Day: March 4, 2025

● The American West as a Geographical and Historical Construct

• “The ninety-eighth meridian marks the approximate beginning of the ‘final’ West, an area with striking contrasts to the older Wests” (Sellars, 1973, p. 171).
• The West evolved from the rolling forests and well-watered lands of the East to the arid and semi-arid plains beyond the Mississippi.
• Historians and geographers define the West differently: historians see it as a moving frontier, while geographers emphasize its environmental characteristics.

● The West as a State of Mind and Literary Theme

• “The terms West and frontier are frequently used synonymously, connoting… the original drive to found Utopias and Edens in an unspoiled setting” (Clough, 1964, p. 146; Sellars, 1973, p. 173).
• The West is not only a place but also an idea, symbolizing innocence, rebirth, and freedom.
• The literary imagination constructs an idealized West, only to have it challenged by the realities of frontier life.

● Western vs. Frontier Literature

• “Western literature and frontier literature are not always identical” (Sellars, 1973, p. 175).
• Arundel by Kenneth Roberts is frontier literature without a western setting, while Northwest Passage conveys the feeling of going to the West (Sellars, 1973, p. 175).
• James Fenimore Cooper’s Leatherstocking Tales depict early American frontiers but lack the vast, open landscapes characteristic of later Western literature.

● The Role of Geography in Western Literature

• “The major extractive frontier industries, such as farming, fur trading, mining, and even ranching, all had their beginnings in the East” (Sellars, 1973, p. 177).
• Geography dictates historical and literary developments; the arid lands shaped the survival stories in literature.
• Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath illustrates how geography influences character movement and themes of hardship (Sellars, 1973, p. 178).

● Literature as an Interpretation of American Identity

• “Western literature has become an important tool in the effort to understand both western history and the national character” (Sellars, 1973, p. 179).
• Henry Nash Smith’s Virgin Land explores how the West has shaped America’s self-image (Smith, 1950; Sellars, 1973, p. 180).
• The myth of the West as a land of opportunity and renewal remains a dominant theme in American culture.

● The Influence of Geography on Western Thought

• “Webb was one of the first professional historians to show a serious interest in using western literature for historical analysis” (Sellars, 1973, p. 181).
• The Great Plains by Walter Prescott Webb examines how the landscape shaped historical development (Webb, 1931; Sellars, 1973, p. 182).
• Bernard DeVoto’s The Course of Empire traces the movement of nations across North America, emphasizing geography’s impact (Sellars, 1973, p. 182).

● Romanticization of the West in Literature

• “The country is so big, only God could have caused it” (Ferril, 1946; Sellars, 1973, p. 183).
• Writers often depict the West through “landscape mysticism,” making their characters larger-than-life.
• The cowboy myth and rugged individualism stem from this romanticized perception of the West.

● Character and Landscape in Western Literature

• “She was a rich mine of life, like the founders of early races” (Cather, 1918; Sellars, 1973, p. 184).
• In My Ántonia, Willa Cather connects Ántonia’s strength to the land.
• In Giants in the Earth, Beret’s fear of the vast landscape reflects her psychological struggle (Rolvaag, 1927; Sellars, 1973, p. 185).

● Symbolism of Landscape in Western Writing

• “The tawny church seemed to start directly out of [the] rose-colored hills – with a purpose so strong that it was like action” (Cather, 1927; Sellars, 1973, p. 186).
• In Death Comes for the Archbishop, the cathedral represents a merging of European tradition and the New Mexican landscape.
• Geography is not just a setting but a force that shapes cultural and spiritual identity.

● Conclusion: Geography as a Defining Element in Western Writing

• “Geography has been the central factor, at once a boon and a burden in relating the frontier and western experience” (Sellars, 1973, p. 187).
• Western literature and history are deeply intertwined with the land itself, shaping themes of survival, transformation, and national identity.
• The West remains a powerful literary and historical symbol, representing both reality and myth in American culture.

● Ecocriticism and the Role of Geography in Literature

• Theory: Ecocriticism explores the relationship between literature and the natural environment, emphasizing how geography shapes narratives.
• Contribution: Sellars emphasizes that Western literature is deeply tied to its landscape:
  • “Geography has been the central factor, at once a boon and a burden in relating the frontier and western experience” (Sellars, 1973, p. 187).
  • Death Comes for the Archbishop uses the landscape to symbolize cultural permanence and spiritual devotion (Sellars, 1973, p. 186).
• Significance: This aligns with ecocriticism by showing how the West’s vast, arid landforms shape both historical consciousness and literary representation.

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● The Myth and Symbol School (Henry Nash Smith, Leo Marx)

• Theory: Literature constructs and reinforces cultural myths that define national identity.
• Contribution: Sellars builds on Henry Nash Smith’s Virgin Land, discussing how literature mythologizes the West:
  • “Western literature has become an important tool in the effort to understand both western history and the national character” (Sellars, 1973, p. 179).
  • The West symbolizes opportunity, renewal, and the frontier spirit, reinforcing America’s self-image (Sellars, 1973, p. 180).
• Significance: Sellars’ argument aligns with myth and symbol theory by demonstrating how Western literature helps construct the national myth of the American frontier.

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● Historical and Cultural Materialism (Raymond Williams, Karl Marx)

• Theory: Literature reflects the material conditions and social structures of its time.
• Contribution: Sellars highlights how Western literature depicts economic struggles and class dynamics:
  • “The major extractive frontier industries, such as farming, fur trading, mining, and even ranching, all had their beginnings in the East” (Sellars, 1973, p. 177).
  • The Grapes of Wrath portrays the migration of displaced farmers due to economic hardship, reflecting historical materialist concerns (Sellars, 1973, p. 178).
• Significance: His discussion aligns with cultural materialism, as literature is seen as a reflection of historical and socioeconomic realities rather than purely imaginative constructs.

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● The Frontier Thesis and American Exceptionalism (Frederick Jackson Turner)

• Theory: The American frontier shaped national identity, fostering democracy, individualism, and innovation.
• Contribution: Sellars engages with Turner’s theory by examining how Western literature mirrors this frontier ethos:
  • “The geographical West and the historical West merged as the frontier moved through an area that was west and has remained west” (Sellars, 1973, p. 171).
  • Literature often portrays the West as a place of struggle and transformation, reinforcing the frontier’s central role in shaping American character (Sellars, 1973, p. 174).
• Significance: This supports Turner’s thesis by showing how Western narratives perpetuate the idea of rugged individualism and expansionism.

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● Regionalism and Place-Based Identity in Literature

• Theory: Regionalism focuses on the distinct cultural and environmental characteristics of specific areas in literary representation.
• Contribution: Sellars argues that Western literature derives its identity from its setting:
  • “Once in the West, western literature becomes more and more identified with geographical place and setting” (Sellars, 1973, p. 176).
  • Novels like My Ántonia and Giants in the Earth showcase how geography influences character development (Sellars, 1973, p. 184-185).
• Significance: His analysis reinforces regionalism by illustrating how literature preserves the unique social and environmental characteristics of the West.

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● Romanticism and the Sublime in Western Literature

• Theory: Romanticism emphasizes awe-inspiring landscapes, individual experience, and emotional intensity.
• Contribution: Sellars highlights how Western literature romanticizes its setting:
  • “The country is so big, only God could have caused it” (Ferril, 1946; Sellars, 1973, p. 183).
  • My Ántonia connects Antonia’s strength with the vast, raw plains, portraying the West as both beautiful and overpowering (Sellars, 1973, p. 184).
• Significance: His work supports the idea that the Western landscape plays a symbolic and transformative role in literature, reflecting Romantic ideals of nature’s power and mystery.

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● Genre Theory and the Evolution of the Western Narrative

• Theory: Literary genres evolve based on historical, cultural, and social influences.
• Contribution: Sellars discusses how the Western genre has developed beyond its frontier origins:
  • “A work such as Arthur Miller’s The Misfits, about modern-day horse wranglers, does fit into the category of western literature” (Sellars, 1973, p. 177).
  • The Western genre incorporates modern themes while retaining its historical and geographical foundations.
• Significance: His discussion contributes to genre theory by illustrating how literary conventions shift over time while maintaining core thematic elements.

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● The Liminality of the Frontier (Victor Turner, Anthropological Theory)

• Theory: The frontier represents a transitional or “liminal” space where social structures and identities are fluid.
• Contribution: Sellars identifies the frontier as a meeting point between myth and reality:
  • “The frontier is the meeting point between myth and the more concrete reality of the western experience” (Sellars, 1973, p. 174).
  • Characters in frontier literature undergo transformations, moving from civilization to wilderness and back.
• Significance: His argument aligns with anthropological theories of liminality, emphasizing the frontier as a zone of cultural negotiation and change.

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Conclusion: Sellars’ Contribution to Literary Theory

Richard West Sellars’ work integrates multiple literary theories to explore the deep interconnections between literature, history, and geography in Western writing. His key contributions include:

• Reinforcing ecocriticism by analyzing the impact of geography on literary themes.
• Supporting myth and symbol theory through his discussion of Western mythology in literature.
• Aligning with historical materialism by showing how economic realities shape literary narratives.
• Extending Turner’s Frontier Thesis to literature, demonstrating how the frontier ethos persists in storytelling.
• Advancing regionalism by emphasizing the role of place-based identity in Western literature.
• Contributing to genre theory by examining the evolution of the Western narrative.
• Applying liminality theory to the Western frontier as a space of transformation.

By bridging these theoretical perspectives, Sellars highlights how Western literature serves as a crucial lens for understanding American history, cultural identity, and the ongoing significance of place in storytelling.

● Overemphasis on Geography as a Determining Factor

• Sellars heavily focuses on geographical determinism, arguing that the physical landscape is the primary force shaping Western literature.
• Critics might argue that social, political, and economic factors play just as significant a role in literary narratives.
• While geography is crucial, other factors such as gender, class, and race are underexplored in his analysis.

● Limited Engagement with Indigenous and Non-Settler Perspectives

• The article largely centers on Euro-American settler narratives, neglecting Indigenous perspectives on the land.
• Western literature includes works that depict Native American histories and mythologies, which Sellars does not fully integrate into his framework.
• A more nuanced analysis could examine how colonization and displacement are represented in Western writing.

● Simplification of the Myth of the West

• Sellars builds upon Henry Nash Smith’s Virgin Land and the myth and symbol school, which some scholars argue romanticizes the frontier without fully addressing its brutality and exclusions.
• The portrayal of the West as a place of renewal and self-discovery ignores the violence and dispossession that accompanied its settlement.
• His perspective aligns with Turner’s Frontier Thesis, which has been critiqued for reinforcing American exceptionalism.

● Lack of Intersectional Analysis

• Sellars does not significantly discuss race, class, or gender, which are critical in understanding Western literature.
• Women’s experiences in frontier literature, such as those in Willa Cather’s novels, are shaped by more than just geography—they involve gender roles and societal expectations.
• The experiences of African Americans, Mexican Americans, and Asian immigrants in the West are largely absent from his discussion.

● Narrow Definition of Western Literature

• The article primarily focuses on canonical Western authors (e.g., Willa Cather, John Steinbeck, Ole Rolvaag).
• Contemporary Western literature includes diverse perspectives, such as Chicano, Indigenous, and feminist reinterpretations, which are not examined.
• His definition of “Western literature” excludes modern interpretations of the frontier in speculative fiction, poetry, and experimental literature.

● Underestimation of the Role of Economy and Industrialization

• While geography plays a role, economic structures and industrial expansion significantly shaped the West.
• The rise of railroads, mining companies, and corporate ranching fundamentally altered Western narratives but is only briefly mentioned in Sellars’ discussion.
• A stronger analysis could incorporate Marxist or historical materialist readings of Western literature.

● Insufficient Analysis of Genre Evolution

• Sellars discusses traditional Western narratives but does not fully explore how the genre evolved over time.
• The revisionist Western, which critiques traditional frontier myths (e.g., Blood Meridian by Cormac McCarthy), is absent from his discussion.
• The influence of film and pop culture Westerns on literary narratives is overlooked.

1. The Geografictional Imperative in Canadian Literature

• Omhovère builds on Barbara Godard’s (2000) concept of the “geografictional imperative” in Canadian literature, suggesting that geography possesses an inherent artistic force that writers attempt to capture and translate into fiction.
• The study explores how geographical references, such as “fault line” or “moraine,” extend beyond their scientific meaning to acquire symbolic significance in literature (Omhovère, p. 345).

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2. Geography as an Artistic and Symbolic Process

• Traditional literary geography focuses on how literature describes real-world geography, but Omhovère reverses this perspective by exploring how geographical elements shape narrative verisimilitude and symbolic meaning.
• The study questions how geography fills gaps in landscape writing, surpassing scientific accuracy and descriptive realism to become a form of artistic expression (Omhovère, p. 346).

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3. The Perception of Space and its Cultural Mediation

• Drawing from James Turrell’s artistic experiments and René Magritte’s La Condition humaine, Omhovère argues that perception is not neutral but shaped by cultural conventions.
• The study applies Henri Maldiney’s distinction between sensation and perception, suggesting that landscape writing is a way to recover sensory experiences often obscured by representation (Omhovère, p. 347).

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4. The Role of Landscape in Human Experience

• Landscape is not merely a visual object but a medium through which human subjectivity connects with the environment.
• Augustin Berque’s concept of the ecumene—the intersection of human culture and the environment—is central to this idea (Omhovère, p. 348).

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5. The Western Tradition of Landscape Representation

• European languages often use the same word for landscape and its artistic representation, revealing how deeply culture mediates our understanding of space.
• In contrast, Indigenous languages such as Montagnais prioritize other sensory modes, demonstrating alternative ways of perceiving geography (Omhovère, p. 349).

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6. Canadian Postmodernism and the Challenge to Spatial Hierarchies

• Canadian postmodern literature, influenced by historiographical metafiction, disrupts traditional spatial binaries such as center/margin and metropolis/hinterland.
• Linda Hutcheon (1988) argues that Canadian postmodernism self-consciously engages with both literary tradition and socio-political context, making it inherently political (Omhovère, p. 350).

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7. The Role of Geography in Canadian National Identity

• Writers like George Bowering use geographic imagery to challenge colonial aesthetic values and question national identity.
• The use of the term locus instead of “setting” or “landscape” signals an attempt to move away from traditional literary conventions and instead focus on self-location (Omhovère, p. 351).

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8. Geography as a Form of Topophilia

• Robert Kroetsch’s The Lovely Treachery of Words explores the intimate connection between geography and personal identity, using the phrase, “I wear geography next to my skin” (Omhovère, p. 352).
• The contrast between “place” and “space” in literature reflects tensions between local specificity and global abstraction.

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9. The Evolution of Landscape Perception in Contemporary Literature

• Traditional notions of landscape as a framed, distanced view are replaced by phenomenological perspectives that emphasize bodily engagement and multi-sensory experience.
• Erwin Straus argues that landscape is not an object to be seen but an experience that envelops the perceiver, making it “invisible” in its full presence (Omhovère, p. 353).

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10. The Limitations of Thematic Criticism in Literary Geography

• Omhovère critiques thematic criticism, which overemphasizes continuity and consensus in literature while ignoring dissent and innovation.
• She rejects geographical determinism, which assumes a rigid link between environment and cultural production (Omhovère, p. 354).

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11. The Documentary Impulse in Canadian Literature

• The historiographical metafiction of Margaret Atwood, Robert Kroetsch, and Rudy Wiebe revisits colonial documents such as explorers’ journals to challenge historical narratives.
• In these works, geography is not merely descriptive but functions as a destabilizing force that questions imperial representations (Omhovère, p. 355).

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12. Postcolonial Geography and Iterative Structures in Fiction

• Homi Bhabha’s concept of “third space” applies to Canadian literature, where the repetition of colonial geographic discourse creates ruptures that challenge its authority.
• Writers like Carol Shields, Jane Urquhart, and Michael Ondaatje use geography not for realism but to interrogate subjectivity and spatial representation (Omhovère, p. 356).

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13. Robert Kroetsch’s Badlands and the Unwriting of Colonial Geography

• Badlands subverts traditional exploration narratives by fragmenting the colonial gaze.
• Scenes describing the Alberta badlands shift from structured European landscape descriptions to an ungraspable terrain, resisting assimilation into Western aesthetic conventions (Omhovère, p. 357).

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14. Aritha van Herk’s Places Far From Ellesmere and Feminist Geography

• Van Herk’s geografictione explores how geography shapes female identity and challenges patriarchal literary traditions.
• Geography is depicted as an active force that shapes bodies and relationships, rather than a static backdrop (Omhovère, p. 358).

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15. The Subversive Power of Geography in Contemporary Canadian Writing

• Writers like Shields, Wiebe, Kroetsch, and Ondaatje use geography to critique colonialism, cultural mediation, and artistic representation.
• Geography functions as both a documentary tool and a poetic device, reinforcing a unique spatial sensibility in Canadian literature (Omhovère, p. 359).

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16. The Poetics of Geography as an Alternative to Thematic Analysis

• Rather than treating geography as a theme, Omhovère argues for its function as an aesthetic and symbolic force in literature.
• Terms from physical geography, such as “fault line” or “erosion,” are repurposed in fiction to evoke processes of cultural transformation and identity formation (Omhovère, p. 360).

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17. The Role of Geography in the Canadian Literary Canon

• Geography is central to Canadian literary criticism, often invoked to explain the nation’s literary identity.
• However, this perspective risks reducing literature to a reflection of environment rather than recognizing its artistic and ideological complexity (Omhovère, p. 361).

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18. The Impact of Geographical Representation on Reader Perception

• Literature configures readers’ experience of space, influencing their aesthetic and political understandings.
• Omhovère draws on Paul Ricoeur to argue that artistic representation, rather than simple mimesis, reconfigures reality (Omhovère, p. 362).

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19. Geography and Genre: Fiction as an Act of World-Building

• Omhovère applies Steven Connor’s concept of “transitivity” to narrative, emphasizing that fiction not only reflects but also constructs new ways of experiencing space.
• Canadian literature uses geography to form alternative spatial imaginaries beyond colonial or nationalist frameworks (Omhovère, p. 363).

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20. Conclusion: The Poetics of Geography as an Ongoing Inquiry

• Omhovère calls for a renewed focus on how geography functions as an artistic and epistemological tool in literature.
• Rather than merely mapping real-world spaces, Canadian fiction uses geography to challenge representation, identity, and history, forming a “poetics of geography” that remains a rich field for literary exploration (Omhovère, p. 364).

Main Ideas:

• Comparative Literature vs. History:
  • Gould critiques the disparity between history and comparative literature regarding global representation.
  • She notes that “history has proven more capable than literature of reversing the Eurocentric trend,” while comparative literature remains largely Eurocentric. (p.170)
  • History has incorporated non-European narratives effectively, but comparative literature is “fundamentally limited to Western Europe” (Moretti 2000, 54).
• Eurocentrism in Comparative Literature:
  • Comparative literature has not achieved the global reach envisioned by Goethe.
  • Eurocentric biases in comparative literature are evident in anthologies like the Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism (NATC), where “less than one hundred pages are devoted to non-European literary-theoretical traditions.” (p.174)
  • Historical inquiry tends to be more inclusive and “addresses itself empirically to the entire world,” unlike comparative literature, which remains mostly Western-centric. (p.172)
• Institutional and Disciplinary Bias:
  • The structure of academia privileges history over literature when studying non-European cultures. Universities hire scholars of non-European history rather than non-European literature. (p.172-173)
  • Even within European institutions, comparative literature departments primarily focus on European languages, with little representation of non-European literatures. (p.173)
• Genre Criticism and Its Exclusion of Non-European Traditions:
  • Western genre criticism, such as Fowler’s Kinds of Literature (1982), assumes the irrelevance of non-European literary traditions. (p.168)
  • Fowler’s lineage of genre studies moves from Aristotle to Sidney, “eliding all contributions from non-European literary traditions during the intervening millennium.” (p.168)
  • Islamic poetics, including Al-Jurjani’s work on takhyil (imagination), is ignored in dominant Western theories, despite its relevance to literary discourse. (p.169)
• The Concept of the ‘Untranslatable’ in Comparative Literature:
  • Theories of untranslatability, as advanced by Spivak and Apter, dominate comparative literature, but they may unintentionally reinforce Eurocentrism. (p.171)
  • If comparative literature privileges the ‘untranslatable,’ it risks limiting its scope to what is already translated and therefore remains Eurocentric. (p.171)
• Colonialism and Internalized Eurocentrism in Literary Studies:
  • Prominent Arab and Middle Eastern scholars, such as Taha Hussein, “internalized colonial perspectives,” identifying their own traditions primarily with European intellectual heritage. (p.170)
  • Hussein, for example, claimed that “Egypt had regular, peaceful, and mutually beneficial relations only with the Near East and Greece,” disregarding the deep influence of Persian and Islamic civilizations. (p.170)
  • This Eurocentric approach affects the way non-European literatures are studied within their own regions.
• Area Studies and Its Limitations:
  • While area studies have provided a space for non-European literatures, they often treat literature as secondary to historical and political contexts. (p.173)
  • Area studies are more historically than literarily oriented, meaning literary studies outside of Europe remain marginalized. (p.173)
• Canonization and the Exclusion of Non-European Theories:
  • The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism (NATC) reinforces Western dominance by selecting non-European theorists only when they engage with European frameworks.
  • Adunis, Karatani Ko-jin, Zehou Li, and C. D. Narasimhaiah are included in NATC primarily because they “illuminate Western perspectives and traditions.” (p.175)
  • There is little to no representation of premodern non-European literary theory in the major anthologies. (p.175)
• Challenges for Comparative Literature in a Global Context:
  • Comparative literature in North America and Europe is declining, while it is thriving in the Arab world.
  • Scholars in Middle Eastern and Persian studies engage with comparative literature in a way that “challenges Eurocentric biases and incorporates non-Western methodologies.” (p.180)
  • Muhammad Ghunaymi Hilal, a leading figure in Arab comparative literature, contributed significantly by studying Arab-Persian literary relations, which counters the Eurocentric model of literary studies. (p.180)
• Moving Beyond European-Centric Comparison:
  • Comparative literature must break free from its Western-centered model by integrating global literary theories and traditions.
  • The discipline should learn from history’s methodological inclusivity and expand beyond its current Euro-American focus. (p.183)
  • By decolonizing comparative literature and embracing the broader literary traditions of the world, the discipline can be revitalized. (p.184)

Conclusion:

Gould calls for a fundamental restructuring of comparative literature to move beyond its Eurocentric limitations. She argues that the discipline must integrate non-European literary traditions on their own terms rather than through the lens of Western theoretical frameworks. By adopting the methodological inclusivity of history and area studies while maintaining a focus on literary analysis, comparative literature can evolve into a truly global discipline.

1. Postcolonial Literary Theory

• Critique of Eurocentrism in Comparative Literature
  • Gould highlights how comparative literature remains largely Eurocentric, in contrast to history, which has become more inclusive of non-European perspectives.
  • “Comparative investigations into the meaning and substance of literary knowledge are absent from most major scholarly journals concerned with non-European literary traditions.” (p.167)
• Internalized Colonialism in Non-European Scholarship
  • She examines how scholars from colonized regions have often adopted European literary frameworks at the expense of their own traditions.
  • “Taha Hussein’s efforts to purge Egypt’s cultural heritage of all non-European ancestries and to graft onto it a European genealogy is profoundly entangled with the legacies of colonial hegemony.” (p.170)
• Calls for a Decolonization of Literary Studies
  • Advocates for a shift away from Eurocentric paradigms and the integration of non-European texts and methodologies.
  • “There is no intrinsic link between comparativist readings of European texts and the encounter with subaltern knowledge.” (p.182)

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2. Comparative Literature Theory

• Critique of the Institutional Biases in Comparative Literature
  • Gould argues that comparative literature departments have failed to move beyond European traditions, despite the discipline’s supposed global nature.
  • “Few Comparative Literature departments in research universities across the country have full-time faculty in non-European languages.” (p.172)
• Encouragement of Non-European Literary Theories
  • Calls for the inclusion of classical Arabo-Persian literary theories, such as takhyīl (imagination), to enrich comparative literature.
  • “Al-Jurjani’s defense of poetic imagery in the Qur’an, and his proposal that the study of pre-Islamic poetry was a necessary prelude to understanding the Qur’an, interestingly dovetails with Sir Philip Sydney’s Defense of Poesy.” (p.169)
• Reassessment of Canon Formation in Comparative Literature
  • Criticizes the limited geographical and temporal scope of canonical anthologies like The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism.
  • “Out of over three thousand pages of text, less than one hundred are devoted to non-European literary-theoretical traditions.” (p.174)

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3. Translation Studies and Untranslatability Theory

• Examines the Role of the “Untranslatable” in Comparative Literature
  • Discusses how the concept of “untranslatability” limits the scope of comparative literature.
  • “The untranslatable has been framed as the object and goal of comparative literary studies… If comparative literary studies must privilege the untranslatable, then where does that leave the discipline’s imperative to compare?” (p.171)
• Argues that Comparative Literature Over-Relies on Already Translated Texts
  • Highlights how the discipline often depends on translations, which affects its epistemic reach.
  • “If the untranslatable is the necessary (or ideal) point of departure for comparative literature, then it follows that the discipline is best off basing itself on what has already been translated.” (p.171)

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4. Literary Historiography and World Literature Theory

• Challenges the Temporal Bias in Literary Studies
  • Points out that many literary theories exclude non-European texts and medieval non-Western contributions.
  • “Fowler’s normative trajectory…leads directly from Aristotle to Sir Philip Sidney, eliding all contributions from non-European literary traditions during the intervening millennium.” (p.168)
• Critique of Presentism in Literary Theory
  • Argues that literary studies prioritize modern theories at the expense of historical diversity.
  • “The editorial policy of privileging the contemporary at the expense of the past perhaps stemmed from a reasonable desire to make the inclusion of still-living theorists an anthological priority.” (p.176)
• Advocates for a More Inclusive World Literature Model
  • Calls for a return to Goethe’s vision of Weltliteratur that is truly global, rather than Eurocentric.
  • “Goethe’s concept of world literature sought to transcend national boundaries, yet comparative literature has failed to achieve this vision.” (p.174)

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5. Subaltern Studies and the Role of Marginalized Voices in Literary Theory

• Emphasizes the Role of Non-European Scholars in Expanding the Archive
  • Points out that while historians like Ranajit Guha have extended the archive of subaltern voices, literary studies have lagged behind.
  • “Guha’s work has substantially extended the historical archive, something yet to be done in comparative literature.” (p.177)
• Highlights the Need for Non-European Comparative Literary Approaches
  • Discusses how Arab and Persian scholars are developing new comparative frameworks outside of the Western model.
  • “Even as Spivak presides over the ‘death of a discipline’ in the Euro-American context, scholars from the Arab and Persian world are learning to approach their literary pasts in ways informed by European methodologies but not subordinate to them.” (p.180)

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6. Canon Formation and Literary Pedagogy

• Exposes the Structural Barriers to the Inclusion of Non-European Literary Traditions
  • Argues that non-European literary traditions are sidelined not just in research but also in pedagogy.
  • “At Middle Eastern universities, comparative studies are commonly situated in English literature departments, making fluency in English a prerequisite for comparativism.” (p.172)
• Critique of Western-Centric Anthologies
  • Points out that even when non-European theorists are included, they are framed in relation to Western theory.
  • “For each of these inclusions, the merit of the text is gauged by the extent of its interaction with Kant, Marx, Eliot, Leavis, or with foundational issues in the Continental and Anglophone literary-critical traditions.” (p.176)

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Conclusion: Gould’s Call for a Reorientation of Literary Theory

Rebecca Gould’s The Geography of Comparative Literature makes a strong case for rethinking literary theory through a more globally inclusive lens. By exposing the Eurocentric biases in comparative literature, translation studies, and canon formation, she urges scholars to broaden their methodologies and incorporate non-European traditions more meaningfully. Her work aligns with postcolonial theory, subaltern studies, and world literature while offering a unique critique of how institutional structures limit the comparative scope of literary studies.

1. Overemphasis on Eurocentrism Without Providing Concrete Alternatives

• While Gould effectively critiques Eurocentrism in comparative literature, she does not provide a clear roadmap for restructuring the discipline beyond calling for the inclusion of non-European traditions.
• Critics argue that her approach focuses on dismantling existing structures rather than proposing a practical methodology for incorporating non-European literary theories.
• Limited Engagement with Non-Western Theorists

• Although Gould advocates for the inclusion of non-European literary traditions, she largely references Western scholars such as Moretti, Chakrabarty, and Spivak, rather than extensively engaging with primary sources from non-Western traditions.
• Some critics believe that her work could be stronger if she engaged directly with untranslated non-Western theoretical texts instead of relying on their reception in Western academia.
• Generalization of Comparative Literature’s Institutional Structure

• Gould critiques American and European comparative literature departments for their lack of diversity in literary traditions, but her argument assumes a uniform structure across all institutions.
• Scholars have pointed out that many comparative literature programs in non-Western countries (e.g., in China, India, and the Arab world) have already embraced a more global perspective, making her critique less universally applicable.
• Binary Oppositions Between Literature and History

• Gould presents history as more successful than comparative literature in overcoming Eurocentrism. However, critics argue that this creates an artificial dichotomy between the two disciplines.
• Some scholars believe that comparative literature has also made significant strides in decolonizing its methodologies, and history itself is still affected by Eurocentric narratives.
• Neglect of Linguistic Barriers in Expanding the Comparative Field

• While advocating for global inclusivity in literary studies, Gould does not address the practical challenge of linguistic accessibility.
• The need for scholars to acquire multiple linguistic competencies remains a significant barrier in expanding comparative literature beyond European traditions, yet this issue is largely overlooked in her argument.
• Assumption that Literary Studies Must Follow the Model of History

• Gould frequently argues that comparative literature should learn from history’s approach to global scholarship, yet some argue that literature and history have fundamentally different methodologies.
• Critics question whether literary studies should be expected to adopt the same archival and empirical methods as history, rather than developing its own comparative frameworks.
• Neglect of Modern Postcolonial and World Literature Approaches

• Postcolonial studies and world literature have already expanded the field of comparative literature to include non-European traditions, yet Gould largely critiques outdated models without fully acknowledging contemporary shifts.
• Scholars such as David Damrosch, Aamir Mufti, and Pheng Cheah have contributed to world literature studies that address many of the issues she raises, making her critique seem somewhat retrospective rather than forward-looking.
• Idealization of the Non-European Perspective Without Examining Internal Biases

• While advocating for the inclusion of non-European traditions, Gould does not critically engage with the internal biases and exclusions that exist within non-European literary cultures themselves.
• For instance, Arabic and Persian literary traditions have their own hierarchical structures that marginalize certain voices (e.g., subaltern, indigenous, or gendered perspectives), which her argument does not fully address.
• Lack of Discussion on Interdisciplinary Approaches in Comparative Literature

• Modern comparative literature has increasingly embraced interdisciplinary approaches (e.g., cultural studies, digital humanities, and media studies), yet Gould focuses primarily on textual and archival comparisons.
• Some scholars argue that a more interdisciplinary perspective would help comparative literature evolve in a global direction rather than solely following historical methods.
• Ambiguous Definition of the “Geography” in Comparative Literature

• The article critiques the Western-centered geography of comparative literature, but does not clearly define how literary geography should be restructured.
• While Gould suggests expanding to non-European traditions, she does not engage with how geographical concepts (e.g., border studies, migration studies) might reshape comparative literature in practice.

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Summary of Key Criticisms:

✅ Strengths: Raises important issues about Eurocentrism in comparative literature, highlights overlooked literary traditions, and calls for more inclusivity.
❌ Weaknesses: Lacks concrete solutions, generalizes institutional structures, and does not fully acknowledge contemporary global shifts in literary studies.