March 11, 2025 - English Studies

“The Voice” by Thomas Hardy: A Critical Analysis

“The Voice” by Thomas Hardy first appeared in Poems of the Past and Present (1901), a collection that reflects Hardy’s deep sorrow and nostalgia following the death of his first wife, Emma.

Introduction: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

“The Voice” by Thomas Hardy first appeared in Poems of the Past and Present (1901), a collection that reflects Hardy’s deep sorrow and nostalgia following the death of his first wife, Emma. The poem is a poignant elegy that explores themes of grief, memory, and the elusive nature of the past. Hardy captures the haunting presence of Emma’s voice, which seems to call to him, evoking both longing and doubt. The poem’s melancholic tone and rhythmic structure mirror the speaker’s emotional turmoil as he questions whether the voice he hears is real or a figment of his yearning mind. The use of natural imagery, such as the “wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,” enhances the sense of loss and transience. The poem remains popular due to its universal meditation on love and mourning, as well as Hardy’s masterful use of diction and meter to convey the fragility of human emotions (Hardy, 1901).

Text: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me,

Saying that now you are not as you were

When you had changed from the one who was all to me,

But as at first, when our day was fair.

Can it be you that I hear? Let me view you, then,

Standing as when I drew near to the town

Where you would wait for me: yes, as I knew you then,

Even to the original air-blue gown!

Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness

Travelling across the wet mead to me here,

You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,

Heard no more again far or near?

Thus I; faltering forward,

Leaves around me falling,

Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,

And the woman calling.

Annotations: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Line	Annotation (Simple Explanation)	Literary Devices
“Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me,”	The speaker expresses deep sorrow, believing he hears his deceased wife’s voice.	Repetition, Apostrophe, Alliteration
“Saying that now you are not as you were”	The voice tells him she is different now, suggesting a transformation after death.	Contrast, Enjambment
“When you had changed from the one who was all to me,”	She changed in life before her death, possibly referring to emotional distance.	Past vs. Present Contrast, Enjambment
“But as at first, when our day was fair.”	The speaker recalls the happier early days of their relationship.	Nostalgia, Imagery
“Can it be you that I hear? Let me view you, then,”	He questions whether the voice is real and wishes to see her.	Rhetorical Question, Apostrophe
“Standing as when I drew near to the town”	He imagines her waiting for him, as she used to in life.	Visual Imagery, Memory
“Where you would wait for me: yes, as I knew you then,”	He recalls a specific moment when she stood waiting for him.	Repetition, Memory
“Even to the original air-blue gown!”	He remembers her in a specific blue dress, highlighting vivid nostalgia.	Visual Imagery, Symbolism (blue as innocence, past love)
“Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness”	He doubts whether he truly hears her or if it is just the wind.	Personification (listless breeze), Contrast (voice vs. wind)
“Travelling across the wet mead to me here,”	The wind moves through the wet fields toward him.	Personification, Natural Imagery
“You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,”	He realizes she has faded into an unclear, dreamlike state.	Alliteration, Metaphor (dissolving as death, forgetfulness)
“Heard no more again far or near?”	He wonders if he will ever hear her voice again.	Rhetorical Question, Repetition
“Thus I; faltering forward,”	The speaker moves forward in grief but hesitates.	Alliteration, Symbolism (hesitation as emotional struggle)
“Leaves around me falling,”	Falling leaves symbolize the passage of time and death.	Seasonal Imagery, Symbolism (autumn as decay, loss)
“Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,”	The wind is weak and cold, adding to the bleak atmosphere.	Personification, Alliteration
“And the woman calling.”	The poem ends with the haunting idea that she is still calling to him.	Repetition, Ambiguity (real or imagined voice?)

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Device	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	“call to me, call to me”	The repetition of the “c” sound creates rhythm and emphasis, reinforcing the speaker’s longing.
Ambiguity	“And the woman calling.”	It is unclear whether the speaker truly hears his wife’s voice or if it is just his imagination, leaving the ending open to interpretation.
Apostrophe	“Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me,”	The speaker directly addresses his deceased wife, a figure who cannot respond, emphasizing his grief.
Assonance	“You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness”	The repetition of the “i” and “o” vowel sounds creates a melancholic tone.
Contrast	“Saying that now you are not as you were”	The poem contrasts the past and present versions of the wife, showing how death changes memory and perception.
Consonance	“Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward”	The repeated “n” and “th” sounds enhance the soft, eerie quality of the line.
Enjambment	“Can it be you that I hear? Let me view you, then, / Standing as when I drew near to the town”	The sentence flows beyond the line break, mirroring the speaker’s continuous thoughts and emotions.
Imagery (Auditory)	“how you call to me, call to me”	The reader can almost hear the voice of the woman, emphasizing the haunting nature of her presence.
Imagery (Visual)	“Even to the original air-blue gown!”	The speaker vividly recalls a specific image of his wife, making the memory feel real.
Metaphor	“You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,”	The wife is metaphorically described as dissolving, suggesting her fading presence in memory.
Mood	“Leaves around me falling, / Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,”	The mood is melancholic and desolate, created through imagery of falling leaves and the thin wind.
Nostalgia	“But as at first, when our day was fair.”	The speaker reminisces about the past, longing for the happiness he once shared with his wife.
Paradox	“Saying that now you are not as you were”	The voice suggests that she is both the same and changed, reflecting the contradiction of memory and death.
Personification	“Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,”	The wind is given human-like qualities, making it seem almost ghostly and alive.
Repetition	“call to me, call to me”	The phrase is repeated to emphasize the longing and haunting nature of the voice.
Rhetorical Question	“Can it be you that I hear?”	The speaker questions whether he truly hears his wife, showing his uncertainty and grief.
Symbolism	“Leaves around me falling,”	The falling leaves symbolize the passage of time and the inevitability of death.
Tone	“Thus I; faltering forward,”	The tone is sorrowful and hesitant, reflecting the speaker’s emotional struggle with loss.
Understatement	“Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness”	The speaker downplays his deep grief by suggesting that the voice might just be the wind.
Visual Juxtaposition	”Even to the original air-blue gown!” vs. “Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,”*	The contrast between the bright memory of the woman and the bleak present landscape highlights the theme of loss.

Themes: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Grief and Mourning: One of the central themes of “The Voice” is grief and mourning, as the speaker struggles to come to terms with the loss of his beloved wife. From the opening line, “Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me,” the deep sorrow of the speaker is evident. The repetition of “call to me” emphasizes his longing and the haunting presence of the deceased. The poem portrays grief as an emotional weight that does not easily fade; instead, it manifests through memories and imagined voices. The speaker desperately wishes to see his wife again, saying, “Let me view you, then, / Standing as when I drew near to the town.” This longing for a lost loved one showcases the enduring nature of grief, as the past continues to intrude upon the present. However, as the poem progresses, doubt creeps in, and the speaker begins to question whether he truly hears his wife or if it is merely the wind. This uncertainty reflects the psychological toll of mourning, where the boundary between reality and imagination blurs. The final stanza, “Thus I; faltering forward, / Leaves around me falling,” suggests that while grief lingers, life must continue, even in uncertainty and sorrow.

Memory and the Passage of Time: Memory plays a crucial role in “The Voice”, as the speaker recalls his wife as she once was, struggling to reconcile his memories with the painful reality of her absence. He reminisces about their early days, stating, “But as at first, when our day was fair.” This line indicates that the speaker clings to the idealized memory of his wife rather than accepting the way she changed over time. The mention of her “original air-blue gown” symbolizes his effort to preserve her image as he once knew her. However, the contrast between the vibrant past and the bleak present becomes evident as the poem progresses. The speaker initially envisions his wife vividly, but by the third stanza, he begins to doubt, asking, “Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness, / Travelling across the wet mead to me here?” This shift highlights the transient and unreliable nature of memory—what was once clear and certain becomes indistinct over time. The imagery of “leaves around me falling” in the final stanza reinforces the idea that time moves forward, seasons change, and memories inevitably fade, leaving the speaker grappling with the passage of time.
The Supernatural and the Uncertainty of the Afterlife: “The Voice” explores the idea of the supernatural, particularly in how the speaker believes he hears his deceased wife calling to him. From the outset, the poem suggests a ghostly presence, with the speaker exclaiming, “Can it be you that I hear?” This rhetorical question reflects his uncertainty about whether he is truly experiencing a supernatural event or if it is a trick of his own mind. The phrase “You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,” further suggests that the woman’s presence is fading into something intangible, almost spectral. The poem does not provide a definitive answer as to whether the voice is real or imagined, leaving the reader in the same uncertainty as the speaker. This ambiguity mirrors Hardy’s broader philosophical concerns about life, death, and the possibility of an afterlife. The final haunting line, “And the woman calling,” suggests that, whether real or not, the voice continues to exist in the speaker’s mind, symbolizing the lingering connection between the living and the dead.
Nature as a Reflection of Emotion: Hardy frequently uses nature to mirror human emotions, and in “The Voice”, the landscape reflects the speaker’s internal turmoil. In the final stanza, the imagery of “Leaves around me falling, / Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,” creates an atmosphere of decay and desolation. The falling leaves symbolize the passage of time and the inevitability of death, reinforcing the speaker’s grief. Similarly, the “wind oozing thin” conveys a sense of emptiness and loss, mirroring the speaker’s uncertainty about whether he truly hears his wife’s voice or if it is merely the sound of nature. The contrast between the past and present is also marked by nature, as the earlier mention of “our day was fair” suggests a time when life was full of warmth and happiness, whereas the present is cold and uncertain. This use of natural elements to reflect human emotions aligns with Hardy’s broader poetic style, where landscapes often serve as emotional backdrops for his characters’ inner struggles.

Literary Theories and “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Literary Theory	Application to “The Voice”	References from the Poem
Formalism	This approach focuses on the structure, language, and literary devices of the poem rather than external context. “The Voice” uses repetition (“call to me, call to me”) to reinforce the speaker’s longing. The alternating rhythm and shifting tone create an emotional pull, leading to an ambiguous ending. The natural imagery of “Leaves around me falling, / Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,” enhances the melancholic atmosphere.	– Repetition: “call to me, call to me” – Imagery: “Leaves around me falling” – Rhythm and tone shift between longing and doubt
Psychoanalytic Criticism	This theory, based on Freudian psychology, explores the unconscious mind and emotional conflict. The speaker experiences mourning and possibly hallucinations, as he questions whether he hears his wife or if it is just the wind (“Can it be you that I hear?”). The phrase “You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,” suggests a subconscious realization that she is fading from memory. His hesitation in “Thus I; faltering forward,” reflects inner turmoil between moving on and holding onto the past.	– Questioning reality: “Can it be you that I hear?” – Psychological struggle: “faltering forward” – Symbolism of fading: “dissolved to wan wistlessness”
Feminist Criticism	This approach examines gender roles and the portrayal of women. The poem presents the woman as a passive, almost spectral figure whose existence is shaped by the speaker’s memory. The phrase “Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me,” highlights male-centered grief where the woman has no voice of her own. Additionally, her identity is reduced to an “air-blue gown,” suggesting that she exists more as a symbol than a person. The speaker’s need to recall her as she was “as at first, when our day was fair,” implies an idealization of women rather than recognition of their complexities.	– Male-centered grief: “Woman much missed, how you call to me” – Objectification: “Even to the original air-blue gown!” – Idealization: “as at first, when our day was fair.”
New Historicism	This theory examines literature in the context of historical and cultural influences. Hardy wrote “The Voice” after the death of his wife, Emma, reflecting Victorian attitudes toward grief and the afterlife. The supernatural elements (“And the woman calling”) align with 19th-century spiritualist movements, where people sought contact with the dead. The reference to the “wet mead” and the barren landscape mirrors the late Victorian period’s preoccupation with decay and existential uncertainty.	– Supernatural belief: “And the woman calling.” – Victorian mourning customs: “Woman much missed” – Nature as historical reflection: “Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward.”

Critical Questions about “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

How does Thomas Hardy use imagery to enhance the theme of grief in “The Voice”?
Hardy masterfully employs imagery in “The Voice” to convey the depth of grief experienced by the speaker. From the beginning, the speaker’s yearning for his lost wife is evident as he imagines her calling out to him: “Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me.” The repetition of “call to me” suggests a lingering presence, as if her voice remains in the speaker’s consciousness, refusing to fade. This auditory imagery reinforces his struggle with loss, making the woman feel almost tangible despite her absence. Furthermore, visual imagery strengthens the theme of grief, particularly when the speaker recalls her appearance in the past: “Even to the original air-blue gown!” The specific mention of color suggests that his memory of her remains vivid, highlighting how grief often keeps the departed alive in the mind. As the poem progresses, the natural imagery reflects the speaker’s internal turmoil, particularly in the final stanza: “Leaves around me falling, / Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward.” The falling leaves symbolize decay and the passage of time, while the thin wind suggests emptiness, mirroring the speaker’s deep sorrow and loneliness. Through this interplay of auditory and visual imagery, Hardy crafts a poignant meditation on the enduring pain of loss.
What role does ambiguity play in shaping the meaning of “The Voice”?

Ambiguity is central to the poem, making it a deeply introspective and haunting piece. The poem presents the idea of the deceased wife calling out to the speaker, but Hardy deliberately leaves it unclear whether the voice is real or imagined. The speaker himself is uncertain, asking, “Can it be you that I hear?” This rhetorical question signals his internal conflict—does he truly hear her, or is his grief deceiving him? The phrase “You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,” further adds to the ambiguity, suggesting that she is gradually fading into nothingness, a ghostly presence that may only exist in his memory. The uncertainty reaches its peak in the third stanza, where the speaker begins to question whether the voice is simply the wind: “Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness / Travelling across the wet mead to me here?” This moment destabilizes the entire poem, forcing the reader to confront the blurred line between reality and illusion. By refusing to provide a definitive answer, Hardy captures the psychological turmoil of mourning, where memory, longing, and imagination intertwine, leaving the speaker in a liminal space between past and present.
How does Hardy use structure and sound to reflect the emotional state of the speaker in “The Voice”?
The structure and sound of “The Voice” play a crucial role in expressing the speaker’s fluctuating emotions. The poem follows a regular four-line stanza structure, but its rhythm is disrupted as the speaker’s grief intensifies. The repetition in the opening line, “call to me, call to me,” creates a sense of urgency and emotional distress, mimicking the obsessive thoughts of someone consumed by loss. As the poem progresses, enjambment is used to create a flowing, almost breathless rhythm, reflecting the speaker’s increasing desperation. For example, “Can it be you that I hear? Let me view you, then, / Standing as when I drew near to the town.” The lack of a full stop at the end of the line mirrors the speaker’s racing thoughts and inability to find closure. The final stanza shifts in tone and structure, with shorter, fragmented phrases: “Thus I; faltering forward, / Leaves around me falling.” The use of alliteration (“faltering forward,” “leaves… falling”) slows the pace, suggesting hesitancy and emotional exhaustion. Meanwhile, the soft consonant sounds in “Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward” create an eerie, whispering effect, reinforcing the ghostly and sorrowful atmosphere. Through these structural and sonic techniques, Hardy immerses the reader in the speaker’s emotional turbulence, making his grief feel immediate and palpable.

What does “The Voice” suggest about the relationship between memory and reality?
Hardy’s “The Voice” explores the fragile and often deceptive nature of memory, questioning its relationship with reality. The poem begins with the speaker recalling his wife’s voice, but it quickly becomes unclear whether he is actually hearing her or merely experiencing a projection of his grief. His plea, “Let me view you, then,” reveals his desperate desire to make memory tangible, to bring the past into the present. However, this attempt is doomed to fail, as indicated by the phrase “You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness.” The word “dissolved” suggests that memory is fading and unreliable, while “wan wistlessness” implies emptiness and uncertainty. By the third stanza, reality begins to intrude, as the speaker questions whether the voice is simply the wind: “Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness / Travelling across the wet mead to me here?” This shift signals an internal conflict—his heart longs to believe in the presence of his wife, but his rational mind recognizes that time and death have separated them. The poem ultimately suggests that memory can be both comforting and deceptive, preserving love while also distorting reality. In the final lines, “And the woman calling,” Hardy leaves the conclusion open-ended, implying that memory, whether real or imagined, continues to haunt the speaker, shaping his perception of the world around him.

Literary Works Similar to “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

“When You Are Old” by W.B. Yeats – Like “The Voice”, this poem reflects on love, memory, and loss, as the speaker envisions a time when the beloved will look back with regret and longing.

“Remember” by Christina Rossetti – Both poems explore themes of grief and remembrance, with Rossetti’s speaker urging a loved one to remember her after death, much like Hardy’s speaker yearns for the presence of his lost wife.
“Break, Break, Break” by Alfred Lord Tennyson – This poem, like “The Voice”, expresses sorrow for a lost loved one, using natural imagery (waves and the sea) to reflect the speaker’s grief and emotional turmoil.
“Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” by Thomas Gray – Hardy’s poem shares thematic connections with this elegy, as both meditate on death, the passage of time, and the fading presence of those who have passed.

“Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe – Similar to “The Voice”, Poe’s poem is about mourning a lost love, with an almost supernatural tone where the deceased seems to linger in the speaker’s mind and surroundings.

Representative Quotations of “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me,”	The speaker expresses his deep longing for his deceased wife, hearing her voice calling to him. The repetition emphasizes his grief.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – Reflects the speaker’s unconscious yearning and inability to accept loss. Feminist Criticism – Highlights how the woman is portrayed through the male speaker’s emotions rather than her own identity.
“Saying that now you are not as you were / When you had changed from the one who was all to me,”	The speaker acknowledges that his wife changed before her death, possibly emotionally or physically, creating a contrast between the past and the present.	New Historicism – Reflects Hardy’s personal grief after his wife Emma’s death. Formalism – The contrast between past and present shapes the poem’s emotional tension.
“But as at first, when our day was fair.”	The speaker idealizes the past, longing for the early days of their relationship when things were happier.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – Suggests nostalgia as a coping mechanism. Romanticism – Emphasizes an idealized love that contrasts with present sorrow.
“Can it be you that I hear? Let me view you, then,”	The speaker is unsure whether he truly hears his wife or if it is an illusion, showing his internal conflict between reality and memory.	Phenomenology – Explores perception and reality, questioning the existence of the voice. Formalism – Uses a rhetorical question to highlight doubt.
“Even to the original air-blue gown!”	The speaker recalls a specific image of his wife in a blue dress, showing the vividness of memory.	Feminist Criticism – The woman is remembered through her appearance, reducing her to an object of nostalgia. Psychoanalytic Criticism – The color blue may symbolize tranquility or lost innocence.
“Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness / Travelling across the wet mead to me here?”	The speaker begins to doubt whether he truly hears his wife or if it is just the wind, symbolizing the fragile nature of memory.	Deconstruction – Challenges the reliability of perception, blurring reality and imagination. Modernism – Reflects existential uncertainty.
“You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,”	The speaker recognizes that his wife’s presence is fading into an indistinct memory, showing the transient nature of grief.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – Represents the speaker’s subconscious acceptance of loss. Existentialism – Explores the inevitable fading of human existence.
“Thus I; faltering forward,”	The speaker acknowledges his hesitation in moving on, showing the emotional weight of grief.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – Demonstrates resistance to closure. Narratology – The use of fragmented phrasing mirrors the speaker’s uncertainty.
“Leaves around me falling,”	The natural imagery of falling leaves symbolizes the passage of time and the decay of life, reinforcing the theme of mortality.	Ecocriticism – Uses nature as a metaphor for human emotions. Symbolism – Autumn signifies loss and the cycle of life.
“And the woman calling.”	The poem ends ambiguously, leaving open the question of whether the voice is real or imagined, enhancing the haunting effect.	Gothic Literature – Evokes supernatural elements and unresolved tension. Psychoanalytic Criticism – Suggests the persistence of grief in the unconscious mind.

“A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore: A Critical Analysis

“A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore first appeared in 1823 in the Troy Sentinel, an anonymous publication that quickly gained popularity.

Introduction: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

“A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore first appeared in 1823 in the Troy Sentinel, an anonymous publication that quickly gained popularity. Later attributed to Moore, this poem became one of the most enduring Christmas classics, helping to shape the modern image of Santa Claus. Its vivid descriptions, such as St. Nicholas being “chubby and plump, a right jolly old elf” and the names of his eight reindeer—”Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen!”—cemented many of today’s Christmas traditions. The poem’s magical and rhythmic storytelling, filled with warmth and anticipation, resonated with readers, making it a beloved part of holiday culture. Its universal themes of generosity, joy, and the whimsical charm of Christmas Eve captured the imagination of children and adults alike. The scene of Santa filling stockings “with a bundle of toys flung on his back” and his quiet yet enchanting departure—”laying his finger aside of his nose, / And giving a nod, up the chimney he rose”—reinforced the mystique of Santa Claus. Through its playful tone, engaging rhymes, and nostalgic imagery, Moore’s poem became a cornerstone of Christmas literature, defining the holiday spirit for generations.

Text: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

‘Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house

Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse;

The stockings were hung by the chimney with care,

In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there;

The children were nestled all snug in their beds;

While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads;

And mamma in her ‘kerchief, and I in my cap,

Had just settled our brains for a long winter’s nap,

When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter,

I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter.

Away to the window I flew like a flash,

Tore open the shutters and threw up the sash.

The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow,

Gave a lustre of midday to objects below,

When what to my wondering eyes did appear,

But a miniature sleigh and eight tiny rein-deer,

With a little old driver so lively and quick,

I knew in a moment he must be St. Nick.

More rapid than eagles his coursers they came,

And he whistled, and shouted, and called them by name:

“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now Prancer and Vixen!

On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Donder and Blitzen!

To the top of the porch! to the top of the wall!

Now dash away! dash away! dash away all!”

As leaves that before the wild hurricane fly,

When they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky;

So up to the housetop the coursers they flew

With the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too—

And then, in a twinkling, I heard on the roof

The prancing and pawing of each little hoof.

As I drew in my head, and was turning around,

Down the chimney St. Nicholas came with a bound.

He was dressed all in fur, from his head to his foot,

And his clothes were all tarnished with ashes and soot;

A bundle of toys he had flung on his back,

And he looked like a pedler just opening his pack.

His eyes—how they twinkled! his dimples, how merry!

His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a cherry!

His droll little mouth was drawn up like a bow,

And the beard on his chin was as white as the snow;

The stump of a pipe he held tight in his teeth,

And the smoke, it encircled his head like a wreath;

He had a broad face and a little round belly

That shook when he laughed, like a bowl full of jelly.

He was chubby and plump, a right jolly old elf,

And I laughed when I saw him, in spite of myself;

A wink of his eye and a twist of his head

Soon gave me to know I had nothing to dread;

He spoke not a word, but went straight to his work,

And filled all the stockings; then turned with a jerk,

And laying his finger aside of his nose,

And giving a nod, up the chimney he rose;

He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle,

And away they all flew like the down of a thistle.

But I heard him exclaim, ere he drove out of sight—

“Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good night!”

Annotations: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

Line from the Poem	Annotation (Simple English)	Literary Devices
‘Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house	It was Christmas Eve, and the house was quiet.	Alliteration, Imagery
Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse;	No one, not even a small mouse, was making noise.	Personification
The stockings were hung by the chimney with care,	Christmas stockings were hung by the fireplace with care.	Imagery, Symbolism
In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there;	They hoped St. Nicholas (Santa Claus) would arrive soon.	Symbolism
The children were nestled all snug in their beds;	The children were asleep in their warm beds.	Imagery
While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads;	They were dreaming of delicious Christmas treats.	Imagery, Metaphor
And mamma in her ‘kerchief, and I in my cap,	Mother wore a headscarf, and father wore a sleeping cap.	Imagery
Had just settled our brains for a long winter’s nap,	They had just gone to bed for a good night’s sleep.	Personification
When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter,	Suddenly, a loud noise came from the yard.	Onomatopoeia
I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter.	The narrator quickly got out of bed to check.	Imagery
Away to the window I flew like a flash,	He ran to the window quickly.	Simile, Hyperbole
Tore open the shutters and threw up the sash.	He opened the window shutters excitedly.	Imagery
The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow,	The moonlight made the snow shine brightly.	Personification, Imagery
Gave a lustre of midday to objects below,	It was so bright that everything looked clear.	Imagery
When what to my wondering eyes did appear,	Then, something surprising appeared outside.	Imagery, Suspense
But a miniature sleigh and eight tiny rein-deer,	A small sleigh with eight tiny reindeer.	Imagery
With a little old driver so lively and quick,	The sleigh had a little old man who was lively.	Imagery, Alliteration
I knew in a moment he must be St. Nick.	Immediately, the narrator knew it was St. Nicholas.	Imagery
More rapid than eagles his coursers they came,	The reindeer moved faster than eagles.	Simile, Hyperbole
And he whistled, and shouted, and called them by name:	St. Nicholas called out their names loudly.	Repetition, Alliteration
“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now Prancer and Vixen!”	He called Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, and Vixen.	Repetition
“On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Donder and Blitzen!”	He also called Comet, Cupid, Donder, and Blitzen.	Repetition
To the top of the porch! to the top of the wall!	He told them to fly high onto the house.	Imagery, Repetition
Now dash away! dash away! dash away all!	He urged them to move fast and fly away.	Repetition
As leaves that before the wild hurricane fly,	The reindeer moved as fast as leaves in a storm.	Simile
When they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky;	When wind lifts objects up into the sky.	Personification
So up to the housetop the coursers they flew	They reached the rooftop quickly.	Imagery
With the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too—	St. Nicholas had a sleigh full of toys.	Imagery
And then, in a twinkling, I heard on the roof	Then, the narrator heard noises on the roof.	Onomatopoeia
The prancing and pawing of each little hoof.	The reindeer were moving and stepping there.	Onomatopoeia
As I drew in my head, and was turning around,	As he turned to look, something happened.	Imagery
Down the chimney St. Nicholas came with a bound.	St. Nicholas jumped down the chimney.	Imagery
He was dressed all in fur, from his head to his foot,	He was wearing a fur outfit from head to toe.	Imagery
And his clothes were all tarnished with ashes and soot;	His clothes were dirty with soot from the chimney.	Imagery, Symbolism
A bundle of toys he had flung on his back,	He carried a big sack of toys on his back.	Simile
And he looked like a pedler just opening his pack.	He looked like a traveling salesman opening his bag.	Imagery, Personification
His eyes—how they twinkled! his dimples, how merry!	His eyes twinkled, and he looked very happy.	Imagery, Metaphor
His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a cherry!	His cheeks were red, and his nose was shiny.	Simile
His droll little mouth was drawn up like a bow,	His mouth was curved like a bow.	Simile
And the beard on his chin was as white as the snow;	His beard was thick and white like snow.	Simile
The stump of a pipe he held tight in his teeth,	He held a pipe in his mouth.	Imagery
And the smoke, it encircled his head like a wreath;	The smoke made a wreath around his head.	Personification
He had a broad face and a little round belly	His face was big, and his belly was round.	Imagery
That shook when he laughed, like a bowl full of jelly.	When he laughed, his belly shook like jelly.	Imagery, Simile
He was chubby and plump, a right jolly old elf,	He was plump and looked very cheerful.	Imagery
And I laughed when I saw him, in spite of myself;	The narrator laughed when he saw him.	Imagery
A wink of his eye and a twist of his head	St. Nicholas winked and nodded.	Personification
Soon gave me to know I had nothing to dread;	This made the narrator feel safe.	Symbolism
He spoke not a word, but went straight to his work,	He did not speak but got to work.	Imagery
And filled all the stockings; then turned with a jerk,	He filled all the stockings quickly.	Imagery
And laying his finger aside of his nose,	Then, he touched his nose with his finger.	Imagery
And giving a nod, up the chimney he rose;	And went back up the chimney magically.	Imagery
He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle,	He jumped into his sleigh and whistled.	Alliteration, Repetition
And away they all flew like the down of a thistle.	They flew away quickly into the sky.	Simile
But I heard him exclaim, ere he drove out of sight—	The narrator heard him shout as he left.	Imagery
“Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good night!”	He wished everyone a ‘Merry Christmas!’	Dialogue

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

Literary Device	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen!”	The repetition of initial consonant sounds creates a musical quality.
Allusion	St. Nicholas (reference to the historical figure of Santa Claus)	A reference to a well-known figure, making the poem relatable.
Anaphora	“Now dash away! dash away! dash away all!”	The repetition of words at the beginning of successive phrases for emphasis.
Assonance	“He had a broad face and a little round belly / That shook when he laughed, like a bowl full of jelly.”	The repetition of vowel sounds enhances the rhythm and flow.
Consonance	“And he whistled, and shouted, and called them by name:”	The repetition of consonant sounds, often at the end of words, creates harmony.
Dialogue	“Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good night!”	Characters speak directly, making the poem more engaging.
Enjambment	“When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter, / I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter.”	A sentence or phrase carries over to the next line, maintaining flow.
Epiphora	“And laying his finger aside of his nose, / And giving a nod, up the chimney he rose;”	The repetition of words at the end of successive phrases for effect.
Hyperbole	“More rapid than eagles his coursers they came,”	An exaggerated statement for dramatic effect.
Imagery	“The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow, / Gave a lustre of midday to objects below,”	Descriptive language appealing to the senses, creating vivid imagery.
Irony	Santa is described as covered in soot, despite being magical.	A contrast between what is expected and what happens (Santa being dirty).
Metaphor	“While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads;”	A direct comparison without “like” or “as”, adding vividness.
Onomatopoeia	“When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter,”	A word that imitates the sound it describes, enhancing realism.
Parallelism	“To the top of the porch! to the top of the wall!”	Using similar grammatical structures to create a pattern.
Personification	“The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow,”	Giving human traits to non-human things, making them relatable.
Repetition	“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now Prancer and Vixen!”	Repeating words or phrases to emphasize meaning.
Rhyme	“Away to the window I flew like a flash, / Tore open the shutters and threw up the sash.”	The use of similar-sounding words to create a pleasing effect.
Rhythm	“The prancing and pawing of each little hoof.”	The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables gives the poem a rhythm.
Simile	“His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a cherry!”	A comparison using “like” or “as” to create a strong image.
Symbolism	Stockings represent the hope for gifts from Santa.	Objects represent larger ideas, adding depth to the poem.

Themes: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

The Magic of Christmas: One of the central themes of “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore is the magic and wonder of Christmas. The poem captures the anticipation and excitement of Christmas Eve as the narrator witnesses the arrival of St. Nicholas. This sense of magic is reflected in the imagery of Santa’s sleigh flying through the night, pulled by “eight tiny rein-deer,” and the way he descends “down the chimney” with ease. The poem transforms a quiet and ordinary household into a place of enchantment, filled with dreams of sugar plums and the mysterious visit of Santa Claus. The narrator, initially startled by “a clatter” outside, is soon filled with awe and joy as he recognizes St. Nicholas, saying, “I knew in a moment he must be St. Nick.” This magical transformation of the night into a moment of wonder is what has made the poem so enduring and beloved over generations.
Generosity and the Spirit of Giving: The theme of generosity and the spirit of giving is evident throughout “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore, as Santa Claus represents the joy of selflessly giving to others. St. Nicholas, described as a “right jolly old elf,” does not speak but simply goes “straight to his work,” filling stockings with toys and gifts before quietly disappearing into the night. His kind and cheerful nature is emphasized when he “winked” and gave a reassuring gesture to the narrator, reinforcing that his visit is meant to bring happiness rather than fear. This portrayal of Santa as a figure of generosity aligns with the traditional idea of Christmas as a time of kindness, sharing, and goodwill. The act of giving, without seeking recognition, is a key aspect of Christmas traditions, and this poem has helped shape that cultural expectation.
Family, Home, and Togetherness: The poem also highlights the warmth and comfort of family and home during the Christmas season. The setting is a cozy household where “the children were nestled all snug in their beds,” and the parents are peacefully resting as well. This imagery of a safe and loving home, where stockings are “hung by the chimney with care,” evokes the sense of togetherness that makes Christmas special. Even though Santa is an external visitor, his presence does not disrupt the peace of the home; instead, he adds to its warmth by delivering gifts and departing quietly. This theme reinforces the idea that Christmas is a time for loved ones to come together, sharing in the joy of the holiday within the comforting embrace of home.

The Power of Imagination and Belief: A significant theme in “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore is the power of imagination and belief in the extraordinary. The poem invites readers to embrace the wonder of Santa Claus and his magical sleigh, reinforcing the idea that belief in something joyful can bring happiness. The narrator, an adult, becomes momentarily childlike in his excitement and amazement as he watches St. Nicholas at work, exclaiming, “What to my wondering eyes did appear, but a miniature sleigh and eight tiny rein-deer.” This sense of wonder and belief in the unseen is what keeps the magic of Christmas alive for both children and adults. The poem encourages the idea that sometimes, the most extraordinary things happen when one chooses to believe in them, making it a timeless and cherished piece of Christmas literature.

Literary Theories and “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

Literary Theory	Application to “A Visit from St. Nicholas”	References from the Poem
Structuralism	Structuralism focuses on the underlying structure of texts. The poem follows a clear narrative pattern: a peaceful night, an unexpected event, recognition of Santa, and his departure. The repetition and rhythmic structure reinforce traditional Christmas storytelling. The naming of the reindeer (“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now Prancer and Vixen!”) follows a structured list, emphasizing order and predictability.	“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen!” (structure and repetition)
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Psychoanalytic criticism examines subconscious desires and emotions. The poem portrays childhood fantasies of Santa Claus, representing a universal wish for magic and wonder. The father’s reaction—”I knew in a moment he must be St. Nick”—shows an adult surrendering to childhood imagination, which can be interpreted as a deep-seated longing for belief in the extraordinary.	“I knew in a moment he must be St. Nick” (belief and imagination)
Marxist Criticism	Marxist criticism looks at class struggle and economic themes. The poem presents Christmas as a time of abundance, with Santa delivering gifts to children. However, it assumes a comfortable middle-class home (“The stockings were hung by the chimney with care”), reflecting a privileged perspective on holiday traditions, excluding those who cannot afford such luxuries.	“The stockings were hung by the chimney with care” (middle-class tradition)
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theory emphasizes the reader’s interpretation. The poem has remained beloved because it allows readers to engage with their own memories of Christmas. Lines like “the children were nestled all snug in their beds” evoke nostalgic emotions, and different generations may find varied meanings, depending on their experiences with holiday traditions.	“The children were nestled all snug in their beds” (nostalgia and memory)

Critical Questions about “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

How does “A Visit from St. Nicholas” shape modern perceptions of Santa Claus?
“A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore has played a crucial role in shaping the modern image of Santa Claus. Before this poem, depictions of St. Nicholas varied widely, but Moore’s description of him as a “jolly old elf” with a “little round belly that shook when he laughed, like a bowl full of jelly” became the standard image of Santa Claus in popular culture. The poem also established details such as Santa’s use of a sleigh pulled by reindeer—”Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now Prancer and Vixen! / On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Donder and Blitzen!”—which have remained central to the Santa Claus mythos. How did Moore’s portrayal influence later representations of Santa in literature, advertising, and holiday traditions? Did his depiction reflect existing folklore, or did it invent new characteristics that have since become tradition?

How does the poem create a sense of magic and wonder?
“A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore captures the magic and wonder of Christmas Eve through its imagery, rhythm, and narrative structure. The poem transforms an ordinary home into a place of enchantment, where reindeer fly through the sky—”So up to the housetop the coursers they flew / With the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too”—and Santa can enter homes effortlessly through the chimney. The narrator’s reaction, “What to my wondering eyes did appear,” emphasizes a childlike amazement at witnessing something extraordinary. How does Moore use literary devices such as rhyme, alliteration, and sensory imagery to enhance this sense of wonder? Does the poem’s portrayal of Santa rely more on visual descriptions or the reactions of the narrator to create its magical atmosphere?
What role does the theme of generosity play in “A Visit from St. Nicholas”?

The poem emphasizes the theme of generosity, portraying St. Nicholas as a silent gift-giver who spreads joy without seeking recognition. His actions are described in a matter-of-fact manner—”He spoke not a word, but went straight to his work, / And filled all the stockings; then turned with a jerk”—which reinforces the idea that he expects nothing in return. This depiction aligns with the broader cultural tradition of Santa Claus as a symbol of giving. However, the poem also presents a somewhat idealized version of Christmas, where the focus is on material gifts and a well-prepared home: “The stockings were hung by the chimney with care.” Does the poem suggest that generosity is primarily expressed through gift-giving, or does it hint at a deeper sense of holiday spirit beyond material presents?
How does “A Visit from St. Nicholas” reflect 19th-century American values and traditions?
Written in the early 19th century, “A Visit from St. Nicholas” provides insight into the customs and values of its time. The depiction of a warm, middle-class home—where children sleep peacefully and stockings are carefully hung—reflects an idealized domestic setting that was highly valued in 19th-century America. The father, the poem’s narrator, is both a protector of the home and a participant in the holiday magic, symbolizing the era’s emphasis on family unity. Additionally, Santa’s role as a bringer of gifts suggests a growing consumer culture and the association of Christmas with material goods. How does the poem’s portrayal of family, home, and holiday traditions compare to contemporary views of Christmas? Does it idealize a specific social class or economic status, and if so, how does that shape its lasting legacy?

Literary Works Similar to “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

“The Night Before Christmas in the South” by E. J. Sullivan – A regional adaptation of Moore’s poem that retains its structure and rhyme scheme while incorporating Southern traditions, demonstrating how “A Visit from St. Nicholas” has influenced holiday poetry.
“Old Santeclaus with Much Delight” (1821, anonymous) – A predecessor to Moore’s poem that also describes Santa’s arrival on Christmas Eve, featuring a similar depiction of Santa as a gift-bringer, making it an important influence on “A Visit from St. Nicholas.”
“Christmas Eve” by Robert Browning – Though more philosophical in tone, this poem shares “A Visit from St. Nicholas”‘s theme of the magic of Christmas night and the wonder associated with the holiday season.

“A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti – Like Moore’s poem, this piece celebrates the joy and warmth of Christmas, though with a stronger focus on religious themes rather than the Santa Claus mythology.
“The Boy’s Christmas” by James Whitcomb Riley – A nostalgic, rhyming poem that captures the excitement of Christmas through a child’s perspective, mirroring the sense of anticipation and wonder found in “A Visit from St. Nicholas.”

Representative Quotations of “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
‘Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house / Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse;	This opening line sets the quiet, expectant atmosphere of Christmas Eve, emphasizing the stillness before Santa’s arrival.	Structuralism – Establishes the poem’s predictable narrative pattern and traditional holiday storytelling.
The stockings were hung by the chimney with care, / In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there;	Establishes the tradition of hanging stockings and the anticipation of Santa Claus, reinforcing the theme of giving.	Marxist Criticism – Reflects middle-class holiday traditions and expectations of gift-giving.
The children were nestled all snug in their beds; / While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads;	Illustrates the innocence and excitement of children, capturing the magic of Christmas through their dreams.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – Represents childhood imagination and subconscious desires for magic and joy.
When what to my wondering eyes did appear, / But a miniature sleigh and eight tiny rein-deer,	The narrator’s moment of realization and wonder as he sees Santa Claus for the first time, reinforcing the theme of belief.	Reader-Response Theory – Encourages the reader to experience the wonder of Santa’s arrival alongside the narrator.
“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now Prancer and Vixen! / On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Donder and Blitzen!”	The famous naming of Santa’s reindeer, adding rhythm and a sense of urgency to the poem’s magical atmosphere.	Formalism – Highlights the poem’s rhythm, rhyme, and repetition to create a sense of movement and excitement.
He was dressed all in fur, from his head to his foot, / And his clothes were all tarnished with ashes and soot;	A detailed description of Santa’s rugged appearance, making him seem both mystical and relatable.	New Historicism – Provides insight into 19th-century conceptions of Santa Claus and holiday traditions.
He had a broad face and a little round belly, / That shook when he laughed, like a bowl full of jelly.	Depicts Santa as cheerful and jolly, creating the lasting image of Santa as a warm and friendly figure.	Mythological Criticism – Reinforces Santa as a mythical figure with universal appeal.
He spoke not a word, but went straight to his work, / And filled all the stockings; then turned with a jerk,	Shows Santa as a selfless, silent worker, reinforcing the idea of generosity without expectation of reward.	Moral Criticism – Emphasizes the virtue of generosity and selflessness.
He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle, / And away they all flew like the down of a thistle.	Captures the fleeting nature of Santa’s visit, adding to the sense of mystery and excitement.	Post-Structuralism – Suggests Santa’s fleeting presence challenges traditional notions of reality and belief.
But I heard him exclaim, ere he drove out of sight— / ‘Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good night!’	Santa’s farewell, leaving a lasting message of holiday cheer and goodwill that echoes throughout the poem.	Humanism – Promotes universal goodwill and the uplifting spirit of Christmas.

“The Reality of Representation: Between Marx and Balzac” by Sandy Petrey: Summary and Critique

“The Reality of Representation: Between Marx and Balzac” by Sandy Petrey first appeared in Critical Inquiry (Vol. 14, No. 3) in the Spring of 1988, published by The University of Chicago Press.

Introduction: “The Reality of Representation: Between Marx and Balzac” by Sandy Petrey

“The Reality of Representation: Between Marx and Balzac” by Sandy Petrey first appeared in Critical Inquiry (Vol. 14, No. 3) in the Spring of 1988, published by The University of Chicago Press. This article examines the complex interrelationship between literature and Marxist theory through the lens of Balzac’s Colonel Chabert and Marx’s The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. Petrey’s central argument is that both texts challenge the conventional Marxist concept of economism—the idea that economic structures solely determine social reality. Instead, these works demonstrate how ideology itself has a material presence that shapes historical and individual existence. Petrey highlights how Balzac’s Colonel Chabert, a novel about a Napoleonic officer who returns from the dead only to find himself erased by legal and social institutions, parallels Marx’s analysis of history as a site of repetition and ideological entrapment. The shared imagery between Balzac and Marx, particularly the motif of history weighing upon the present like a nightmare, underscores the instability of representation and the intricate interplay between ideology and reality. The article’s significance in literary theory lies in its reevaluation of realism—not as a transparent reflection of material conditions but as an active force in shaping those conditions. By reading Balzac’s novel through a Marxist lens and vice versa, Petrey illustrates how literature and ideology mutually construct historical meaning, making the study of representation essential for understanding both literary realism and political history.

Summary of “The Reality of Representation: Between Marx and Balzac” by Sandy Petrey

1. The Intertextual Connection Between Marx and Balzac

Marx and Engels highly valued Balzac’s depiction of French society, with Engels stating that Comédie humaine taught him more than historians and economists of the time (Petrey, 1988, p. 448).

Marx intended to write a study of Balzac, highlighting the deep connection between literature and socio-political analysis (p. 448).
Petrey explores how Balzac’s Colonel Chabert and Marx’s The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte share a common vision of history and representation.

2. Challenging Economism: The Limits of Base-Superstructure Theory

Traditional Marxist thought emphasizes economic determinism, where material conditions dictate ideological and political structures.
Petrey argues that both Balzac and Marx reject a simplistic economic model, instead depicting ideology as an independent material force (p. 449).
Both authors reveal that social reality is not merely a reflection of economic forces but is shaped by representation and ideology.

3. The Weight of Ideology: History as a Nightmare

Both Balzac and Marx describe ideology as an oppressive weight on individuals and societies.
In Colonel Chabert, Chabert experiences the weight of social and legal institutions pressing down on him “like a nightmare” (p. 450).

Marx echoes this in The Eighteenth Brumaire, writing that “the tradition of all the dead generations weighs like a nightmare on the brain of the living” (p. 450).
This shared imagery suggests that history does not progress linearly but instead haunts the present, shaping and distorting political action.

4. Crisis of Representation: Identity and Politics in Flux

In Colonel Chabert, Chabert’s physical existence is undeniable, but because society has declared him dead, his identity is erased (p. 452).
Similarly, in The Eighteenth Brumaire, the class struggle exists but fails to manifest politically, leading to a political void (p. 457).
Both texts highlight the failure of representation: economic and social realities do not always translate into political recognition.

5. The Rupture Between Sign and Reality

Petrey examines how Marx and Balzac dismantle the idea that words and symbols reliably reflect reality.
Marx describes Napoleon III’s supporters with a chaotic list of labels: “swindlers, mountebanks, pickpockets, tricksters” (p. 451), showing that political legitimacy is constructed rather than inherent.

Similarly, in Colonel Chabert, Chabert’s name no longer signifies a living person, underscoring the fragility of identity in a world dictated by social conventions (p. 452).

6. The Paradox of Class Identity: When is a Class Not a Class?

Marx asserts that the French peasantry in The Eighteenth Brumaire is both a class and not a class (p. 459).

Lacking political representation, the peasants “must be represented” by Napoleon III, who claims to embody their interests even though he does not serve them (p. 459).
This parallels Chabert’s dilemma—he exists, but society refuses to recognize him, mirroring the struggle of the dispossessed (p. 460).

7. Ideology as a Material Force: Social Reality is Constructed

Petrey draws on Althusser’s theory that ideology interpellates individuals as subjects, meaning people do not exist outside of ideological structures (p. 465).
In Colonel Chabert, Chabert is legally dead because ideology dictates it—even though he is alive, he is denied legal and social recognition.
Similarly, in The Eighteenth Brumaire, Marx shows that ideology shapes political outcomes, as Napoleon III gains power by exploiting historical nostalgia (p. 464).

8. Political Theatricality: Power as Performance

Marx describes Napoleon III’s rule as a theatrical performance rather than a genuine political movement (p. 467).
His legitimacy is based not on economic or political reality but on his ability to manipulate signs, symbols, and historical myths (p. 467).

Petrey links this to J. L. Austin’s concept of performative speech, where language does not merely describe reality but creates it (p. 464).
This is mirrored in Colonel Chabert, where Chabert’s identity ceases to exist because legal and social discourse has erased him.

9. The Dialectic of Realism and Ideology

Petrey argues that Balzac and Marx reject the idea that realism simply depicts material conditions.
Instead, they show that social reality is constructed through ideology and discourse.
Marx famously wrote that “the social revolution of the nineteenth century cannot draw its poetry from the past, but only from the future” (p. 468).

This suggests that both revolutionary movements and reactionary regimes are constructed through historical narratives rather than purely economic conditions.

10. Literature and History as Interwoven Forms of Representation

Petrey concludes that Balzac and Marx both challenge simplistic notions of reality and representation.

Colonel Chabert and The Eighteenth Brumaire illustrate that ideology does not merely distort reality—it creates it (p. 468).
Recognition and legitimacy are not inherent but socially constructed, determining who is acknowledged as a subject or class.
Both texts demonstrate that history is not simply determined by economic forces but is actively shaped by ideological struggles and representations.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “The Reality of Representation: Between Marx and Balzac” by Sandy Petrey

Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Relevance in the Article
Economism	The assumption that economic structures alone determine social and ideological formations.	Petrey critiques this as too simplistic, arguing that both Balzac and Marx show that ideology has its own material force (p. 449).
Ideology	A system of beliefs and representations that shape individuals’ perception of reality.	Marx and Balzac both depict ideology as actively shaping reality rather than merely obscuring it (p. 450).
Representation	The way reality, identity, or historical events are depicted through language, symbols, and ideology.	Petrey argues that representation does not simply reflect reality but creates it, as seen in Colonel Chabert and The Eighteenth Brumaire (p. 452).
Materialism	The philosophical perspective that social and political structures arise from material conditions rather than abstract ideas.	The Eighteenth Brumaire challenges strict materialism by showing that ideological narratives shape material reality (p. 457).
Historical Materialism	Marxist theory that history develops through material economic conditions and class struggles.	Petrey shows how The Eighteenth Brumaire complicates this view by depicting history as shaped by ideological forces as well (p. 459).
Base-Superstructure Model	The Marxist idea that the economic “base” (mode of production) determines the “superstructure” (politics, law, ideology).	Petrey argues that Colonel Chabert and The Eighteenth Brumaire challenge this hierarchy by showing that ideology can shape the base (p. 460).
Interpellation	Althusser’s concept that individuals become subjects through ideological structures that define their identity.	Chabert is legally dead despite being alive, showing how social recognition determines existence (p. 465).
Performative Speech	J. L. Austin’s concept that language does not just describe reality but actively creates it.	Napoleon III’s political legitimacy is based on performative discourse, not material reality (p. 464).
Political Theatricality	The idea that political power is maintained through spectacle and symbolic acts rather than direct class control.	Napoleon III constructs his rule through performance and historical myth rather than economic necessity (p. 467).
Class Struggle	The conflict between social classes over control of economic and political power.	The Eighteenth Brumaire shows how class struggle can be politically invisible despite existing materially (p. 457).
False Consciousness	A Marxist concept where people misrecognize their true class interests due to ideological manipulation.	French peasants support Napoleon III because of historical nostalgia rather than material interests (p. 459).
Semiotics	The study of signs and symbols and their meaning in language and culture.	Petrey uses semiotic analysis to show how names, identities, and political legitimacy are constructed through discourse (p. 452).
Crisis of Representation	The idea that signs and symbols fail to correspond directly to reality.	Chabert is a man who exists but is not socially recognized, mirroring how class struggle exists but is politically absent (p. 460).
Dialectical Semiotics	The Marxist idea that meaning is produced through contradictions in representation rather than direct reflection of reality.	The peasants are “both a class and not a class”—they exist materially but only gain political identity through Napoleon III’s representation (p. 459).
Bourgeois Revolution	The transition from feudalism to capitalism through the rise of the bourgeoisie as a ruling class.	Marx describes bourgeois revolutions as relying on historical myths and theatricality rather than pure material necessity (p. 467).
Historical Narratives	The way history is told and structured through ideological perspectives.	Napoleon III maintains power by invoking the past rather than by responding to contemporary material needs (p. 468).

Contribution of “The Reality of Representation: Between Marx and Balzac” by Sandy Petrey to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Marxist Literary Theory

Challenges Economism:
- Petrey critiques the idea that economic structures alone determine social and ideological forms, arguing that ideology has its own material force. “Colonel Chabert and The Eighteenth Brumaire undermine the armature of economism, the hierarchical superiority of material reality over ideological concepts” (p. 449).

Ideology as Material Force:
- Instead of viewing ideology as a mere reflection of economic conditions, Petrey shows that both Balzac and Marx depict ideology as actively shaping reality. “Because both texts represent ideology as a material reality in its own right, they make every hierarchy based on the opposition between matter and ideology untenable” (p. 450).
Reevaluates Class Struggle:
- The Eighteenth Brumaire suggests that class struggle is not always politically visible, undermining the traditional Marxist notion that economic conditions alone drive historical change. “The proletariat may be the subject-object of history, but the history analyzed in The Eighteenth Brumaire takes place with neither workers nor the ‘revolutionary interests of their class’ affecting it” (p. 457).
Political Power as Performance:
- Napoleon III’s legitimacy is derived not from material class struggle but from historical myth and representation. “Napoleon III consolidated his position by making other names change the world despite their ridiculous inability to describe it” (p. 456).

2. Structuralism and Semiotics

Crisis of Representation:
- Petrey highlights how both Balzac and Marx depict the instability of representation, where signs (names, identities, political positions) fail to correspond to reality. “Colonel Chabert enacts the same dissociation of representation and reality, sign and referent, through continuous depiction of a living individual unsuccessfully seeking the name of a man declared dead” (p. 452).

Language Constructs Reality:
- The article aligns with Ferdinand de Saussure’s structuralism by showing that representation is arbitrary but powerful. “The peasantry’s class being and Chabert’s death are ideal instances of the reality produced by what Austin named performative speech” (p. 464).
Names and Identity:
- The case of Chabert losing his identity shows that language does not reflect reality but actively shapes it. “Chabert is therefore the most impertinent of challenges to the philosopheme of representation, a referent separated from its sign” (p. 453).

3. Poststructuralism and Deconstruction

Destabilization of Meaning:
- Petrey engages in a deconstructive reading by showing that meaning in Marx and Balzac is always shifting. “Are we a class or are we a sack of potatoes? The French peasants might well ask Marx. In neither case is the answer definitive” (p. 459).
Rejection of Fixed Reality:
- Petrey suggests that neither Balzac nor Marx believes in a stable, fixed reality that can be simply represented. “What was ‘concrete’ has become ‘abstract.’ The referent prior to ideology is now the imaginary derivative of ideological production” (p. 466).

4. Performative Theory (J.L. Austin, Judith Butler)

Performativity in Politics:
- The article suggests that Napoleon III’s legitimacy is established through performative speech rather than material reality. “The adventurer, who took the comedy as plain comedy, was bound to win” (p. 464).

Social Construction of Identity:
- Chabert is legally dead despite being alive, proving that identity is socially constructed through legal and ideological discourse. “Because Chabert is said, conceived, and narrated as dead, his real life-process ceases to be a matter of practical consequence” (p. 454).

5. New Historicism

Interplay Between Literature and History:
- Petrey treats Colonel Chabert and The Eighteenth Brumaire as historical texts that both shape and are shaped by their socio-political contexts. “Balzac’s painful descriptions of Chabert’s physical deterioration do not reverse a hierarchy so much as undo the opposition on which it is based” (p. 455).
Historical Representation as Fictional:
- The Eighteenth Brumaire shows that history itself is constructed through representation. “Historical tradition gave rise to the belief of the French peasants in the miracle that a man named Napoleon would bring all their glory back to them” (p. 464).

6. Postmodernism

Reality as a Construct of Narrative:
- The article suggests that reality is not objectively given but constructed through historical and ideological narratives. “Poetry from the future and dramatis personae from the past are equally false to the present and equally crucial to historical change” (p. 468).
Blurring of Fact and Fiction:
- Both Marx and Balzac depict political and social identities as theatrical performances rather than material truths. “Fictions are not that which Marxism must refuse but that which it must incorporate” (p. 468).

Summary of Contributions

Sandy Petrey’s “The Reality of Representation: Between Marx and Balzac” makes significant contributions to Marxist Literary Theory, Structuralism, Poststructuralism, Performative Theory, New Historicism, and Postmodernism by showing:

Representation is not a mere reflection of reality but an active force in shaping it.

Ideology has material effects, challenging the base-superstructure model.
Identity and history are performative acts rather than fixed entities.
Both Marx and Balzac depict history as theatrical and constructed through discourse.

Examples of Critiques Through “The Reality of Representation: Between Marx and Balzac” by Sandy Petrey

Literary Work	Critique Through Petrey’s Lens	Key Concepts from “The Reality of Representation”
1. Charles Dickens’ Bleak House	The novel’s legal system mirrors the ideological weight described by Petrey—where representation (the endless Chancery case of Jarndyce v. Jarndyce) becomes more real than the individuals caught in it. Chancery law, like Chabert’s death certificate, overpowers material reality.	Ideology as Material Force: The legal and bureaucratic systems shape lives independently of material reality, much like Chabert’s legal “death” in Colonel Chabert (p. 450).
2. F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby	Gatsby’s self-construction is an example of performative identity, similar to how Napoleon III builds legitimacy through historical myth rather than material reality. Gatsby, like Napoleon III, thrives on illusions rather than economic class struggle alone.	Performativity in Politics & Identity: Gatsby’s reinvention aligns with Napoleon III’s use of performative speech to consolidate power (p. 464).
3. George Orwell’s 1984	The Party’s ability to redefine historical truth (e.g., “Oceania has always been at war with Eastasia”) reflects Petrey’s argument that ideological constructs have material force. Just as Chabert’s death becomes reality through bureaucratic records, history in 1984 exists only as the Party narrates it.	Crisis of Representation: Reality is not fixed but is constructed by those in power—an idea central to Colonel Chabert and The Eighteenth Brumaire (p. 452).
4. William Faulkner’s Absalom, Absalom!	The novel’s fragmented narratives and multiple retellings of the Sutpen story illustrate how history is not a single material reality but a contested ideological construct, much like the class struggle in The Eighteenth Brumaire.	Historical Representation as Fictional: History is performative and constructed through ideological framing rather than material facts (p. 464).

Criticism Against “The Reality of Representation: Between Marx and Balzac” by Sandy Petrey

Overemphasis on Ideology at the Expense of Material Reality
- Petrey focuses on how ideology constitutes material reality but downplays the actual economic and class structures that shape social conditions.
- Critics may argue that while representation influences perception, it does not entirely determine material conditions, as Petrey seems to suggest (p. 452).

Neglect of Class Struggle as a Material Force
- Marxist critics may argue that Petrey’s interpretation minimizes the role of actual class struggle in shaping historical events.
- The Eighteenth Brumaire is fundamentally about how economic contradictions create crises, yet Petrey prioritizes its performative aspects over its materialist critique (p. 459).

Limited Engagement with Balzac’s Reactionary Politics
- While Petrey highlights Balzac’s influence on Marx, he does not sufficiently address Balzac’s conservative political stance.
- Balzac was a monarchist who sought to defend the aristocracy, raising questions about how his work aligns with Marxist materialism (p. 450).

Potential Overreading of Theoretical Parallels
- Petrey draws strong connections between Balzac and Marx’s ideas, but some scholars may view this as an overinterpretation.
- The stylistic and thematic similarities between Colonel Chabert and The Eighteenth Brumaire do not necessarily mean that Balzac’s work inherently supports Marxist theory (p. 454).

Insufficient Discussion of Alternative Readings
- The article does not engage deeply with alternative interpretations of The Eighteenth Brumaire or Colonel Chabert that might prioritize economic determinism over performativity.
- Terry Eagleton’s critique, which suggests that Marx’s work maintains a structured class analysis despite its performative elements, is not fully addressed (p. 461).

Reliance on Postmodern Theories Without Acknowledging Their Limitations
- Petrey’s emphasis on performative language and ideological constructs aligns with postmodern thought but is not critically examined in relation to Marxist realism.
- Critics may argue that The Eighteenth Brumaire does not dissolve class structures but rather highlights their contradictions (p. 464).

Lack of Concrete Historical Analysis
- While Petrey examines literary representation, his analysis does not sufficiently engage with historical accounts of the 1848 revolution and Napoleon III’s rise to power.
- The discussion of representation as reality might obscure the material forces that led to the Second Empire’s formation (p. 467).

Representative Quotations from “The Reality of Representation: Between Marx and Balzac” by Sandy Petrey with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Colonel Chabert and The Eighteenth Brumaire undermine the armature of economism, the hierarchical superiority of material reality over ideological concepts. Because both texts represent ideology as a material reality in its own right, they make every hierarchy based on the opposition between matter and ideology untenable.” (p. 448-449)	Petrey argues that both Balzac and Marx challenge deterministic economic interpretations of history. Instead of seeing material forces as the only reality, they show how ideology itself can act as a material force, shaping political and social conditions.
“Men make their own history, but they do not make it just as they please; they do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves, but under circumstances directly encountered, given and transmitted from the past. The tradition of all the dead generations weighs like a nightmare on the brain of the living.” (Marx, qtd. on p. 450)	Petrey emphasizes how Marx borrows Balzac’s imagery to illustrate the oppressive weight of historical precedent. Both The Eighteenth Brumaire and Colonel Chabert depict history as something that constrains individuals rather than liberates them.
“A living man has died if his death certificate is in order, for the fact in itself is nothing. With his name cut away from his self, Chabert has no alternative to letting his self go as well: ‘My name is offensive to me. I’d like not to be myself.'” (p. 457)	Petrey demonstrates how identity is constructed by social and legal recognition rather than personal existence. Chabert, though physically alive, is effectively erased because the state and society have already declared him dead. His personal reality is rendered meaningless without institutional recognition.
“Marx’s identification of men and events as shadows without bodies in no way revokes the Marxist imperative to explain the world men and events produce. All that changes is the form explanation must take.” (p. 455)	Marx recognizes that political events sometimes appear as illusions, disconnected from material forces. However, Petrey clarifies that Marx does not abandon materialism; rather, he modifies it to account for the ideological forces that shape historical realities.
“Bonaparte represents a class, and the most numerous class of French society at that, the small-holding [Parzellen] peasants. In so far as millions of families live under economic conditions of existence that separate their mode of life, their interests, and their culture from those of the other classes, and put them in hostile opposition to the latter, they form a class. In so far as there is merely a local interconnection among these small-holding peasants, and the identity of their interests begets no community, no national bond and no political organization among them, they do not form a class.” (Marx, qtd. on p. 459)	Marx’s paradoxical statement about the French peasantry—who are at once a class and not a class—mirrors the ambiguity in Colonel Chabert. Just as Chabert is both living and dead, the peasantry is a scattered collection of individuals who lack the self-consciousness to form a unified political class.
“The social revolution of the nineteenth century cannot draw its poetry from the past, but only from the future. It cannot begin with itself before it has stripped away all superstition in regard to the past.” (Marx, qtd. on p. 467)	Petrey highlights Marx’s argument that revolutions must reject historical nostalgia. Unlike bourgeois revolutions, which reference past models (e.g., the Roman Republic), a proletarian revolution must create its own new forms of political representation.
“From a speech-act perspective, Mehlman is fully justified to insist with such verve that the text of The Eighteenth Brumaire utterly dissipates the philosopheme of representation. But from the same perspective, Eagleton is correct to refuse out of hand Mehlman’s suggestion that the end of referential representation is the beginning of anarchy.” (p. 464)	Petrey invokes J.L. Austin’s speech-act theory to critique Mehlman’s claim that Marx’s work marks the dissolution of stable meaning. Petrey argues that rather than leading to chaos, the breakdown of traditional representation in The Eighteenth Brumaire actually reveals the power of ideological constructs to produce new realities.
“Napoleon III consolidated his position by making other names change the world despite their ridiculous inability to describe it. At least since Plato, the contrast between shadow and substance has been a dominant Western metaphor for the distinction between reality and illusion at the core of standard materialist analysis. Yet Marx saw the rise of Napoleon III as a reality proceeding from illusion, as humanity and its history transformed by a shadow with no substance behind it.” (p. 456)	Petrey emphasizes that Marx’s theory does not merely contrast illusion with reality but instead recognizes how illusions themselves create new material realities. Napoleon III’s rule, though based on an empty historical myth, became a tangible political force.
“Marxist analysis and the Comédie humaine establish a special meaning for the sociology of literature, a sense in which neither social nor literary realism can be understood apart from the other because each reveals the conditions on which the other depends. Society in Balzacian fiction and fiction in Marxist society are simultaneously imaginary and real.” (p. 468)	In his concluding argument, Petrey asserts that literature and history are mutually reinforcing. Just as Balzac’s fiction captures the realities of class struggle, Marxist theory acknowledges the performative nature of historical representation.
“The peasantry’s class being and Chabert’s death are ideal instances of the reality produced by what Austin named performative speech, which could not be better defined than by recalling the lesson Eagleton drew from Marx, that under certain conditions expression ‘constitutes the very [thing] it signifies.'” (p. 465)	Petrey applies speech-act theory to The Eighteenth Brumaire and Colonel Chabert, arguing that in both cases, ideological and legal declarations do not merely describe reality but actively create it. The peasantry becomes a class because it is represented as one, just as Chabert dies because official documents say so.

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Day: March 11, 2025