysis of Gender in Scapegoating
- While discussing figures like Polykrite and mythological female sacrifices, Bremmer does not fully develop an analysis of gender in scapegoating rituals.
- The role of women in ritual sacrifice, often as victims, needs a more nuanced exploration in his framework.

Lack of Cross-Cultural Considerations Beyond Greece
- The study briefly mentions Hittite and Biblical parallels, but critics argue that it does not sufficiently compare Greek scapegoat rituals with other ancient cultures (e.g., Mesopotamian, Egyptian).
- The Tibetan ritual comparison (p. 317) is useful but remains underdeveloped, lacking detailed anthropological evidence.

Scapegoating as a Social Function Is Under-Theorized
- While Bremmer effectively outlines ritual processes, he does not explore the psychological and sociological mechanisms that sustain scapegoat practices over time.
- A stronger engagement with René Girard’s theory of mimetic violence and scapegoating would enhance his argument.

Possible Overinterpretation of Symbolism in Plants and Objects
- The extensive discussion of “wild plants” as symbolic markers of impurity and marginality (p. 309) may be overly speculative.
- The argument that squills, agnus castus, and figs inherently marked marginality lacks clear linguistic and archaeological support.

Assumption of Ritual Continuity Across Time Periods
- The study treats scapegoat rituals from different Greek city-states and time periods as part of a continuous tradition, which may not reflect historical reality.
- There is limited discussion of how these rituals evolved or disappeared in the Hellenistic and Roman periods.

Minimal Discussion of Ethical and Philosophical Implications
- Bremmer describes scapegoat rituals as religious practices but does not engage deeply with their ethical or philosophical critique in Greek thought.
- There is little mention of Plato, Aristotle, or later philosophical responses to ritual sacrifice and collective expulsion.

Representative Quotations from “Scapegoat Rituals in Ancient Greece” by Jan Bremmer with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The Greek scapegoat rituals have often been discussed. The so-called Cambridge school in particular, with its lively and morbid interest in everything strange and cruel, paid much attention to it.” (p. 300)	Bremmer critiques the Cambridge school (e.g., Jane Ellen Harrison, Gilbert Murray) for their sensationalist focus on cruelty in ritual studies rather than a structured anthropological or historical approach.
“Although the general meaning is clear, many details are still in need of clarification. For that reason I shall analyze the ritual complex in a more detailed way, paying special attention to its structure.” (p. 300)	This outlines Bremmer’s methodological approach, emphasizing structural analysis of scapegoat rituals rather than focusing solely on their symbolic meaning.
“In Massilia another poor devil offered himself during a plague. He was feasted for a year and then cast out of the city.” (p. 302)	This example from Massilia (modern Marseille) illustrates how scapegoat rituals were sometimes voluntary, with the victim receiving temporary elevation in status before expulsion.
“Where criminals are marginals at the bottom of society, the king is the lonely marginal at the top.” (p. 304)	Bremmer highlights an essential paradox: scapegoats could be drawn from both the lowest and highest ranks of society, reinforcing the idea of marginality in scapegoat selection.
“Summing up, we conclude that in historical reality the community sacrificed the least valuable members of the polis, who were represented, however, as very valuable persons.” (p. 306)	This statement summarizes Bremmer’s argument that scapegoats were low-status individuals who were symbolically treated as highly valuable before expulsion.
“Not only for the execution of criminals but also for whipping them wood was chosen which belonged to the category of the unproductive trees.” (p. 309)	Bremmer connects the choice of plants in scapegoat rituals (such as the squill plant) to broader cultural classifications, where unproductive plants were used for purification.
“After the passage through the special gate the scapegoat was led around the city in a procession.” (p. 314)	This underscores the ritualistic nature of expulsion, where the scapegoat was symbolically removed from the city’s sacred space in a highly orchestrated manner.
“If, however, the scapegoat was only expelled in historical reality—why do the mythical tales often speak of a killing?” (p. 317)	Bremmer distinguishes between historical and mythical versions of scapegoat rituals, arguing that myths often exaggerated the ritual’s violent aspects.
“Evidently, to be more civilized does not always mean to be more humane.” (p. 320)	A critical reflection on Greek ritual practices, suggesting that cultural sophistication did not necessarily correlate with moral progress.
“No new beginning before a complete katharsis of the old situation.” (p. 320)	This final statement reinforces the purificatory function of scapegoat rituals in societal renewal, tying them to larger religious and seasonal cycles.

Day: February 4, 2025