Month: February 2025

Introduction: “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad)

“The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad) first appeared in print in the 19th century as part of collections of English folk ballads, with notable versions recorded in Francis James Child’s English and Scottish Popular Ballads (1882-1898). This haunting ballad explores themes of love, grief, and the supernatural, illustrating the deep sorrow of a bereaved lover who mourns at the grave of their deceased beloved for a “twelvemonth and a day,” only to be confronted by the restless spirit of the dead. The dialogue between the living and the deceased emphasizes the futility of clinging to the past, as the ghost warns, “The stalk is withered dry, my love, / So will our hearts decay,” signifying the inevitable passage of time and the necessity of letting go. The ballad’s enduring popularity stems from its melancholic beauty and its universal meditation on love, loss, and acceptance, encapsulated in the poignant exchange between the mourner and the spirit. The imagery of the “clay-cold lips” and the “earthy strong” breath highlights the physical reality of death, reinforcing the song’s central message that life must continue even in the face of sorrow.

Text: “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad)

Annotations: “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad)

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad)

Themes: “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad)

• Grief and Mourning: One of the central themes of grief and mourning in “The Unquiet Grave” is the deep sorrow and inability to move on after the death of a loved one. The mourner expresses their profound grief, vowing, “I’ll sit and mourn all at her grave / For a twelvemonth and a day,” demonstrating their unwillingness to let go. This extended period of mourning highlights the emotional burden that loss imposes on the living. However, the poem also suggests that excessive grief can disturb the peace of the dead, as seen when the spirit speaks: “Oh who sits weeping on my grave, / And will not let me sleep?” This moment illustrates the tension between love and the need for closure. While mourning is a natural and necessary process, the poem warns against becoming consumed by it, as it may prevent both the living and the dead from finding peace.
• The Supernatural and Communication with the Dead: The theme of the supernatural is central to “The Unquiet Grave”, as it portrays a direct interaction between the living and the dead. The idea that excessive mourning can summon the spirit of the deceased adds a ghostly and eerie element to the story. When the twelvemonth and a day of mourning pass, the dead lover rises to speak, breaking the boundary between life and death: “The dead began to speak.” This supernatural occurrence suggests that unresolved emotions, particularly overwhelming grief, can disturb the natural order. The poem reflects traditional folk beliefs that the dead may linger if the living are unable to let go. The communication between the mourner and the ghost emphasizes the power of love beyond death but also serves as a warning that holding on too tightly to the past can have unsettling consequences.
• The Inevitability of Death and Decay: Another significant theme in “The Unquiet Grave” is the inevitability of death and decay. The poem reminds the mourner that life must continue, and that everything, including love, eventually fades with time. The ghost conveys this idea through a powerful metaphor: “The finest flower that e’er was seen / Is withered to a stalk.” The imagery of a once-beautiful flower now dried up symbolizes how love and life, no matter how strong, are subject to the same natural cycle of growth and decline. The poem suggests that, just as flowers wither and decay, so too must human relationships and emotions change with time. The spirit further advises, “So make yourself content, my love, / Till God calls you away,” urging the mourner to accept death as an unavoidable part of existence and to find peace in the knowledge that life must go on.
• The Dangers of Clinging to the Past: The poem also explores the dangers of clinging to the past, showing how an inability to let go of lost love can lead to self-destruction. The mourner desperately longs for one last kiss from their deceased lover, pleading, “For I crave one kiss of your clay-cold lips, / And that is all I seek.” However, the ghost warns against this desire, stating, “If you have one kiss of my clay-cold lips, / Your time will not be long.” This warning illustrates the dangers of dwelling on what is lost, as it suggests that an obsession with the past can be physically or emotionally harmful. The poem implies that fixation on grief can bring about one’s own demise, whether metaphorically through despair or literally through an early death. The ghost’s message ultimately serves as a lesson in acceptance, urging the mourner to move forward rather than being trapped in sorrow.

Literary Theories and “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad)

Critical Questions about “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad)

• How does “The Unquiet Grave” portray the psychological effects of grief?
• “The Unquiet Grave” presents grief as an all-consuming and psychologically distressing force that traps the mourner in a state of sorrow. The speaker vows to mourn for a “twelvemonth and a day,” which reflects an obsessive, prolonged attachment to the deceased. This refusal to move on suggests that the mourner’s identity has become entirely tied to their loss, a concept that aligns with psychological theories on grief, such as Freud’s mourning and melancholia, where the inability to detach from the dead leads to emotional stagnation. The mourner’s overwhelming sorrow even disturbs the dead, prompting the ghost to ask, “Oh who sits weeping on my grave, / And will not let me sleep?” This line implies that excessive grief is unnatural and disrupts both the mourner’s well-being and the peace of the deceased. The ghost’s warning about the mourner’s longing for a kiss—“If you have one kiss of my clay-cold lips, / Your time will not be long.”—further emphasizes the dangerous effects of unchecked grief, suggesting that dwelling on death may lead to self-destruction. Through these elements, the ballad explores grief as a force that not only isolates the living but also disrupts the balance between life and death.
• How does “The Unquiet Grave” use imagery to reinforce its themes of death and decay?
• Imagery in “The Unquiet Grave” plays a crucial role in reinforcing its themes of death, decay, and the inevitability of time. The ghost’s description of their physical state emphasizes the inescapable nature of decomposition: “You crave one kiss of my clay-cold lips, / But my breath smells earthy strong.” The phrase “clay-cold lips” vividly conveys the physical reality of death, reminding the mourner that their beloved no longer possesses the warmth of life. The mention of “earthy strong” breath further highlights decay, grounding the supernatural elements of the poem in the physical realities of mortality. Additionally, the imagery of the withered flower—“The finest flower that e’er was seen / Is withered to a stalk.”—symbolizes the natural process of decline, drawing a direct parallel between nature and human existence. Just as flowers bloom and fade, so too do love and life. This imagery serves as a stark reminder that nothing remains unchanged by time, reinforcing the ballad’s message that the living must eventually let go and accept mortality.
• What is the significance of the supernatural elements in “The Unquiet Grave”?
• The supernatural encounter in “The Unquiet Grave” serves as both a narrative device and a thematic exploration of unresolved grief and the boundary between life and death. The ghost’s ability to speak and interact with the mourner suggests that intense emotions—particularly grief—have the power to disturb the natural order. The idea that the dead can be called back by excessive mourning is a common motif in folklore, reinforcing the belief that spirits linger when they are not at peace. The poem dramatizes this idea when the spirit asks, “Oh who sits weeping on my grave, / And will not let me sleep?”—suggesting that excessive sorrow can prevent the dead from resting. The supernatural presence also serves to warn the living, as seen in the ghost’s statement, “If you have one kiss of my clay-cold lips, / Your time will not be long.” This eerie warning underscores the connection between grief and death, implying that an obsession with the deceased may bring the mourner closer to their own demise. The use of the supernatural, therefore, not only enhances the ballad’s haunting atmosphere but also reinforces its cautionary message about the dangers of dwelling too long on the past.
• How does “The Unquiet Grave” reflect attitudes toward love and loss in traditional folk ballads?
• Like many traditional folk ballads, “The Unquiet Grave” portrays love as enduring beyond death, but it also warns against excessive devotion to the past. Folk ballads often explore the idea of love persisting after death, sometimes in the form of supernatural encounters, as seen here with the spirit returning to speak to the mourner. The speaker’s deep sorrow reflects an idealized, undying love, as they say, “I never had but one true-love, / In cold grave she was lain.” This sentiment aligns with the romanticized notion of love in folk traditions, where devotion continues even beyond the grave. However, the ballad ultimately discourages such prolonged mourning, as the ghost urges the mourner to find contentment: “So make yourself content, my love, / Till God calls you away.” This reflects a more practical perspective often found in folk literature—while love is valued, life must go on. The use of natural imagery, such as the withering flower, further reinforces this traditional folk wisdom by showing that all things, including love and grief, must pass with time. Through this blend of romantic devotion and cautionary wisdom, “The Unquiet Grave” encapsulates the emotional depth and moral lessons typical of traditional folk ballads.

Literary Works Similar to “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad)

1. “Bonny Barbara Allan” (Traditional Ballad) – Like “The Unquiet Grave”, this ballad explores unfulfilled love and death, with Barbara Allan realizing her love too late and dying of grief.
2. “Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe – This poem shares the theme of eternal love beyond death, with the narrator mourning his lost love and believing their souls remain connected.
3. “When We Two Parted” by Lord Byron – Similar to “The Unquiet Grave”, this poem expresses deep sorrow and lingering emotional pain after a loss, emphasizing the lasting impact of separation.
4. “La Belle Dame sans Merci” by John Keats – Like the ballad, this poem features a supernatural encounter where love and death intertwine, as a knight is haunted by a ghostly, otherworldly woman.
5. “The Wife’s Lament” (Anglo-Saxon Elegy) – This poem mirrors “The Unquiet Grave” in its theme of isolation and mourning, as a woman laments the absence of her lost love and her suffering in exile.

Representative Quotations of “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad)

Suggested Readings: “The Unquiet Grave” (Traditional English Ballad)

1. Harvey, Ruth. “The Unquiet Grave.” Journal of the English Folk Dance and Song Society 4.2 (1941): 49-66.
2. Harvey, Ruth. “The Unquiet Grave.” Journal of the English Folk Dance and Song Society, vol. 4, no. 2, 1941, pp. 49–66. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4521181. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
3. BAGLOW, JOHN. “Unquiet Grave.” Murmuration: Marianne’s Book, vol. 78, McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2023, pp. 57–57. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.6879734.54. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
4. BRONSON, BERTRAND HARRIS. “The Unquiet Grave.” The Traditional Tunes of the Child Ballads, Volume 2, Princeton University Press, 1962, pp. 234–45. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183pr9s.27. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
5. Oates, Joyce Carol. “Notes on Failure.” The Hudson Review, vol. 35, no. 2, 1982, pp. 231–45. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/3850783. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
6. Atkinson, David. “Wit Combats with Ballad Revenants: ‘Proud Lady Margaret’ and ‘The Unquiet Grave.'” Western Folklore, vol. 50, no. 3, 1991, pp. 231–54. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1499877. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.

Introduction: “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

“Edward, Edward,” a traditional Scottish ballad, first appeared in print in Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765), a collection compiled by Thomas Percy. The ballad follows the tragic confession of Edward, who, through a tense dialogue with his mother, reveals that he has murdered his father. The poem’s core themes include guilt, betrayal, and the burden of fate, encapsulated in Edward’s final revelation that his mother encouraged the crime: “The curse of hell from me shall you bear, / Mother, mother: / Such counsels you gave to me, O.” The poem’s haunting repetition and incremental questioning build suspense, making it a compelling and psychologically intense narrative. Its popularity endures due to its exploration of moral corruption and tragic destiny, elements that resonate deeply within the oral tradition of Scottish and English balladry.

Text: “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

MODERN TRANSLATION (original below)

“Why does your sword so drip with blood,
      Edward, Edward?
Why does your sword so drip with blood?
    And why so sad are ye, O?”
“O, I have killed my hawk so good,
      Mother, mother:
O I have killed my hawk so good:
    And I had no more but he, O.”

“Your hawk’s blood was never so red,
      Edward, Edward:
Your hawk’s blood was never so red,
    My dear son I tell thee, O.”
“O, I have killed my red-roan steed,
        Mother, mother:
O, I have killed my red-roan steed,
    That once was so fair and free, O.”

“Your steed was old, and we have got more,
      Edward, Edward:
Your steed was old, and we have got more,
    Some other evil ye fear, O.”
“O, I have killed my father dear,
        Mother, mother:
O, I have killed my father dear,
    Alas! and woe is me, O!”

“And what penance will ye suffer for that,
      Edward, Edward?
And what penance will ye suffer  for that?
    My dear son, now tell me, O.”
“I’ll set my feet in yonder boat,
      Mother, mother:
I’ll set my feet in yonder boat,
    And I’ll fare over the sea, O.”

“And what will ye do with your towers and your halls,
      Edward, Edward?
And what will ye do with your towers and your halls,
      That were sae fair to see, O?”
“I’ll let them stand till they down fall,
      Mother, mother:
I’ll let them stand till they down fall,
      For here never more may I be, O.”

“And what will ye leave to your children and your wife,
      Edward, Edward?
And what will ye leave to your children and your wife
    When ye go over the sea, O?”
“The world is large, let them beg through life,
      Mother, mother:
The world is large, let them beg throw life,
    For them never more will I see, O.”

“And what will ye leave to your own mother dear,
      Edward, Edward?
And what will ye leave to your own mother dear?
    My dear son, now tell me, O.”
“The curse of hell from me shall you bear,
      Mother, mother:
The curse of hell from me shall you bear,
    Such counsels you gave to me, O.”

Annotations: “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

Themes: “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

• Guilt and Psychological Torment: One of the most prominent themes in “Edward, Edward” is guilt and psychological torment. The ballad unfolds as Edward gradually reveals his crime, starting with small lies before admitting to murdering his father. His responses are laden with distress and remorse, particularly when he exclaims, “O, I have killed my father dear, / Alas! and woe is me, O!” His sorrow is emphasized by the repeated questioning from his mother, which forces him to confront his actions. His decision to exile himself, saying, “I’ll set my feet in yonder boat, / And I’ll fare over the sea, O.” demonstrates that he feels irredeemable. The weight of his crime leaves him with no other option but to abandon everything he knows, reinforcing the devastating effects of guilt on the human psyche.
• Familial Betrayal and Corruption: The theme of familial betrayal is central to the ballad, culminating in the shocking revelation that Edward was influenced by his own mother to commit patricide. The initial tension in the conversation between Edward and his mother suggests that she suspects something far more sinister than the death of a hawk or a horse. The ultimate betrayal is revealed in the final lines when Edward curses his mother, saying, “The curse of hell from me shall you bear, / Such counsels you gave to me, O.” This suggests that she played a role in manipulating him into killing his father. The ballad, therefore, portrays a deeply fractured family dynamic, where love and loyalty are replaced by deceit and moral corruption, leading to tragic consequences.
• Fate and Inescapable Consequences: Edward’s fate is sealed the moment he commits murder, reinforcing the theme of inescapable consequences. His attempts to downplay his actions by lying about killing his hawk and horse serve as desperate but futile efforts to avoid the truth. However, as his guilt is uncovered, he realizes that his punishment is unavoidable. He accepts exile as his fate, stating, “I’ll let them stand till they down fall, / For here never more may I be, O.” His decision to leave his family behind, including his wife and children, whom he condemns to beg for survival, highlights the permanence of his crime. The ballad reflects a fatalistic worldview where once a great sin is committed, no redemption is possible, and escape is the only remaining path.
• Moral Corruption and the Role of Influence: A key message in the ballad is how individuals can be driven to immorality under the influence of others. Edward’s descent into crime is not just a personal failing but also a result of external manipulation. His mother’s subtle but persistent questioning suggests that she knows more than she initially lets on, and Edward’s final words confirm her role in leading him to commit murder. “The curse of hell from me shall you bear” suggests that she did not just condone the crime but actively encouraged it. This raises a larger moral question about the nature of evil—whether it is innate or cultivated by external forces. The ballad warns of the dangers of corrupt influences, especially within families, where trust should be strongest but can instead be a source of destruction.

Literary Theories and “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

Critical Questions about “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

• How does repetition contribute to the tone and meaning of the ballad?
• Repetition is a crucial stylistic element in “Edward, Edward” that enhances the ballad’s tone of suspense, inevitability, and despair. The repeated questioning by Edward’s mother—“Why does your sword so drip with blood, / Edward, Edward?”—creates a rhythmic and interrogative structure that builds tension. Each stanza follows a pattern where Edward initially gives misleading answers about killing his hawk and horse before finally admitting to patricide. This gradual revelation heightens the dramatic intensity of the ballad. The repetition of “Mother, mother” also reinforces the strained relationship between Edward and his mother, suggesting that she is both a source of comfort and a figure of authority pressing him to confess. By the end, repetition serves to emphasize Edward’s complete emotional collapse, particularly in his curse: “The curse of hell from me shall you bear, / Such counsels you gave to me, O.” This repetition of blame shows how Edward shifts responsibility for his crime onto his mother, reinforcing the ballad’s tragic and accusatory tone.
• What role does the mother play in the development of the ballad’s conflict?
• The mother in “Edward, Edward” plays an ambiguous yet central role in the unfolding of the conflict. Initially, she appears as a probing and suspicious figure, pressing Edward for the truth about his bloody sword. Her persistence in questioning—“Your hawk’s blood was never so red”—suggests that she is not easily deceived and perhaps already knows what has transpired. However, her role extends beyond mere inquiry; Edward ultimately blames her for the crime, declaring, “The curse of hell from me shall you bear, / Such counsels you gave to me, O.” This suggests that she may have encouraged, or at least influenced, Edward’s decision to kill his father. The ballad leaves it unclear whether she directly instructed him or if Edward is merely transferring his guilt onto her. This ambiguity adds to the complexity of the mother’s character, making her either a manipulative instigator or a symbolic figure representing a corrupt moral influence within the family.
• How does “Edward, Edward” reflect themes of fate and inescapable consequences?
• The ballad presents a bleak view of fate, suggesting that once a crime is committed, there is no path to redemption—only exile and ruin. Edward, after admitting to his father’s murder, does not seek forgiveness or atonement; instead, he immediately chooses to flee: “I’ll set my feet in yonder boat, / And I’ll fare over the sea, O.” His drastic decision to abandon his home and family highlights a fatalistic perspective, where actions lead to irreversible consequences. Furthermore, his statement “I’ll let them stand till they down fall, / For here never more may I be, O.” underscores his detachment from his past life, suggesting that guilt has made it impossible for him to return. Even his wife and children are forsaken—“The world is large, let them beg through life”—showing that, in his view, his crime has condemned not only himself but also those around him. The ballad, therefore, portrays crime as an act that permanently alters one’s destiny, reinforcing the idea that Edward’s actions have doomed him to a life of isolation and suffering.
• What does the ballad suggest about justice and moral responsibility?
• “Edward, Edward” raises complex questions about justice and moral responsibility, particularly in the way blame is assigned. Edward confesses to the murder of his father, an act that, in many traditional narratives, would be met with a form of legal or divine justice. However, rather than facing direct punishment, he chooses self-imposed exile: “I’ll set my feet in yonder boat, / And I’ll fare over the sea, O.” This suggests that justice in the ballad is personal and psychological rather than external. Moreover, Edward’s curse upon his mother—“The curse of hell from me shall you bear”—shifts the burden of moral responsibility away from himself, implying that he sees himself as a victim of influence rather than an independent agent of his crime. The lack of any formal justice system within the ballad reinforces a sense of lawlessness and moral ambiguity, where guilt and punishment are internalized rather than externally enforced. This ambiguity invites the reader to question whether Edward’s fate is just and whether his mother truly bears responsibility for his actions.

Literary Works Similar to “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

1. “Lord Randal” – This traditional Scottish ballad shares a strikingly similar question-and-answer format, where a mother interrogates her son, who ultimately reveals he has been poisoned. Like “Edward, Edward”, it explores themes of betrayal, death, and familial tension.
2. “The Twa Sisters” (also known as “The Cruel Sister”) – This Scottish ballad tells the story of sibling rivalry and murder, where one sister drowns the other out of jealousy. Like “Edward, Edward”, it portrays a dark and tragic family dynamic with an eerie and fatalistic tone.
3. “The Ballad of Sir Patrick Spens” – This poem also belongs to the Scottish ballad tradition and tells a tragic tale of doom and inevitable fate. Like “Edward, Edward”, it uses repetition and a foreboding atmosphere to depict an unavoidable downfall.
4. “The Wife of Usher’s Well” – A supernatural Scottish ballad about a mother who wishes for the return of her dead sons, only for their spirits to visit her before returning to the afterlife. Similar to “Edward, Edward”, it explores themes of loss, fate, and the inescapability of death.
5. “Barbara Allen” – This ballad tells the tragic love story of Barbara Allen, who coldly rejects a dying suitor and later regrets it, dying of grief. Like “Edward, Edward”, it focuses on sorrow, regret, and the consequences of one’s actions leading to inevitable suffering.

Representative Quotations of “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

Suggested Readings: “Edward, Edward” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

1. Niles, John D., and Eleanor R. Long. “Context and loss in Scottish ballad tradition.” Western folklore 45.2 (1986): 83-109.
2. Burrison, John. “‘James Harris’ in Britain Since Child.” The Journal of American Folklore, vol. 80, no. 317, 1967, pp. 271–84. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/537874. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
3. Niles, John D., and Eleanor R. Long. “Context and Loss in Scottish Ballad Tradition.” Western Folklore, vol. 45, no. 2, 1986, pp. 83–109. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1500038. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.

Introduction: “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden

“The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden, first appeared in 1940 as part of his collection Another Time, satirizes the dehumanization of individuals in bureaucratic societies, portraying a model citizen whose conformity to societal expectations is celebrated by government and corporate institutions. Written in the form of a mock-epitaph, the poem details the man’s life through impersonal reports from various agencies—his employment record, consumer behavior, and social compliance—without ever considering his personal happiness or freedom. The closing lines, “Was he free? Was he happy? The question is absurd: / Had anything been wrong, we should certainly have heard,” highlight the irony of a life measured solely by external validation. The poem’s enduring popularity in textbooks is due to its critical exploration of modern identity, surveillance, and the loss of individuality in bureaucratic systems. By using irony and detached official language, Auden underscores how institutional records fail to capture the essence of a person’s life, making the poem a compelling study of conformity and state control.

Text: “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden

(To JS/07 M 378
This Marble Monument
Is Erected by the State)

He was found by the Bureau of Statistics to be
One against whom there was no official complaint,
And all the reports on his conduct agree
That, in the modern sense of an old-fashioned word, he was a saint,
For in everything he did he served the Greater Community.
Except for the War till the day he retired
He worked in a factory and never got fired,
But satisfied his employers, Fudge Motors Inc.
Yet he wasn’t a scab or odd in his views,
For his Union reports that he paid his dues,
(Our report on his Union shows it was sound)
And our Social Psychology workers found
That he was popular with his mates and liked a drink.
The Press are convinced that he bought a paper every day
And that his reactions to advertisements were normal in every way.
Policies taken out in his name prove that he was fully insured,
And his Health-card shows he was once in hospital but left it cured.
Both Producers Research and High-Grade Living declare
He was fully sensible to the advantages of the Instalment Plan
And had everything necessary to the Modern Man,
A phonograph, a radio, a car and a frigidaire.
Our researchers into Public Opinion are content
That he held the proper opinions for the time of year;
When there was peace, he was for peace: when there was war, he went.
He was married and added five children to the population,
Which our Eugenist says was the right number for a parent of his generation.
And our teachers report that he never interfered with their education.
Was he free? Was he happy? The question is absurd:
Had anything been wrong, we should certainly have heard.

Annotations: “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden

Themes: “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden

1. Bureaucratic Control and Dehumanization: “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden satirizes how government and institutions reduce individuals to mere statistics, stripping them of identity and personal agency. The speaker evaluates the citizen solely through reports from various agencies—“The Bureau of Statistics,” “Social Psychology workers,” and “Producers Research”—which measure his compliance with societal norms rather than his humanity. The phrase “Had anything been wrong, we should certainly have heard.” exemplifies this irony, suggesting that only institutional records define a person’s well-being rather than their personal experiences. The poem highlights how bureaucracies prioritize order and conformity over genuine human fulfillment.
2. Conformity vs. Individuality: “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden critiques societal expectations that demand absolute conformity, where personal beliefs and actions must align with public opinion. The citizen is praised for holding “the proper opinions for the time of year” and for being neither a “scab” nor “odd in his views.” His unquestioning participation in war and peace—“When there was peace, he was for peace: when there was war, he went.”—demonstrates blind allegiance rather than independent thought. The poem warns against a world where success is measured not by one’s individuality but by their ability to follow societal norms without resistance.
3. Consumerism and Materialism: “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden portrays a society where a person’s worth is measured by their economic contributions and material possessions rather than their emotions or intellect. The citizen is deemed successful because he “had everything necessary to the Modern Man, a phonograph, a radio, a car and a frigidaire.” His ability to engage in consumer culture, shown by his “reactions to advertisements,” is used as a measure of normalcy. Auden critiques a system that equates material wealth with happiness, emphasizing how economic productivity and purchasing habits overshadow genuine human fulfillment.
4. The Illusion of Freedom and Happiness: “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden highlights the theme that true happiness and freedom are irrelevant within a bureaucratic society. The poem’s concluding lines—“Was he free? Was he happy? The question is absurd.”—underscore the irony that if the citizen were unhappy, the authorities would have documented it, implying that personal emotions are only acknowledged when they disrupt societal order. This highlights the absurdity of a system that values statistics over personal experience, reinforcing how individuals are conditioned to accept predefined roles rather than explore their own desires and freedoms.

Literary Theories and “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden

Critical Questions about “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden

• How does the poem critique bureaucratic control and surveillance in modern society?
  “The Unknown Citizen” critiques bureaucratic control by presenting a citizen whose entire life is documented and evaluated through government and institutional reports. The speaker, an impersonal bureaucratic entity, lists the citizen’s achievements in terms of compliance rather than individuality. The phrase “He was found by the Bureau of Statistics to be / One against whom there was no official complaint” suggests that the man’s value is determined solely by his adherence to societal norms, rather than personal fulfillment. Furthermore, the line “Had anything been wrong, we should certainly have heard.” underscores the irony that happiness and freedom are irrelevant unless they disrupt the system. This critique is a warning against societies where government oversight reduces people to mere data points, stripping them of their autonomy and unique experiences.
• In what ways does the poem explore the theme of conformity versus individuality?
  “The Unknown Citizen” examines the dangers of conformity by depicting a man who has met every societal expectation but whose personal happiness and freedom remain unconsidered. He is praised for holding “the proper opinions for the time of year” and for being neither a “scab” nor “odd in his views.” This suggests that the ideal citizen is one who does not challenge the status quo but rather aligns with dominant ideologies. His political neutrality, reflected in “When there was peace, he was for peace: when there was war, he went,” shows his unquestioning obedience to governmental decisions. By highlighting the absence of independent thought or personal rebellion, Auden critiques a society that values conformity over individuality, urging readers to question whether societal expectations suppress true self-expression.
• How does the poem satirize consumerism and materialism in modern life?
  “The Unknown Citizen” satirizes consumerism by equating a person’s success with their ability to participate in the capitalist system. The citizen is deemed “fully sensible to the advantages of the Instalment Plan,” meaning he embraced debt-driven consumption. His possession of “a phonograph, a radio, a car, and a frigidaire” serves as proof that he was a “modern man,” suggesting that material wealth, rather than intellectual or emotional depth, is what defines a successful individual. Additionally, the line “And that his reactions to advertisements were normal in every way” mocks the idea that being easily influenced by consumer culture is an indication of normalcy. Auden’s satire reveals the absurdity of a society that equates happiness and success with purchasing power rather than genuine human fulfillment.
• What is the significance of the poem’s final lines, and how do they reinforce its central themes?
  The final lines of the poem—“Was he free? Was he happy? The question is absurd.”—serve as the ultimate irony, reinforcing the poem’s critique of modern society’s failure to value individuality and emotional well-being. The bureaucratic voice dismisses these fundamental human concerns, implying that if the citizen had experienced unhappiness, it would have been documented. This mechanistic perspective highlights the absurdity of reducing a person’s worth to statistics while ignoring the complexity of human existence. The poem’s structure, designed to mimic an official report, further emphasizes how institutions prioritize compliance and external success over inner contentment. By concluding with a rhetorical question, Auden challenges readers to consider whether societal definitions of success leave any room for true freedom and happiness.

Literary Works Similar to “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden

1. “Richard Cory” by Edwin Arlington Robinson – Similar to “The Unknown Citizen”, this poem explores the contrast between outward societal success and inner emptiness, highlighting the disconnect between public perception and private reality.
2. “The Hollow Men” by T. S. Eliot – Like Auden’s poem, Eliot critiques the loss of individuality and purpose in modern society, depicting individuals as lifeless and controlled by external forces.
3. “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen – Both poems challenge blind conformity, with Owen focusing on the glorification of war and the dehumanization of soldiers, much like Auden critiques unquestioning obedience.
4. “Miniver Cheevy” by Edwin Arlington Robinson – This poem, like “The Unknown Citizen”, examines societal expectations and disillusionment, portraying a man who feels trapped by the modern world’s ideals.
5. “Ozymandias” by Percy Bysshe Shelley – Similar in its critique of power and legacy, this poem, like Auden’s, questions how individuals are remembered and whether official records truly reflect personal significance.

Representative Quotations of “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden

Suggested Readings: “The Unknown Citizen” by W. H. Auden

1. Auden, Wystan Hugh. “The unknown citizen.” An Introduction to Poetry (1940).
2. Firchow, Peter. “The American Auden: A Poet Reborn?” American Literary History, vol. 11, no. 3, 1999, pp. 448–79. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/490128. Accessed 19 Feb. 2025.
3. Auden, W. H., and Stephen E. Severn. “The Library of Congress Variant of ‘The Shield of Achilles.’” PMLA, vol. 124, no. 5, 2009, pp. 1761–67. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25614400. Accessed 19 Feb. 2025.
4. Brooks, Cleanth. “Regionalism in American Literature.” The Journal of Southern History, vol. 26, no. 1, 1960, pp. 35–43. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2954348. Accessed 19 Feb. 2025.

Introduction: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

“The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad) first appeared in 1802 in the collection The English and Scottish Ballads, edited by Francis James Child. This ballad is a significant example of medieval Scottish folklore, blending elements of the supernatural with themes of adventure and mystery. It tells the story of Thomas, a man who is taken by the Queen of Elfland and enters a mystical realm for seven years. The main ideas revolve around Thomas’s journey through an enchanted landscape, his encounters with supernatural forces, and the choices he faces between different paths. The ballad explores concepts of fate, the consequences of silence, and the interplay between the human and the supernatural. Its popularity as a textbook poem arises from its vivid imagery, narrative structure, and the timeless themes of good versus evil, fate, and the supernatural. A key moment in the poem comes when the Queen of Elfland instructs Thomas, saying, “But Thomas you must hold your tongue / Whatever you may hear or see,” highlighting the importance of silence and restraint in his journey. This poem’s rich storytelling, captivating themes, and folkloric elements make it a staple in the study of traditional ballads.

Text: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

(Note: in this text some of the Scottish dialect words have been Anglicized for the general reader. Detailed texts in the Scottish vernacular are found in F.J.Child’s collection The English and Scottish Ballads.)

Annotations: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

Themes: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

• The Supernatural vs. the Natural World: One of the prominent themes in “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” is the contrast between the supernatural and the natural world. The ballad opens with Thomas, a figure rooted in the natural world, lying “on a grassy bank” and observing a “lady gay” riding across the “ferny brae.” This idyllic setting is abruptly disrupted when the lady reveals herself to be the Queen of Elfland, a supernatural being who invites Thomas into her mystical realm. The natural world, symbolized by the “grassy bank” and “ferny brae,” contrasts sharply with the supernatural realm of Elfland, a place beyond earthly understanding. As Thomas journeys with the Queen, he enters a realm where time and space lose their normal constraints—”For forty days and forty nights / They wade through red blood to the knee.” This supernatural realm represents both a physical and spiritual departure from the familiar, where rules of nature are suspended, and the line between reality and magic becomes blurred. The supernatural world is portrayed as both alluring and dangerous, as seen in the Queen’s warning to Thomas: “But Thomas you must hold your tongue / Whatever you may hear or see / For if one word you chance to speak, / You will never get back to your own country.” This theme of crossing between the natural and supernatural highlights the tension between what is known and what is unknowable.
• The Temptation of Forbidden Knowledge: A central theme in “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” is the temptation of forbidden knowledge and the consequences of yielding to it. Early in the ballad, Thomas is offered the chance to explore the mysteries of Elfland and serve the Queen for seven years. However, the Queen forbids Thomas from touching a particular fruit, warning, “That fruit may not be touched by thee, / For all the plagues that are in hell / Are upon the fruit of this country.” The fruit symbolizes knowledge that is beyond human reach—dangerous and fraught with consequences. The Queen’s prohibition reflects a timeless theme: that there are boundaries humans should not cross, and some knowledge is better left unknown. The moment Thomas disobeys the Queen’s warning and considers reaching for the fruit underscores humanity’s eternal struggle with temptation. Furthermore, when the Queen says, “But Thomas you must hold your tongue / Whatever you may hear or see,” it suggests that silence, like knowledge, carries its own power, and speaking or revealing too much may lead to irreversible consequences. The allure of forbidden knowledge, whether through the fruit or through breaking the silence, creates an ongoing tension in the narrative, as Thomas’s decisions come to define his fate.
• The Conflict Between Free Will and Fate: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” also delves into the theme of free will versus fate, particularly through Thomas’s journey and the choices he is forced to make. Early in the poem, the Queen of Elfland tells Thomas, “And you must go with me now, Thomas, / True Thomas you must go with me,” suggesting that Thomas’s path is already determined. The Queen’s insistence that Thomas “serve me seven years” further emphasizes the idea that his fate is sealed, and he has no choice but to follow her. However, the poem also presents moments where Thomas’s own actions—his willingness to obey or disobey—interact with the course of his destiny. When the Queen warns him, “But Thomas you must hold your tongue,” she presents him with a challenge: his silence or speech will determine whether he can return to his world. This dynamic between fate and free will becomes especially apparent as Thomas’s actions throughout the journey hold significant consequences for his future. The tension between the inevitability of his service and the potential for personal choice underscores the poem’s exploration of how individuals must navigate the forces of fate and their own autonomy. In the end, Thomas vanishes from the earthly realm, never to return, illustrating the finality of the fate he accepted.
• The Nature of Time and Transformation: The theme of time and transformation is central to the narrative of “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer.” The poem’s time markers—such as the seven years Thomas must serve and the forty days and nights he spends in Elfland—suggest the passage of time as a transformative force. The journey itself symbolizes a change in Thomas, from an ordinary man to someone who experiences supernatural forces. The Queen instructs Thomas that, “Till seven years were past and gone, / True Thomas ne’er on earth was seen,” indicating a profound change in his identity and existence. The transformation is not just physical; it is also spiritual. By agreeing to serve the Queen of Elfland, Thomas enters a liminal space where earthly rules and timelines no longer apply. The narrative suggests that time, particularly in a supernatural realm, operates differently, and Thomas’s transformation is linked to his experience of that altered time. Moreover, the change in Thomas is symbolized by the clothes he receives: “And he has gotten a coat of woven cloth, / Likewise the shoes of velvet green,” marking his shift from the familiar world to one where he is no longer the same person. His transformation, however, comes at the cost of losing his earthly life, and by the end of the poem, he is “ne’er on earth was seen,” symbolizing the ultimate effect of his journey through time and the supernatural.

Literary Theories and “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

Critical Questions about “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

• What is the role of the Queen of Elfland in the poem, and how does her character shape the narrative?
• The Queen of Elfland plays a pivotal role in “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” serving as both a supernatural figure and a catalyst for Thomas’s transformation. Her character is portrayed as both alluring and powerful, commanding Thomas’s obedience and guiding him through a mystical journey. Her dominant presence in the poem challenges traditional gender roles by asserting control over Thomas, the male protagonist, as she tells him, “And you must serve me seven years / Through good or ill as may chance to be.” This marks the beginning of Thomas’s entrapment in the supernatural world, as he must relinquish his agency to the Queen. Her mystical realm, Elfland, represents the unknown and the forbidden, offering both temptation and danger. By inviting Thomas to serve her, the Queen sets in motion a series of events that ultimately lead to his disappearance from the earthly realm. Through her interactions with Thomas, the Queen shapes the narrative by guiding him through a journey that tests his obedience, silence, and decision-making, ultimately illustrating the theme of fate versus free will.
• How does the poem explore the tension between temptation and obedience?
• The tension between temptation and obedience is a central theme in “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” particularly in Thomas’s interactions with the Queen of Elfland. Throughout the poem, Thomas is repeatedly faced with choices that test his willpower and obedience. The Queen explicitly warns him to hold his tongue and obey her commands, as she says, “But Thomas you must hold your tongue / Whatever you may hear or see.” The temptation to speak or act outside of the Queen’s directives symbolizes the struggle between human desires and the need for restraint. Thomas’s journey is filled with moments where he must suppress his impulses, especially when he encounters the forbidden fruit. The Queen tells him, “That fruit may not be touched by thee, / For all the plagues that are in hell / Are upon the fruit of this country,” warning him of the consequences of yielding to temptation. Despite the allure of the fruit, Thomas’s obedience to the Queen’s instructions—or lack thereof—becomes the defining factor of his fate, ultimately leading to his transformation and separation from the earthly world.
• What does the ballad suggest about the relationship between fate and free will?
• In “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” the relationship between fate and free will is complex and ultimately shows that fate dominates the protagonist’s life. From the moment the Queen of Elfland appears and invites Thomas to serve her, his destiny seems sealed. She tells him, “And you must go with me now, Thomas, / True Thomas you must go with me,” implying that Thomas has no choice but to follow her. However, the poem also presents moments where Thomas’s own actions—his willingness to obey or disobey—interact with the course of his destiny. When the Queen warns him, “But Thomas you must hold your tongue,” she presents him with a challenge: his silence or speech will determine whether he can return to his world. This dynamic between fate and free will becomes especially apparent as Thomas’s actions throughout the journey hold significant consequences for his future. The tension between the inevitability of his service and the potential for personal choice underscores the poem’s exploration of how individuals must navigate the forces of fate and their own autonomy. In the end, Thomas vanishes from the earthly realm, never to return, illustrating the finality of the fate he accepted.
• What does “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” reveal about the tension between the natural and supernatural worlds?
• “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” presents a significant tension between the natural and supernatural worlds, which is explored through Thomas’s journey from the familiar world to the otherworldly realm of Elfland. The poem opens with Thomas lying “on a grassy bank”, symbolizing his connection to nature and the earthly realm. However, this natural world is disrupted when the Queen of Elfland, a supernatural figure, enters the scene, inviting him to a realm that defies the rules of nature. As the Queen says, “I am but the Queen of Fair Elfland / That has come for to visit her with thee,” signaling that Thomas’s journey will take him far from the earthly sphere into a space governed by different rules and logic. The supernatural world, represented by the Queen and Elfland, contrasts with the natural world by offering both temptation and danger. The poem suggests that once Thomas crosses into this supernatural realm, time and space lose their usual meaning—he “wade[s] through red blood to the knee” and hears the “roaring of the sea,” indicating a disconnection from the natural order. This tension between the two worlds underscores the conflict between human experiences grounded in nature and the mysterious, often perilous allure of the supernatural.

Literary Works Similar to “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

1. “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge
   Both poems explore journeys into mysterious and supernatural realms, with the protagonists facing consequences for their actions and decisions.
2. “La Belle Dame sans Merci” by John Keats
   This poem, like “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” centers on a man who is enchanted by a supernatural female figure and taken to a world where reality and fantasy blend.
3. “The Lady of Shalott” by Alfred, Lord Tennyson
   Similar to “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” this poem features a mysterious, almost mythical female figure whose influence leads to a tragic fate for the protagonist.
4. “Tam o’ Shanter” by Robert Burns
   Like “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer,” this narrative poem involves encounters with the supernatural, featuring witches and a hero whose fate is shaped by his decisions.
5. “The Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti
   In both poems, supernatural beings influence the lives of humans, particularly through temptation and the ensuing consequences of disobedience or desire.

Representative Quotations of “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

Suggested Readings: “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

1. Stewart, R.J. The Living World of Faery. Mercury Publishing Inc., 1995/1999. Lake Toxaway, NC 28747. Web. https://www.druidry-sfbayarea.net/The_Faery_Tradition/Thomas_Rhymer.htm
2. Raeper, William. “Diamond and Kilmeny: MacDonald, Hogg and the Scottish Folk Tradition.” VII: Journal of the Marion E. Wade Center, vol. 11, 1994, pp. 63–72. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/45296243. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
3. Masson, Sophie. “Third Night: Into the Other World.” AQ: Australian Quarterly, vol. 72, no. 3, 2000, pp. 34–36. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/20637919. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.
4. Briggs, K. M. “The Fairies and the Realms of the Dead.” Folklore, vol. 81, no. 2, 1970, pp. 81–96. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1258940. Accessed 21 Feb. 2025.

Introduction: “The Fairies” by William Allingham

“The Fairies” by William Allingham first appeared in Poems (1850), a collection that solidified his reputation as a poet of Irish folklore and fantasy. This poem captures the enchanting yet eerie world of fairies, portraying them as both whimsical and fearsome beings that inhabit nature’s hidden corners—mountains, lakes, and forests. The verse’s rhythmic, sing-song quality and vivid imagery make it a memorable piece, perfect for textbooks and oral recitation. The poem’s enduring popularity stems from its evocative storytelling and the way it blends folklore with cautionary themes. The fairies, depicted as “wee folk, good folk, trooping all together,” seem harmless at first, yet their darker nature is revealed through the abduction of little Bridget, who is taken for seven years and returns only to die of sorrow. This haunting tale warns of the dangers of meddling with the supernatural, reinforced by the ominous warning that uprooting fairy-planted thorn trees will bring misfortune. The poem’s blend of mystery, folklore, and musicality has made it a staple in literature and folklore studies, demonstrating how deeply the belief in fairies was ingrained in Irish culture.

Text: “The Fairies” by William Allingham

Up the airy mountain,
Down the rushy glen,
We daren’t go a-hunting
For fear of little men;
Wee folk, good folk,
Trooping all together;
Green jacket, red cap,
And white owl’s feather!

Down along the rocky shore
Some make their home,
They live on crispy pancakes
Of yellow tide-foam;
Some in the reeds
Of the black mountain-lake,
With frogs for their watchdogs,
All night awake.

High on the hill-top
The old King sits;
He is now so old and grey
He’s nigh lost his wits.
With a bridge of white mist
Columbkill he crosses,
On his stately journeys
From Slieveleague to Rosses;
Or going up with music
On cold starry nights,
To sup with the Queen
Of the gay Northern Lights.

They stole little Bridget
For seven years long;
When she came down again
Her friends were all gone.
They took her lightly back,
Between the night and morrow,
They thought that she was fast asleep,
But she was dead with sorrow.
They have kept her ever since
Deep within the lake,
On a bed of flag-leaves,
Watching till she wake.

By the craggy hillside,
Through the mosses bare,
They have planted thorn trees
For pleasure, here and there.
Is any man so daring
As dig them up in spite,
He shall find their sharpest thorns
In his bed at night.

Up the airy mountain,
Down the rushy glen,
We daren’t go a-hunting
For fear of little men;
Wee folk, good folk,
Trooping all together;
Green jacket, red cap,
And white owl’s feather!

Annotations: “The Fairies” by William Allingham

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Fairies” by William Allingham

Themes: “The Fairies” by William Allingham

• The Supernatural and Fairy Folklore:One of the most prominent themes in “The Fairies” is the supernatural world of fairies and their influence on human life. Allingham presents fairies not as benevolent creatures but as enigmatic and often dangerous beings. The poem describes them as “wee folk, good folk, trooping all together” with “green jacket, red cap, and white owl’s feather!”—a traditional depiction of mischievous, otherworldly creatures. The fairies’ magical powers are evident in their ability to travel on a “bridge of white mist” and in their mysterious feasts with “the Queen of the gay Northern Lights.” This ethereal imagery reinforces the idea that the fairy realm exists parallel to the human world but follows its own mystical rules. Additionally, their act of abducting “little Bridget for seven years long” illustrates the common Irish folklore belief in changelings and the fairies’ habit of stealing humans. The theme underscores the tension between fascination and fear surrounding the supernatural in folklore.
• Fear and the Unknown: Throughout the poem, there is a pervasive sense of fear and trepidation regarding the fairies. This is established in the opening lines: “We daren’t go a-hunting for fear of little men,” immediately conveying a warning about the unseen dangers lurking in nature. While the fairies are small, their power is immense, making humans wary of encountering them. The cautionary tone continues with references to those who disturb fairy dwellings, particularly the thorn trees: “Is any man so daring as dig them up in spite, he shall find their sharpest thorns in his bed at night.” This suggests that those who disrespect or challenge the supernatural world will face consequences. The poem reflects the deep-rooted fear in Irish folklore that interfering with fairy places—such as certain trees, lakes, or hills—could bring misfortune, illness, or even death. This theme portrays fairies as both protectors and punishers, ensuring that mortals respect their unseen dominion.
• The Passage of Time and Loss: Another significant theme in “The Fairies” is the passage of time and the sorrow that accompanies it. This is most poignantly illustrated in the story of Bridget, who is taken by the fairies for “seven years long.” When she finally returns, “her friends were all gone,” signifying that life has moved on without her. This reflects a common fairy lore motif in which time in the fairy realm moves differently from the human world. The tragic fate of Bridget—who “was dead with sorrow”—reinforces the theme of loss and displacement. She is not the same person she was before she was taken, and the human world she knew has changed irreversibly. This highlights the melancholic idea that time, once lost, cannot be reclaimed. The fairies, in their timeless existence, contrast sharply with the mortality and transience of human life, making their interactions with the mortal world all the more tragic.
• The Power of Nature and Its Mysticism: Nature plays a vital role in “The Fairies,” serving both as a setting and as an active force intertwined with fairy magic. The fairies inhabit various landscapes—the “airy mountain,” “rushy glen,” “rocky shore,” “black mountain-lake”—all of which contribute to the mystical atmosphere. These natural elements are not just backdrops but are deeply connected to the fairies’ existence. The “bridge of white mist” suggests an ethereal, almost living quality to the landscape, while the description of their diet—“crispy pancakes of yellow tide-foam”—connects them intimately with the sea and nature’s resources. Additionally, the thorn trees, which the fairies plant “for pleasure,” serve as a symbolic warning to humans not to interfere with nature. This theme reflects the ancient belief that nature is sacred, powerful, and sometimes vengeful. The fairies, as embodiments of nature’s spirit, demand respect and reverence, reinforcing the idea that nature is not just a passive force but an active and mystical presence in the world.

Literary Theories and “The Fairies” by William Allingham

Critical Questions about “The Fairies” by William Allingham

Literary Works Similar to “The Fairies” by William Allingham

1. “The Stolen Child” by W.B. Yeats – This poem, like “The Fairies,” explores the theme of fairies luring a human child away, blending enchanting imagery with an underlying sense of sorrow and loss.
2. “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti – Similar to “The Fairies,” this poem portrays magical creatures (goblins) as both enticing and dangerous, warning against their seductive yet perilous influence.
3. “La Belle Dame sans Merci” by John Keats – This poem shares “The Fairies’” theme of supernatural beings enchanting and ultimately dooming mortals, creating an eerie and melancholic atmosphere.
4. “Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad) – Like Allingham’s poem, this ballad tells of fairies abducting a human and emphasizes the perilous consequences of encounters with the supernatural.
5. “The Fairy Queen” by Edmund Spenser (excerpt) – Spenser’s depiction of fairies in a mystical, otherworldly realm aligns with Allingham’s portrayal of supernatural beings existing beyond the human world.

Representative Quotations of “The Fairies” by William Allingham

Suggested Readings: “The Fairies” by William Allingham

1. Schell, Cassandra M. “In Fairyland Or Thereabout: The Fairies as Nationalist Symbol in Irish Literature by and after William Allingham.” (2009).
2. Shields, Hugh. “William Allingham and Folk Song.” Hermathena, no. 117, 1974, pp. 23–36. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23040490. Accessed 20 Feb. 2025.
3. BAYLES, VERNA E. “A Sampling of Victorian Poets at Princeton.” The Princeton University Library Chronicle, vol. 6, no. 3, 1945, pp. 127–32. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/26409844. Accessed 20 Feb. 2025.
4. Hill, Douglas. “Yeats and the Invisible People of Ireland.” Brigham Young University Studies, vol. 7, no. 1, 1965, pp. 61–67. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43040186. Accessed 20 Feb. 2025.

Introduction: “Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

“Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad) first appeared in print in the late 18th century in The Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border (1802) by Sir Walter Scott, though it existed in oral tradition long before. The ballad tells the story of Janet, a bold and determined young woman who defies warnings to venture into the enchanted Carterhaugh woods, where she encounters Tam Lin, a knight ensnared by the Fairy Queen. At its core, “Tam Lin” explores themes of agency, transformation, and the reclaiming of human fate from supernatural forces. Janet’s unwavering resolve to rescue Tam Lin from the fairies—despite the terrifying shape-shifting ordeal he undergoes—emphasizes her strength and autonomy, making her one of the most compelling heroines in folk literature. The ballad’s continued popularity as a textbook example lies in its rich narrative structure, dramatic tension, and deep engagement with folklore motifs such as the hero’s rescue from enchantment (stanzas 25-42). The poem’s vivid imagery, such as Janet’s defiant plucking of roses (“She had na pu’d a double rose, / A rose but only twa”), and the eerie transformation of Tam Lin (“They’ll turn me in your arms, lady, / Into an esk and adder”), contribute to its lasting appeal. Furthermore, its connection to the Celtic festival of Samhain (Halloween) and the belief in the vulnerability of fairies on that night adds layers of mythological and cultural significance. Through its portrayal of a fearless woman reclaiming her lover, “Tam Lin” continues to resonate in contemporary discussions of gender roles and personal determination.

Text: “Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

1. O I forbid you, maidens a’,
   That wear gowd on your hair,
   To come or gae by Carterhaugh,
   For young Tam Lin is there.
2. There’s nane that gaes by Carterhaugh
   But they leave him a wad,
   Either their rings, or green mantles,
   Or else their maidenhead.
3. Janet has kilted her green kirtle
   A little aboon her knee,
   And she has broded her yellow hair
   A little aboon her bree,
   And she’s awa to Carterhaugh
   As fast as she can hie.
4. When she came to carterhaugh
   Tam Lin was at the well,
   And there she fand his steed standing,
   But away was himsel.
5. She had na pu’d a double rose,
   A rose but only twa,
   Till upon then started young Tam Lin,
   Says, Lady, thou’s pu nae mae.
6. Why pu’s thou the rose, Janet,
   And why breaks thou the wand?
   Or why comes thou to Carterhaugh
   Withoutten my command?
7. “Carterhaugh, it is my own,
   My daddy gave it me,
   I’ll come and gang by Carterhaugh,
   And ask nae leave at thee.”
8. Janet has kilted her green kirtle
   A little aboon her knee,
   And she has broded her yellow hair
   A little aboon her bree,
   And she is to her father’s ha,
   As fast as she can hie.
9. Four and twenty ladies fair
   Were playing at the ba,
   And out then came the fair Janet,
   The flower among them a’.
10. Four and twenty ladies fair
    Were playing at the chess,
    And out then came the fair Janet,
    As green as onie glass.
11. Out then spake an auld grey knight,
    Lay oer the castle wa,
    And says, Alas, fair Janet, for thee,
    But we’ll be blamed a’.
12. “Haud your tongue, ye auld fac’d knight,
    Some ill death may ye die!
    Father my bairn on whom I will,
    I’ll father none on thee.”
13. Out then spak her father dear,
    And he spak meek and mild,
    “And ever alas, sweet Janet,” he says,
    “I think thou gaest wi child.”
14. “If that I gae wi child, father,
    Mysel maun bear the blame,
    There’s neer a laird about your ha,
    Shall get the bairn’s name.
15. “If my love were an earthly knight,
    As he’s an elfin grey,
    I wad na gie my ain true-love
    For nae lord that ye hae.
16. “The steed that my true love rides on
    Is lighter than the wind,
    Wi siller he is shod before,
    Wi burning gowd behind.”
17. Janet has kilted her green kirtle
    A little aboon her knee,
    And she has broded her yellow hair
    A little aboon her bree,
    And she’s awa to Carterhaugh
    As fast as she can hie.
18. When she came to Carterhaugh,
    Tam Lin was at the well,
    And there she fand his steed standing,
    But away was himsel.
19. She had na pu’d a double rose,
    A rose but only twa,
    Till up then started young Tam Lin,
    Says, Lady, thou pu’s nae mae.
20. “Why pu’s thou the rose, Janet,
    Amang the groves sae green,
    And a’ to kill the bonny babe
    That we gat us between?”
21. “O tell me, tell me, Tam Lin,” she says,
    “For’s sake that died on tree,
    If eer ye was in holy chapel,
    Or christendom did see?”
22. “Roxbrugh he was my grandfather,
    Took me with him to bide
    And ance it fell upon a day
    That wae did me betide.
23. “And ance it fell upon a day
    A cauld day and a snell,
    When we were frae the hunting come,
    That frae my horse I fell,
    The Queen o’ Fairies she caught me,
    In yon green hill do dwell.
24. “And pleasant is the fairy land,
    But, an eerie tale to tell,
    Ay at the end of seven years,
    We pay a tiend to hell,
    I am sae fair and fu o flesh,
    I’m feard it be mysel.
25. “But the night is Halloween, lady,
    The morn is Hallowday,
    Then win me, win me, an ye will,
    For weel I wat ye may.
26. “Just at the mirk and midnight hour
    The fairy folk will ride,
    And they that wad their true-love win,
    At Miles Cross they maun bide.”
27. “But how shall I thee ken, Tam Lin,
    Or how my true-love know,
    Amang sa mony unco knights,
    The like I never saw?”
28. “O first let pass the black, lady,
    And syne let pass the brown,
    But quickly run to the milk-white steed,
    Pu ye his rider down.
29. “For I’ll ride on the milk-white steed,
    And ay nearest the town,
    Because I was an earthly knight
    They gie me that renown.
30. “My right hand will be gloved, lady,
    My left hand will be bare,
    Cockt up shall my bonnet be,
    And kaimed down shall my hair,
    And thae’s the takens I gie thee,
    Nae doubt I will be there.
31. “They’ll turn me in your arms, lady,
    Into an esk and adder,
    But hold me fast, and fear me not,
    I am your bairn’s father.
32. “They’ll turn me to a bear sae grim,
    And then a lion bold,
    But hold me fast, and fear me not,
    And ye shall love your child.
33. “Again they’ll turn me in your arms
    To a red het gand of airn,
    But hold me fast, and fear me not,
    I’ll do you nae harm.
34. “And last they’ll turn me in your arms
    Into the burning gleed,
    Then throw me into well water,
    O throw me in with speed.
35. “And then I’ll be your ain true-love,
    I’ll turn a naked knight,
    Then cover me wi your green mantle,
    And hide me out o sight.”
36. Gloomy, gloomy was the night,
    And eerie was the way,
    As fair Jenny in her green mantle
    To Miles Cross she did gae.
37. At the mirk and midnight hour
    She heard the bridles sing,
    She was as glad at that
    As any earthly thing.
38. First she let the black pass by,
    And syne she let the brown,
    But quickly she ran to the milk-white steed,
    And pu’d the rider down.
39. Sae weel she minded what he did say,
    And young Tam Lin did win,
    Syne covered him wi her green mantle,
    As blythe’s a bird in spring
40. Out then spak the Queen o Fairies,
    Out of a bush o broom,
    “Them that has gotten young Tam Lin
    Has gotten a stately-groom.”
41. Out then spak the Queen o Fairies,
    And an angry woman was she,
    “Shame betide her ill-far’d face,
    And an ill death may she die,
    For she’s taen awa the bonniest knight
    In a’ my companie.
42. “But had I kend, Tam Lin,” said she,
    “What now this night I see,
    I wad hae taen out thy twa grey een,
    And put in twa een o tree.”

Annotations: “Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

Themes: “Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

• Female Agency and Defiance: One of the most striking themes in “Tam Lin” is female agency, as embodied by Janet, who takes control of her fate rather than submitting to societal norms. Unlike the typical medieval ballad where women are passive figures, Janet is an assertive and independent protagonist. She defies both societal expectations and supernatural forces to reclaim her lover. This is evident when she boldly asserts her ownership of Carterhaugh: “Carterhaugh, it is my own, / My daddy gave it me, / I’ll come and gang by Carterhaugh, / And ask nae leave at thee.” Here, Janet refuses to be intimidated by Tam Lin’s initial confrontational tone, reinforcing her autonomy. Later, when confronted by an old knight and even her own father about her pregnancy, she rejects their judgment, saying defiantly: “Father my bairn on whom I will, / I’ll father none on thee.” Her journey to rescue Tam Lin further highlights her courage, as she is willing to risk everything to break the fairy’s enchantment, demonstrating her strength as an active heroine in folklore.
• Supernatural and Fairy Lore: The ballad is deeply embedded in Celtic and Scottish fairy lore, illustrating the common belief in the hidden world of fairies that exists alongside the human realm. Tam Lin is not just a man but a mortal who has been taken by the Fairy Queen and transformed into one of her own. The story draws on the idea that fairies demand sacrifices, as Tam Lin reveals: “Ay at the end of seven years, / We pay a tiend to hell, / I am sae fair and fu o flesh, / I’m feard it be mysel.” This notion reflects historical superstitions about fairies kidnapping humans and the dangers of wandering into their territory. The fact that the rescue must take place on Halloween—“But the night is Halloween, lady, / The morn is Hallowday”—ties into the ancient belief that the boundary between the mortal and supernatural world was thinnest on that night, making magical intervention possible. “Tam Lin,” therefore, serves as both a cautionary tale and an exploration of the tension between the human and supernatural worlds.
• Love and Loyalty: Love and devotion are central to Janet’s actions, making the ballad a powerful story of commitment and resilience. Despite the supernatural challenges and the social stigma she faces, Janet refuses to abandon Tam Lin. She expresses unwavering faith in him, even after learning of his fairy transformation: “If my love were an earthly knight, / As he’s an elfin grey, / I wad na gie my ain true-love / For nae lord that ye hae.” This statement highlights her steadfast love, rejecting the possibility of marrying a nobleman for status and instead choosing love over societal expectations. Additionally, her determination to hold onto Tam Lin despite his terrifying shape-shifting ordeal symbolizes the trials true love can withstand. “They’ll turn me in your arms, lady, / Into an esk and adder, / But hold me fast, and fear me not, / I am your bairn’s father.” Janet’s success in rescuing him suggests that love has the power to overcome supernatural forces, reinforcing the ballad’s romantic core.
• Transformation and Redemption: Transformation is a recurring theme in “Tam Lin,” both in a literal and symbolic sense. Tam Lin undergoes multiple physical transformations during Janet’s attempt to save him, shifting from animals to burning iron before finally regaining his human form: “They’ll turn me to a bear sae grim, / And then a lion bold, / But hold me fast, and fear me not, / And ye shall love your child.” This transformation serves as a test of Janet’s commitment and endurance, emphasizing the idea that redemption requires both struggle and belief. The Fairy Queen’s anger at losing Tam Lin—“For she’s taen awa the bonniest knight / In a’ my companie”—suggests that his rescue is not merely a personal victory but a symbolic reclamation of his true identity. Tam Lin’s return to humanity can be seen as an allegory for breaking free from oppression, making the ballad a tale of personal liberation and transformation.

Literary Theories and “Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

Critical Questions about “Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

• How does “Tam Lin” challenge traditional gender roles?
• “Tam Lin” subverts traditional gender roles by presenting Janet as an active and decisive heroine rather than a passive damsel in distress. In many medieval and folk ballads, women are portrayed as victims who must rely on male heroes for rescue. However, Janet takes control of her own destiny, defying both societal expectations and supernatural forces. When Tam Lin demands to know why she has come to Carterhaugh without his permission, she boldly replies: “Carterhaugh, it is my own, / My daddy gave it me, / I’ll come and gang by Carterhaugh, / And ask nae leave at thee.” This assertion of ownership and autonomy directly contradicts the traditional notion of male authority over women. Additionally, Janet takes on the traditionally male role of the hero by rescuing Tam Lin from the Fairy Queen’s enchantment, an act requiring both physical courage and emotional resilience. Her ability to hold onto him through his terrifying transformations demonstrates not only her strength but also her defiance of expectations that women should be submissive or dependent. By centering Janet as the savior rather than the one being saved, “Tam Lin” challenges the patriarchal norms often reinforced in folklore and literature.
• What role does the supernatural play in “Tam Lin,” and how does it reflect medieval beliefs?
• The supernatural is central to the narrative of “Tam Lin,” shaping the conflict and reinforcing medieval Scottish beliefs about fairies, enchantment, and liminal spaces. The poem portrays Carterhaugh as a haunted, enchanted place where Tam Lin, a mortal, has been captured by the Fairy Queen. His predicament reflects common folklore themes, particularly the idea that fairies abduct humans to serve them and that supernatural beings must pay tribute to darker forces. Tam Lin reveals this grim reality when he confesses: “Ay at the end of seven years, / We pay a tiend to hell, / I am sae fair and fu o flesh, / I’m feard it be mysel.” This belief—that fairies owed a human sacrifice to hell every seven years—was widely held in medieval Scottish folklore and reinforced the fear that supernatural beings could be both beautiful and malevolent. Additionally, the ballad aligns with Celtic traditions regarding Samhain (Halloween), a night when the boundaries between the human and fairy worlds were thought to be at their weakest. The poem states: “But the night is Halloween, lady, / The morn is Hallowday.” This timing is significant because it was believed that mortals could reclaim stolen people from the fairy realm on this night, mirroring Janet’s successful rescue of Tam Lin. Through its depiction of fairies as both alluring and dangerous, “Tam Lin” serves as a cautionary tale that reflects medieval anxieties about the unseen world.
• How does “Tam Lin” depict love and sacrifice?
• “Tam Lin” portrays love as a force capable of overcoming both supernatural and social obstacles, but it also emphasizes the sacrifices required to preserve it. Janet’s love for Tam Lin is steadfast and unwavering, even when she learns he has been taken by the fairies and transformed into a supernatural being. Instead of abandoning him, she resolves to fight for him, displaying her deep commitment. She declares: “If my love were an earthly knight, / As he’s an elfin grey, / I wad na gie my ain true-love / For nae lord that ye hae.” This passage highlights her willingness to reject noble suitors in favor of her love for Tam Lin, prioritizing personal choice over societal expectations. However, the ballad also makes it clear that love requires sacrifice. Janet must physically and emotionally endure Tam Lin’s shape-shifting ordeal, in which he transforms into terrifying creatures: “They’ll turn me in your arms, lady, / Into an esk and adder, / But hold me fast, and fear me not, / I am your bairn’s father.” This sequence illustrates that love is not merely an emotional bond but a test of endurance and faith. Janet’s victory in holding onto him despite the danger proves that true love can triumph over external forces, even those of the supernatural.
• What is the significance of transformation in “Tam Lin”?
• Transformation is a key motif in “Tam Lin,” serving as both a literal and symbolic element in the ballad. The most dramatic instance of transformation occurs during Janet’s struggle to free Tam Lin from the Fairy Queen’s control. As he describes beforehand, the fairies will attempt to scare her into releasing him by changing his form: “They’ll turn me to a bear sae grim, / And then a lion bold, / But hold me fast, and fear me not, / And ye shall love your child.” This moment can be interpreted in multiple ways. On a literal level, it demonstrates the magic and power of the fairies, reinforcing their otherworldly abilities. On a symbolic level, it represents a test of Janet’s devotion, suggesting that love and faith must endure trials in order to succeed. The final transformation—where Tam Lin becomes “a red het gand of airn” (a red-hot piece of iron) before returning to human form—can be viewed as an allegory for purification and rebirth. This transformation signifies that Tam Lin is not merely escaping captivity but reclaiming his true identity, freed from the supernatural forces that controlled him. The ballad, therefore, uses transformation to emphasize themes of redemption, perseverance, and the ultimate triumph of human will over supernatural constraints.

Literary Works Similar to “Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

1. “The Ballad of Thomas the Rhymer” (Traditional Scottish Ballad) – Like “Tam Lin,” this ballad features a mortal man taken by the Fairy Queen and enchanted in the otherworld, reflecting themes of supernatural abduction and prophecy.
2. “La Belle Dame Sans Merci” by John Keats – This poem shares the theme of a mortal’s encounter with a supernatural woman who exerts control over him, much like Tam Lin’s entrapment by the Fairy Queen.
3. “The Wife of Usher’s Well” (Traditional English Ballad) – Similar to “Tam Lin,” this ballad deals with the return of a lost loved one from a supernatural realm, emphasizing themes of loss, enchantment, and the eerie connection between worlds.
4. “The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Though a longer narrative poem, it shares “Tam Lin’s” themes of fate, supernatural intervention, and the consequences of human actions in a mystical world.
5. “The Demon Lover” (Traditional English Ballad) – This ballad, like “Tam Lin,” tells of a supernatural male figure who lures a woman into a dangerous fate, blending romance, enchantment, and eerie folklore motifs.

Representative Quotations of “Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

Suggested Readings: “Tam Lin” (Traditional Scottish Ballad)

1. “Tam Lin: Version 39A.” Tam Lin, https://tam-lin.org/versions/39A.html. Accessed 20 Feb. 2025.
2. Lyle, E. B. “The Opening of ‘Tam Lin.’” The Journal of American Folklore, vol. 83, no. 327, 1970, pp. 33–43. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/538780. Accessed 20 Feb. 2025.
3. Lyle, E. B. “The Teind to Hell in ‘Tam Lin.’” Folklore, vol. 81, no. 3, 1970, pp. 177–81. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1259263. Accessed 20 Feb. 2025.
4. BRONSON, BERTRAND HARRIS. “Tam Lin.” The Traditional Tunes of the Child Ballads, Volume 1, Princeton University Press, 1959, pp. 327–31. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt183phw6.36. Accessed 20 Feb. 2025.