February 28, 2025 - English Studies

“Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone: Summary and Critique

“Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone first appeared in The English Journal in December 1990 (Cone, 1990).

Introduction: “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

“Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone first appeared in The English Journal in December 1990 (Cone, 1990). Published by the National Council of Teachers of English, the article discusses an innovative pedagogical approach that integrates geography into the English classroom, fostering engagement among students of varying academic abilities. Cone’s approach emerged from concerns about the effectiveness of untracked classrooms, particularly in maintaining high standards while accommodating students with diverse literacy skills. Her method involved structuring the ninth-grade curriculum around a literary “journey,” where students explored different cultures and landscapes through literature, film, and writing assignments. By centering lessons on cultural geography, Cone dismantled traditional ability-grouping barriers, enabling students to collaboratively construct knowledge and meaning (Cone, 1990, p. 60). She recounts how introducing literature such as Julie of the Wolves and Animal Farm, alongside nonfiction sources like Time and The San Francisco Chronicle, allowed students to connect reading with real-world contexts (p. 62). Moreover, the use of films, interviews, and independent projects transformed passive reading into an interactive experience, fostering deeper comprehension and critical thinking. The article is significant in literary theory and pedagogy as it challenges rigid curricular structures and demonstrates the potential of interdisciplinary learning to engage students in meaningful literary analysis. Cone’s approach aligns with constructivist educational theories, emphasizing student agency in knowledge creation and illustrating how literature can serve as a gateway to broader cultural understanding (Cone, 1990, p. 66). Her work remains relevant for educators seeking to promote equity in literacy education, demonstrating how literature, when combined with geography and media, can bridge academic gaps and inspire intellectual curiosity in diverse classrooms.

Summary of “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

1. The Problem: Challenges of an Untracked Classroom

Cone describes the transition from a four-track English class system to a two-track system, eliminating lower-level ability grouping (Cone, 1990, p. 60).

She expresses concerns about balancing instruction for students with widely varying reading and writing abilities (p. 61).
Quote: “What if the parents of the higher-achieving students objected to having their children mixed with students who read and wrote poorly?” (Cone, 1990, p. 61).

2. A Solution: Teaching English Through Geography

A student’s misconception that India is in Africa led Cone to design a geography-based English curriculum (p. 60).
The approach aimed to create a shared foundation of knowledge and eliminate ability-based divisions.
Quote: “Instead of building a multidimensional classroom around the teaching of required texts and discourse modes, I would concentrate on geography or, more precisely, cultural geography” (Cone, 1990, p. 60).

3. The Journey Begins: Classroom Strategies

Maps and a banner with the quote “If you don’t read, you are limited to living only one life in only one place” set the theme (p. 60).
The curriculum was structured as a journey through various countries, incorporating literature, film, and writing assignments.

Quote: “We would take a journey around the world, reading and writing and talking our way in and out of countries, cultures, and centuries” (Cone, 1990, p. 60).

4. Engaging Students Through Literature and Discussion

Cone used Julie of the Wolves (George, 1972) to introduce Alaska, fostering discussion and collaborative meaning-making (p. 61).

Reading was supplemented with geography exercises and discussions about culture and identity.
Quote: “The time spent reading in class paid off because it encouraged talk: my students quickly became used to asking questions, predicting events, putting themselves into the main character’s predicament” (Cone, 1990, p. 61).

5. Expanding the Model: Brazil and Critical Reading

The class studied Brazil through various sources, including Time and San Francisco Chronicle articles, introducing students to nonfiction analysis (p. 62).
Students engaged in cooperative learning groups to summarize articles and refine reading comprehension.
Quote: “Many of them had read little exposition and argumentation in English class; fiction and biography are the two genres used almost exclusively with students in low reading and writing tracks” (Cone, 1990, p. 62).

6. Films as Learning Tools

Cone initially resisted using films but discovered their effectiveness in reinforcing literary themes (p. 64).
Movies like Never Cry Wolf and The Emerald Forest provided visual narratives that deepened understanding.

Quote: “Once I decided on the journey idea, however, I began to see the vital role films could play” (Cone, 1990, p. 64).

7. Collaborative Learning and Student Engagement

Students took ownership of the curriculum, suggesting additional films and texts to explore different cultures (p. 64).

Cone facilitated cooperative learning, reducing the hierarchical teacher-student dynamic.
Quote: “This emphasis on negotiating meaning with everyone participating has contributed greatly to the breaking down of barriers erected by years of ability grouping” (Cone, 1990, p. 64).

8. Writing and Personal Reflection

Assignments included personal narratives, interviews, and cultural comparisons, fostering critical thinking and self-reflection (p. 65).
Students conducted interviews with ESL peers, broadening their perspectives on global experiences.
Quote: “Here was a group of students who were clearly filled with information and questions and excitement about learning” (Cone, 1990, p. 63).

9. The Final Assessment: Measuring Growth

The final exam required students to reflect on a book, discussing its main character’s journey and its impact on their own learning (p. 66).
The year ended with a student-led reading session of interviews they had conducted.

Quote: “At the end of the period, I read my contribution to the literary magazine. It began with a review of our journey and ended with an acknowledgment of them as students” (Cone, 1990, p. 66).

10. Lasting Impact and Future Plans

Cone planned to expand the geography-based curriculum, adding texts like Night by Elie Wiesel and Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe (p. 67).

The untracked classroom model proved effective in promoting equity and engagement in English education.
Quote: “The journey and the year are still open. We’ll go where our literary and media tastes and wanderlust take us” (Cone, 1990, p. 67).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

Theoretical Term/Concept	Usage in the Article	Simple Explanation
Untracking (Heterogeneous Grouping)	The school eliminated ability tracking, merging students from different skill levels into a single class to promote equity in education (Cone, 1990, p. 60).	Mixing students of all skill levels in one class instead of separating them by ability.
Constructivist Learning	The curriculum encouraged students to actively construct knowledge through reading, discussions, and projects rather than passively receiving information (p. 64).	Students learn by exploring and discussing ideas rather than just memorizing facts.
Cultural Geography	Geography was used as a framework for teaching literature, helping students understand cultural and historical contexts through texts (p. 60).	Learning about different cultures and places to understand stories better.
Collaborative Learning	Students worked in groups to read, analyze, and discuss literature, fostering peer learning and cooperative meaning-making (p. 62).	Learning together in groups and helping each other understand.
Student Agency	Students influenced the curriculum by suggesting books, films, and discussion topics, shifting ownership of learning from the teacher to the students (p. 64).	Giving students a say in what and how they learn.
Scaffolding	Cone provided structured support, such as reading aloud and guiding discussion, to help students of different abilities engage with challenging texts (p. 62).	Teachers give extra help at the start and slowly remove it as students get better.
Reader-Response Theory	Literature discussions were driven by students’ interpretations and personal connections rather than teacher-imposed analysis (p. 61).	Encouraging students to share their personal opinions about a book instead of just memorizing facts.
Critical Literacy	The curriculum encouraged students to analyze nonfiction texts, such as Time and San Francisco Chronicle articles, developing their ability to question and critique information (p. 62).	Teaching students to think deeply and question what they read in books and news.
Multimodal Learning	Films, maps, and writing assignments supplemented traditional texts, reinforcing concepts through multiple forms of media (p. 64).	Using different types of media (books, movies, pictures) to help students understand ideas.
Experiential Learning	Students engaged in real-world-inspired activities, such as interviews and reflective writing, connecting classroom learning to personal experiences (p. 65).	Learning by doing things instead of just reading about them.
Differentiated Instruction	The curriculum included a variety of texts and assignments to accommodate diverse reading levels and learning styles (p. 63).	Giving different types of work to students based on what they need to learn best.
Culturally Responsive Teaching	The selection of diverse texts and global themes made literature relevant to students from different backgrounds (p. 65).	Choosing books and topics that connect with students’ cultures and experiences.
Reflective Practice	Cone reflected on her teaching methods and adapted strategies based on student engagement and feedback (p. 66).	Teachers think about what works and change their methods to help students learn better.

Contribution of “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Reader-Response Theory

Encourages students to interpret texts based on personal experiences rather than traditional analysis (Cone, 1990, p. 61).
Quote: “The time spent reading in class paid off because it encouraged talk: my students quickly became used to asking questions, predicting events, putting themselves into the main character’s predicament” (Cone, 1990, p. 61).
Students engage in meaning-making through discussion, making literature more interactive and personal.

2. Constructivist Literary Pedagogy

Advocates for an active, student-centered learning approach where students construct meaning through exploration and collaboration (p. 64).
Quote: “This emphasis on negotiating meaning with everyone participating has contributed greatly to the breaking down of barriers erected by years of ability grouping” (Cone, 1990, p. 64).

Literature is not a fixed set of ideas but an evolving conversation shaped by student engagement.

3. Cultural Studies and Postcolonial Literary Theory

Uses literature and geography to explore diverse cultures, histories, and global perspectives (p. 65).

Quote: “Instead of building a multidimensional classroom around the teaching of required texts and discourse modes, I would concentrate on geography or, more precisely, cultural geography” (Cone, 1990, p. 60).
Encourages students to analyze cultural differences, challenging Eurocentric narratives in literary studies.

4. Critical Literacy Theory

Encourages students to analyze media, nonfiction, and literature critically to understand underlying biases and power structures (p. 62).
Quote: “Many of them had read little exposition and argumentation in English class; fiction and biography are the two genres used almost exclusively with students in low reading and writing tracks” (Cone, 1990, p. 62).
Develops students’ ability to question dominant ideologies in literature and media.

5. Multimodal Literary Theory

Integrates different forms of media—films, maps, news articles—to enhance literary understanding (p. 64).
Quote: “My experience this year reversed my position on using film in the classroom. In fact, I attribute my students’ excitement about the curriculum in large part to the films we saw and the added dimension they brought to our understanding of the print media we used” (Cone, 1990, p. 64).

Expands literary analysis beyond written texts, incorporating visual and digital media.

6. Social Constructivist Theory in Literature

Promotes collaborative learning, where students develop literary meaning through group discussions and shared interpretations (p. 62).

Quote: “Students of different academic abilities had worked relatively cooperatively” (Cone, 1990, p. 62).
Literature is understood not individually but through collective discussion and engagement.

7. Culturally Responsive Literary Pedagogy

Selects texts and themes relevant to students’ backgrounds to make literature more inclusive and meaningful (p. 65).
Quote: “The selection of diverse texts and global themes made literature relevant to students from different backgrounds” (Cone, 1990, p. 65).
Challenges the traditional literary canon by integrating global and marginalized voices.

8. Progressive Educational Theory in Literary Studies

Advocates for student agency, where learners have control over what they read and study (p. 64).
Quote: “Students influenced the curriculum by suggesting books, films, and discussion topics, shifting ownership of learning from the teacher to the students” (Cone, 1990, p. 64).

Literature is a tool for empowerment, encouraging students to take an active role in their learning.

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

Literary Work	Critique Through Cone’s Concepts	Concepts from Cone’s Article Used in the Critique
Julie of the Wolves (Jean Craighead George, 1972)	The novel was analyzed through cultural geography, helping students understand the Arctic landscape and Inuit traditions. Students questioned the ethical dilemmas of survival and human-animal relationships, making personal connections to the protagonist’s struggles (Cone, 1990, p. 61).	Cultural Geography, Reader-Response Theory, Constructivist Learning
Animal Farm (George Orwell, 1946)	The allegorical nature of the book was explored through critical literacy, examining themes of power, corruption, and propaganda. Students compared Orwell’s critique of political regimes with contemporary global events (Cone, 1990, p. 65).	Critical Literacy Theory, Social Constructivist Theory, Progressive Educational Theory
Romeo and Juliet (William Shakespeare, 1597)	The play was contextualized within historical and geographical settings, exploring Verona’s societal norms and family structures. Students related the theme of forbidden love to modern issues like cultural and racial tensions (Cone, 1990, p. 66).	Culturally Responsive Literary Pedagogy, Reader-Response Theory, Social Constructivist Theory
The Blue Bouquet (Octavio Paz, 1974)	The short story was used to discuss magical realism and postcolonial perspectives. Students explored the cultural and political context of Latin America, questioning how reality and fiction blend in literature (Cone, 1990, p. 63).	Postcolonial Literary Theory, Multimodal Literary Theory, Cultural Studies

Criticism Against “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone

1. Overgeneralization of Student Engagement

While Cone presents her approach as universally effective, student responses to literature and geography-based learning may vary.

Not all students may engage equally with geography as a foundation for literary analysis.

2. Lack of Rigor in Literary Analysis

The emphasis on personal connections and cultural geography might overshadow deeper textual analysis.

Cone’s approach may prioritize accessibility over traditional literary criticism, limiting students’ ability to engage with complex literary theories.

3. Potential for Unequal Learning Outcomes

Untracked classrooms may still produce disparities in learning, as higher-achieving students may not be sufficiently challenged (Cone, 1990, p. 61).

Some students might struggle with self-directed learning without structured guidance.

4. Over-Reliance on Multimodal Learning

The heavy use of films and visual media might reduce emphasis on textual interpretation and critical reading skills.

Critics might argue that literature should be analyzed primarily through close reading rather than supplementary media.

5. Practical Challenges in Implementation

The geography-based curriculum requires extensive preparation and access to diverse resources, which may not be feasible in all schools.

Teachers with limited training in geography or cultural studies may struggle to implement Cone’s interdisciplinary approach effectively.

6. Limited Focus on Traditional Literary Canon

The article suggests moving away from traditional English curricula, which may disadvantage students preparing for standardized tests or academic literary studies.

Critics may argue that foundational texts should not be sidelined in favor of contemporary and culturally diverse works.

7. Risk of Superficial Cultural Representation

While Cone aims for inclusivity, her approach could unintentionally lead to surface-level engagement with cultures rather than deep critical analysis.

Some critics may argue that discussing different cultures without in-depth historical and political context risks reinforcing stereotypes rather than dismantling them.

8. Insufficient Emphasis on Writing Skills

Although Cone integrates writing tasks, her focus is largely on discussion and interpretation rather than formal writing instruction.

Some students might not develop strong analytical writing skills needed for higher education.

9. Resistance from Traditional Educators and Parents

Parents of high-achieving students may resist mixed-ability grouping, fearing that their children’s learning pace will slow down (Cone, 1990, p. 61).

Traditional educators may view Cone’s student-led learning as lacking discipline and structure.

10. Overlooked Challenges in Assessing Growth

Cone uses pre- and post-tests to measure knowledge but does not provide clear metrics for evaluating literary comprehension and critical thinking progress.

Critics may argue that assessments should be more rigorously structured to track student learning outcomes effectively.

Representative Quotations from “Literature, Geography, and the Untracked English Class” by Joan Kernan Cone with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation in Simple English
“If you don’t read, you are limited to living only one life in only one place.” (Cone, 1990, p. 60)	Reading allows people to experience different worlds and perspectives beyond their immediate surroundings. It expands understanding of different cultures and ideas.
“What if our antitracking philosophy could not be turned into effective classroom practice on a broad scale?” (Cone, 1990, p. 60)	The author expresses concerns about whether a mixed-ability classroom can truly work in practice, given the diverse needs of students.
“Instead of building a multidimensional classroom around the teaching of required texts and discourse modes, I would concentrate on geography or, more precisely, cultural geography.” (Cone, 1990, p. 60)	The teaching approach shifts from a traditional English curriculum to a geography-based framework, incorporating literature and cultural understanding.
“This emphasis on negotiating meaning with everyone participating has contributed greatly to the breaking down of barriers erected by years of ability grouping.” (Cone, 1990, p. 64)	The method encourages collaborative learning, helping to bridge gaps between students of different academic levels.
“I began this year hoping to create an atmosphere in my classroom in which each student would feel like a contributor to the learning of the whole group.” (Cone, 1990, p. 64)	The goal of the teaching method is to foster a sense of shared learning where every student plays an active role.
“My experience this year reversed my position on using film in the classroom.” (Cone, 1990, p. 64)	The author originally resisted using films in teaching but later realized their value in enhancing student engagement and comprehension.
“The moment she showed off her knowledge, Patricia, a shy student who had not attended the junior high most members of the class had attended, established her identity in the class.” (Cone, 1990, p. 62)	Allowing students to contribute knowledge from their own perspectives can empower them and build confidence.
“I suggested they watch it to see what happened this time in light of all the knowledge they had gained from reading Julie of the Wolves.” (Cone, 1990, p. 61)	The students’ understanding of the film changed after they had read a related book, showing the impact of prior knowledge on interpretation.
“Without knowing it, they had much to share about Brazil, knowledge they had gained from elementary school filmstrips and stories and Wild Kingdom adventure segments from TV.” (Cone, 1990, p. 62)	Students often have unconscious knowledge from popular media that can be activated in the classroom.
“The journey and the year are still open. We’ll go where our literary and media tastes and wanderlust take us.” (Cone, 1990, p. 67)	Learning is portrayed as an ongoing journey, shaped by curiosity and exploration rather than rigid structure.

“Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls: Summary and Critique

“Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls first appeared in American Literary History in 2011 (Walls, 2011).

Introduction: “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

“Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls first appeared in American Literary History in 2011 (Walls, 2011). In this article, Walls explores the intersections between literature, geography, and history, emphasizing the ways in which spatial analysis enhances literary theory and cultural studies. Drawing on the work of thinkers such as Alexander von Humboldt and Henri Lefebvre, she critiques the historical fragmentation of disciplines that has separated literature from geography and argues for a reintegration of spatial and literary studies. Walls illustrates how geography has always been a narrative of history, shaping human experiences and cultural identities through landforms, territorial expansions, and ideological constructs. She highlights how American literature has mediated anxieties over space and expansion, shaping national and regional identities while also enabling resistance to dominant spatial narratives. The article engages with works by Hsuan L. Hsu, Mark Rifkin, and Miles Orvell, among others, to demonstrate how literature functions as both a representation of space and a tool for reimagining place-based identities. By examining the literary production of spatial belonging, Walls underscores the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in understanding cultural and historical processes. Her work contributes significantly to literary theory by advocating for “scale-jumping”—a concept that connects the personal, local, national, and global dimensions of space, thereby challenging fixed, hegemonic notions of geography and identity (Walls, 2011).

Summary of “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Interdisciplinary Fusion of Literature and Geography
Walls advocates for an interdisciplinary approach that merges literature, geography, and history, arguing that modern geography is inherently shaped by historical processes. She references Alexander von Humboldt’s idea that “their form is their history” to emphasize that both landforms and languages develop through time (Walls, 2011, p. 860). However, she critiques the 19th-century fragmentation of disciplines, which led to a rigid separation of literary and geographic studies instead of their integration.
The Spatial Turn in Literary Studies
Walls highlights the “spatial turn” in the humanities, which emerged in the 1980s through theorists like Henri Lefebvre, David Harvey, and Edward Soja. This movement challenges “space-blinkered historicism” and redefines geography as an active force rather than a passive backdrop (p. 861). She explains that spatial analysis allows scholars to explore literature’s role in shaping cultural and national identities, particularly in relation to American territorial expansion and its ideological foundations.

Geography, Colonialism, and American Expansion
The article examines how geography has been instrumental in American colonial expansion, citing Hsuan L. Hsu’s study on spatial expansion as a response to economic crises. She discusses how expansion functioned as a “spatial fix” to internal economic instability but also generated new conflicts and contradictions (p. 862). Literature, Walls argues, plays a crucial role in mediating these anxieties by depicting the struggles over land, identity, and displacement.
Scale-Jumping and Literary Representation
Walls introduces the concept of “scale-jumping,” describing how literature enables readers to shift perspectives between local, national, and global spaces (p. 862). She illustrates this with figures like Ralph Waldo Emerson and Walt Whitman, who depicted America’s geography as an expansive, poetic entity (p. 863). However, she also warns that scale-jumping has historically been used to justify imperial expansion, as seen in the rhetoric of U.S. missionaries and colonial explorers.
Borders, Sovereignty, and Indigenous Geographies
Drawing on Mark Rifkin’s work, Walls critiques the ideological construction of borders as a means of erasing Indigenous sovereignty. She argues that the true violence of American expansion was not just territorial conquest but the “conceptual violence” that forced Indigenous peoples into a framework of dispossession and marginalization (p. 865). By analyzing “subaltern geographies,” Walls explores how Indigenous resistance continues to challenge dominant spatial narratives.

Public and Private Spaces in American Culture
Walls extends her discussion of geography to urban spaces, referencing studies by Orvell and Meikle on the contested nature of public spaces. She highlights how sites like Washington D.C.’s National Mall have historically been arenas for political struggle and national identity formation (p. 868). However, she contrasts these organic public spaces with the increasing privatization of urban life, where commercialized areas like shopping malls and gated communities threaten democratic engagement (p. 869).
Literature’s Role in Reimagining Space
Walls concludes by emphasizing that literature is not merely a reflection of spatial realities but an active force in shaping them. She argues that literature offers “alternate geographies” that allow readers to challenge dominant spatial structures and reimagine power relations (p. 870). She calls for an interdisciplinary approach that reconnects literature with geography to better understand the socio-political landscapes that shape human experience.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	How Walls Defines and Uses It
Interdisciplinarity	The integration of different academic disciplines, particularly literature and geography, to provide a more comprehensive understanding of spatial and cultural narratives (Walls, 2011, p. 860).	Walls argues for an interdisciplinary approach that unites literature and geography, challenging the traditional fragmentation of disciplines. She suggests that reconnecting these fields can help us better understand historical and cultural processes.
Spatial Turn	A shift in humanities and social sciences that emphasizes space as an active, constructed entity rather than a passive setting, influenced by thinkers like Henri Lefebvre and Edward Soja (Walls, 2011, p. 861).	Walls traces the emergence of the spatial turn in the 1980s and highlights its impact on literary studies, particularly in reconsidering American national identity and historical narratives.
Scale-Jumping	The ability of literature to move between different spatial scales—local, regional, national, and global—to create a sense of interconnectedness (Walls, 2011, p. 862).	Walls explains that literature allows readers to shift perspectives across different spatial levels, sometimes reinforcing national myths and at other times challenging dominant ideologies of expansion.
Subaltern Geographies	The study of spaces marginalized by dominant spatial narratives, particularly Indigenous territories erased or overwritten by colonial expansion (Walls, 2011, p. 866).	Walls draws on Mark Rifkin’s work to show how American imperial expansion erased Indigenous spaces and histories, arguing that literature can help recover these subaltern geographies.
Public vs. Private Space	The contested nature of public spaces, where capitalist interests often encroach upon communal and civic spaces, shaping social interactions (Walls, 2011, p. 868).	Walls discusses how spaces like Washington D.C.’s National Mall serve as arenas of political struggle while contrasting this with the increasing privatization of urban life.
Conceptual Violence	A form of ideological violence that frames marginalized groups as outsiders, effectively erasing their agency and presence in spatial histories (Walls, 2011, p. 865).	Walls critiques the ways in which national maps create a false sense of unity while systematically excluding Indigenous and marginalized communities from historical narratives.
Geographical Belonging	The way literature and geography shape individuals’ emotional and cultural attachments to spaces, influencing identity formation (Walls, 2011, p. 862).	Walls explains how literature creates feelings of spatial belonging, helping readers connect to local, regional, and national identities, often in response to colonial expansion.
Territorial Coherence	The idea that national maps create a false sense of unity by obscuring the histories of Indigenous and contested spaces (Walls, 2011, p. 865).	Walls critiques the “fetishized image of territorial coherence,” arguing that maps reinforce an artificial unity that ignores spatial conflicts and erased geographies.
Empire for Liberty	Thomas Jefferson’s concept of the U.S. as an expanding “empire for liberty,” which paradoxically justified territorial expansion and Indigenous displacement (Walls, 2011, p. 865).	Walls analyzes how Jefferson’s rhetoric framed expansion as a moral project while simultaneously legitimizing the dispossession of Indigenous peoples.
Environmental Unconscious	A term describing how literature and culture reveal suppressed environmental and spatial histories, particularly through representations of landfills and waste (Walls, 2011, p. 869).	Walls references Don DeLillo’s Underworld and other literary works to illustrate how hidden landscapes, like landfills, symbolize forgotten ecological and social histories.

Contribution of “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls to Literary Theory/Theories

Spatial Theory and the Spatial Turn in Literary Studies
Walls contributes to spatial theory by emphasizing the role of space as an active force in shaping literature and culture. She draws on the spatial turn initiated by Henri Lefebvre, David Harvey, and Edward Soja, arguing that space is “not merely a backdrop but an active participant in history and literature” (Walls, 2011, p. 861). By engaging with spatial theory, Walls positions literature as a medium that constructs, contests, and redefines geographic and ideological boundaries.

Postcolonial Theory and Subaltern Studies
Walls’ discussion of subaltern geographies aligns with postcolonial theory, particularly the work of Gayatri Spivak and Edward Said, by exploring how imperial expansion erases Indigenous and marginalized spatial histories. She engages with Mark Rifkin’s concept of “territorial coherence” to show how national maps “fetishize territorial unity while suppressing Indigenous sovereignty” (Walls, 2011, p. 865). Her work contributes to postcolonial literary theory by revealing how literature can recover and reimagine erased geographies.
Ecocriticism and Environmental Humanities
Walls incorporates ecocritical perspectives by discussing how literature engages with the environment and suppressed ecological narratives. She references Klaus Benesch’s idea of the “environmental unconscious,” showing how literature reveals hidden landscapes such as landfills and abandoned industrial sites (Walls, 2011, p. 869). Her argument supports ecocritical readings of literature as a means of uncovering historical and environmental transformations.
Cultural Geography and Literary Cartography
By linking literature with geography, Walls advances the field of literary cartography, which studies how literary texts map spatial relations and cultural identities. She demonstrates how literary texts engage in “scale-jumping,” allowing readers to shift between local, national, and global perspectives (Walls, 2011, p. 862). This contribution aligns with Franco Moretti’s concept of distant reading, where geographic and spatial relationships shape literary analysis.

Critical Regionalism and National Identity
Walls’ analysis of critical regionalism contributes to discussions on national and regional identity formation in literary studies. She engages with Hsuan L. Hsu’s argument that “regional identification is constructed externally through economic and ideological forces” (Walls, 2011, p. 867). By challenging the nostalgia of regional literature, Walls suggests that literature both reflects and critiques the formation of national and regional identities.
Urban Theory and the Politics of Public Space
Drawing on studies of public space by Miles Orvell and Jeffrey Meikle, Walls discusses the contestation of urban spaces in literature. She examines how capitalist forces privatize urban environments, reducing public spaces to sites of commercial activity (Walls, 2011, p. 868). Her analysis contributes to urban theory by revealing how literature critiques and reimagines urban landscapes as spaces of resistance and civic engagement.
American Studies and the Ideology of Manifest Destiny
Walls critiques the ideological construction of America as a unified space, engaging with the concept of Manifest Destiny. She argues that Thomas Jefferson’s vision of an “empire for liberty” justified territorial expansion while displacing Indigenous peoples (Walls, 2011, p. 865). By challenging the myth of national coherence, Walls’ work contributes to American Studies by exposing how literature interrogates expansionist ideologies.

Literary Globalization and Transnational Studies
Walls contributes to transnational literary studies by analyzing how literature navigates global, national, and regional scales. She explores how “cosmopolitan rhetoric has been used both for liberatory and imperialist purposes” (Walls, 2011, p. 864). Her discussion aligns with transnational literary theories that examine the movement of ideas, people, and narratives across borders.

Examples of Critiques Through “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Literary Work	Concepts Applied	Critique Through Walls’ Framework
Edgar Huntly (1799) by Charles Brockden Brown	Gothic Geographies, Subaltern Geographies	Walls, drawing on Hsuan L. Hsu’s spatial analysis, critiques Brown’s novel for its portrayal of Gothic geographies, where space becomes unmappable, and repressed Indigenous voices disrupt dominant colonial narratives (Walls, 2011, p. 863). The novel illustrates how American expansion is inherently unstable, challenging the idea of a smoothly integrated national space.
Leaves of Grass (1855) by Walt Whitman	Scale-Jumping, Literary Cartography	Walls uses Whitman’s poetry to explore scale-jumping, showing how he transforms America into an expansive poetic geography (Walls, 2011, p. 863). His work fosters national unity through literary cartography, imagining America as a unified poetic space, but Walls cautions that this vision often overlooks colonial violence and the exclusion of marginalized groups.
Underworld (1997) by Don DeLillo	Environmental Unconscious, Hidden Geographies	DeLillo’s novel is examined through the lens of the environmental unconscious, where waste dumps and industrial ruins serve as suppressed spatial histories (Walls, 2011, p. 869). Walls highlights how the novel’s geography reveals hidden ecological and social consequences of capitalist expansion, exposing the discarded remnants of industrialization.
Manifest Destiny Writings (Various American Authors)	Conceptual Violence, Territorial Coherence	Walls critiques the ideological construction of U.S. expansionist narratives, showing how writings associated with Manifest Destiny reflect conceptual violence (Walls, 2011, p. 865). She argues that these texts reinforce the illusion of territorial coherence while erasing Indigenous geographies and legitimizing territorial dispossession, shaping the ideological foundations of U.S. expansionism.

Criticism Against “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls

Overemphasis on Spatial Theory at the Expense of Other Critical Lenses
Walls heavily focuses on spatial theory, often prioritizing it over other important theoretical frameworks such as gender, race, and class. While she addresses Indigenous erasure, some critics may argue that she does not sufficiently engage with feminist geography or intersectional perspectives in her analysis. A more comprehensive critique could have integrated these dimensions to offer a fuller interdisciplinary approach.
Limited Engagement with Contemporary Globalization Studies
Although Walls discusses scale-jumping and transnational perspectives, her work primarily centers on American spatial dynamics. Critics might argue that she does not sufficiently address the implications of global capitalism, migration, or transnational literature, which would expand the scope of her argument beyond U.S.-centric spatial concerns.

Idealization of Interdisciplinarity Without Addressing Institutional Constraints
While Walls advocates for interdisciplinary approaches that merge literature and geography, she does not fully address the institutional barriers that often hinder such integration in academia. Critics might point out that disciplinary divisions are not merely theoretical but are reinforced by academic structures, funding, and publishing norms that make interdisciplinary work difficult to implement in practice.
Potential Overgeneralization of Literary Spatial Dynamics
Walls makes broad claims about literature’s role in shaping and contesting space, but some critics might argue that she does not sufficiently account for variations across different genres, historical contexts, and literary traditions. Her focus on spatial readings of canonical American literature could be expanded to include more diverse literary traditions that engage with space in different ways.
Insufficient Engagement with Alternative Indigenous Spatial Theories
While Walls discusses Indigenous geographies and subaltern spaces, some critics may argue that her analysis is largely grounded in Western theoretical frameworks, such as Lefebvre and Soja. A stronger engagement with Indigenous scholars and spatial theorists could provide a more nuanced and decolonial approach to the study of space in literature.

Abstract Theoretical Language May Limit Accessibility
The complex theoretical discussions in Walls’ essay, particularly regarding the spatial turn and conceptual violence, might be difficult for readers unfamiliar with spatial theory. Some critics could argue that her work would benefit from a more accessible writing style or additional concrete literary examples to illustrate her arguments more clearly.

Representative Quotations from “Literature, Geography, and the Spaces of Interdisciplinarity” by Laura Dassow Walls with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The American map, which lies so apparently flat and solid, is in fact yeasty with such heterogeneous spaces.”	Walls critiques the illusion of a unified American space, emphasizing its internal diversity and contestation, challenging the perception of the nation as a singular entity (Walls, 2011, p. 860).
“Their form is their history.”	Quoting Humboldt, Walls highlights how geography and history are interconnected, shaping landscapes, cultures, and national identities over time (Walls, 2011, p. 861).
“Could have been, but was not. The watchword for the nineteenth century was disciplinary specialization, not fusion.”	She argues that academic disciplines fragmented rather than fused knowledge, limiting interdisciplinary understanding and preventing a holistic view of literature and geography (Walls, 2011, p. 862).
“The interpretive significance of space” is a concept that challenges “space-blinkered historicism.”	Walls references postmodern geographers to emphasize the role of space as an active, interpretive force rather than a neutral backdrop, challenging traditional historical readings (Walls, 2011, p. 863).
“America itself as a ‘place’—that is, a ‘space’ made meaningful—becomes ‘the record of assertion and displacement, of authority and the subversion of authority.'”	This statement underscores how American spatial identity is defined through contestations, exclusions, and power struggles, making space a site of ideological conflict (Walls, 2011, p. 864).
“What does it mean to identify not with a fixed national space but with a panoply of changing and contested spaces?”	Walls explores Hsu’s concept of scale-jumping and literary identification, showing how texts mediate instability in spatial belonging and national identity (Walls, 2011, p. 865).
“The real puzzle is not how an expanding US conquered its territory, but how that territory became ‘manifested’ as a free union of, by, and for the people.”	She critiques the ideological mechanisms that portray territorial expansion as consensual and natural rather than contested, exposing the constructed nature of U.S. nationalism (Walls, 2011, p. 866).
“Public space, in the sense of functional space, is always a construction, and as such an expression of someone’s will.”	Walls examines how public spaces are shaped by political, economic, and ideological interests, challenging assumptions about their neutrality and accessibility (Walls, 2011, p. 867).
“Cosmopolitan scale-jumping can use regionalism as a springboard, connecting what seem to be merely local struggles with similar struggles abroad.”	She highlights how regionalism can serve as both a site of resistance and complicity in global capitalism, emphasizing the role of literature in shaping political consciousness (Walls, 2011, p. 868).
“The boundary separating the disciplines of literature and geography is itself a geographical question, a problem of form which is simultaneously a problem of history.”	Walls argues for a transdisciplinary approach, suggesting that spatial and literary analyses must be understood as mutually constitutive, rather than as separate fields (Walls, 2011, p. 870).

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Day: February 28, 2025