March 18, 2025 - English Studies

“Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby: Summary and Critique

“Racism in Literature” by Jennie Ruby first appeared in Off Our Backs in the August-September 1988 issue (Vol. 18, No. 8, p. 19), published by off our backs, inc. and preserved through JSTOR.

Introduction: “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

“Racism in Literature” by Jennie Ruby first appeared in Off Our Backs in the August-September 1988 issue (Vol. 18, No. 8, p. 19), published by off our backs, inc. and preserved through JSTOR. The article explores how racism manifests in literary history, particularly within feminist scholarship, by examining the contradictions and prejudices of revered literary figures. It highlights discussions from a workshop where white feminist scholars grappled with the racial biases of past writers, such as Virginia Woolf and Harriet Beecher Stowe, and their failure to fully transcend the racial prejudices of their times. The absence of women of color from the workshop’s panel further illustrated the exhaustion felt by marginalized scholars who are often expected to educate others on these issues. The article also discusses the evolution of feminist consciousness in literature, citing Grace Paley’s shift in language use and the presence of racism within narratives that simultaneously sought to challenge it. Moreover, it examines how literary criticism must acknowledge the flaws of feminist foremothers to ensure a more honest historical reckoning. The article’s significance in literary theory lies in its call for scholars to confront and analyze racism within feminist literature rather than overlook it, thereby advancing a more inclusive and self-aware literary discourse. Ruby’s work serves as an essential critique of how literature both reflects and perpetuates societal biases, urging readers and scholars to adopt a more critical lens when engaging with literary history.

Summary of “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

Main Ideas:

The Persistence of Racism in Feminist Scholarship
- Many revered feminist figures exhibited racist and sexist views, forcing scholars to confront these contradictions (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Linda Koolish emphasized that “as white scholars we will always be writing about territory not our own” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Absence of Women of Color in Feminist Literary Discourse
- Despite half of the invited scholars being women of color, none participated in the workshop, suggesting fatigue from continuously addressing racial issues (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- The workshop’s audience was predominantly white, further reflecting the exclusion of racial minorities in academic discussions (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Racist Elements in Literature by White Women Writers
- Glennis Carr’s research on interracial friendships in literature showed that white female authors often contained both racist and anti-racist elements in their writing (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Harriet Beecher Stowe was noted for avoiding some racial stereotypes but maintaining a racist “light skin/darker skin schema of salvation” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Evolution of Feminist Consciousness in Language
- Judith Arcana observed how Grace Paley transitioned from using the generic male pronoun to addressing sexist language in her works (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Paley also reconsidered her use of terms like “fairy” and “queer” in narrative voice, demonstrating a personal struggle to unlearn biases (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Racism in Australian Women’s Literature
- Dale Spender found that Australian women writers frequently addressed racism and class issues, but many still produced racist work (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Cathryn Martin’s The Incredible Journey was initially praised for highlighting a Black woman’s devotion but later criticized for racial insensitivity (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Subjectivity of Literary Interpretation
- Spender’s experiment with reading 100 anonymous books revealed that assumptions about an author’s identity shape how readers interpret literature (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- She questioned, “How much do your own ideas determine what you read?” suggesting that readers project their biases onto texts (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Historical Bias in Literary Scholarship
- Emily Toth’s research on Kate Chopin showed how early male biographers shaped perceptions of female writers, often omitting women’s perspectives (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Chopin’s The Awakening was not officially banned but was effectively silenced by negative reviews from male critics (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Reevaluating Feminist Foremothers
- Annette Kolodny argued that if feminist pioneers had been perfect, they would have left nothing for future scholars to critique and improve upon (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Susan Koppelman emphasized the need for honesty about the flaws of past feminist figures, stating, “What does it do to oppressed people if we deny that they were oppressed?” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Unavoidable Bias in Literary Criticism
- The discussion concluded that just as past writers could not escape their prejudices, today’s scholars must acknowledge their own biases (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
- Carr noted, “You cannot stand in some sort of pure place from which to judge things,” reinforcing the idea that objectivity in literary critique is impossible (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Application in the Article
Historical Bias	The tendency of historical narratives to reflect the perspectives of dominant groups while marginalizing others.	Emily Toth’s research on Kate Chopin shows how early male biographers shaped perceptions of female writers, often excluding women’s perspectives (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Intersectionality	The interconnected nature of social categorizations such as race, gender, and class, which create overlapping systems of oppression.	The absence of women of color in the feminist workshop reflects how racial and gendered oppression interact in academic discourse (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Authorial Intent vs. Reader Interpretation	The debate over whether meaning in literature is determined by the author’s intent or the reader’s interpretation.	Dale Spender’s experiment showed that readers project biases onto texts, shaping their understanding based on assumed author identity (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Racialized Feminism	A critique of feminism that acknowledges how racial biases have historically influenced feminist thought and activism.	Linda Koolish emphasized that white feminist scholars must acknowledge their racial privilege when analyzing literary history (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Literary Canon and Exclusion	The process by which certain works are considered “classic” while others are marginalized due to racial, gender, or class biases.	The discussion highlights how feminist foremothers’ racist views are often overlooked in literary scholarship (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Cultural Hegemony	The dominance of a particular cultural narrative that reinforces existing power structures.	Harriet Beecher Stowe’s work, despite its anti-slavery themes, reinforces racial hierarchies through its portrayal of light-skinned characters as more redeemable (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Textual Silencing	The suppression of certain voices or perspectives in literature and literary criticism.	The Awakening was not officially banned, but negative reviews by male critics effectively silenced its impact (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Evolving Language and Consciousness	The idea that language use reflects shifts in societal awareness and ideological changes.	Grace Paley’s shift from generic male pronouns to gender-inclusive language illustrates changing feminist consciousness (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Race and Representation in Literature	The ways in which racial identities and experiences are depicted in literary works.	Glennis Carr’s research highlights the coexistence of racist and anti-racist elements in literature written by white women (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Reader-Response Criticism	A literary theory emphasizing the role of the reader in shaping the meaning of a text.	Spender’s reading experiment showed how the perceived identity of an author can alter a reader’s interpretation of a work (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Contribution of “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution from the Article	Reference from the Article
Critical Race Theory (CRT)	The article exposes the racial biases embedded in feminist literature, showing how even well-intentioned feminist authors, such as Harriet Beecher Stowe, reinforced racial hierarchies.	“Racism and anti-racism coexist, as in Harriet Beecher Stowe, who avoids certain stereotypes but uses a light skin/darker skin schema of salvation that is racist” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Feminist Literary Criticism	Challenges the idealization of feminist foremothers by revealing their racism and sexism, urging scholars to acknowledge their flaws rather than erase them.	Annette Kolodny states, “If our foremothers had not shared the prejudices of their time, we would have had to invent faults for them” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Intersectionality (Black Feminist Thought)	Highlights how mainstream feminism often excludes women of color, both in academic discourse and literary analysis.	“Of 34 scholars invited to speak at this workshop, half were women of color… No women of color agreed to participate” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Postcolonial Literary Theory	Addresses how white feminist authors wrote about race from a privileged perspective, often misrepresenting people of color.	Linda Koolish states, “As white scholars we will always be writing about territory not our own” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Reader-Response Theory	Demonstrates that interpretation of literature is influenced by the identity of both the reader and the perceived author.	“Spender related her experience of reading 100 anonymous books and finding that she could not necessarily tell whether the author had been a man or a woman” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Literary Canon and Exclusion	Questions the selection of literary texts in the canon, showing how historical biases have shaped literary scholarship.	“Kate Chopin’s The Awakening was never really banned, but it was silenced by negative reviews by men” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Historical Materialism in Literature	Examines how literature reflects the economic and social conditions of its time, particularly regarding race and gender.	“Cathryn Martin’s The Incredible Journey was intended to describe the devotion of a Black woman for her child. In 1923 she was reviled for daring to address this issue. Today, she would be reviled as racist, as not going far enough” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Language and Power (Linguistic Turn in Literary Studies)	Investigates how language reflects evolving feminist consciousness, particularly in how words like “queer” and gendered pronouns are used in literature.	“Judith Arcana spoke on the rising consciousness she sees in Grace Paley’s writing… Paley has characters protest sexist language” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Examples of Critiques Through “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through “Racism in Literature”	Reference from the Article
To the Lighthouse – Virginia Woolf	Woolf, despite being a feminist icon, expressed racist views, highlighting the racial biases of admired literary figures.	“Virginia Woolf talked about Leonard’s curved nose,” illustrating how even celebrated feminist writers held prejudices (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Uncle Tom’s Cabin – Harriet Beecher Stowe	While the novel critiques slavery, Stowe maintains racial hierarchies by portraying light-skinned Black characters as more redeemable.	“Harriet Beecher Stowe avoids certain stereotypes but uses a light skin/darker skin schema of salvation that is racist” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Awakening – Kate Chopin	Chopin’s work was not officially banned but was dismissed by male critics, showing gender bias in literary criticism.	“The Awakening was never really banned, but it was silenced by negative reviews by men” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
The Incredible Journey – Cathryn Martin	Martin’s attempt to depict Black motherhood was progressive in 1923 but later viewed as reinforcing racial stereotypes.	“In 1923 she was reviled for daring to address this issue. Today, she would be reviled as racist, as not going far enough” (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Criticism Against “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby

Lack of Representation of Women of Color’s Perspectives
- While the article critiques the absence of women of color in literary discussions, it does not include direct perspectives or voices from these marginalized groups, leading to a potential gap in its analysis (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Overgeneralization of Feminist Writers’ Racism
- The article presents feminist foremothers’ racial biases but does not explore the complexities of their ideological growth. It risks reducing their legacies to their flaws without fully contextualizing their historical limitations (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Limited Engagement with Critical Race Theory
- While the article highlights racism in literature, it does not engage deeply with Critical Race Theory (CRT) frameworks that would provide a more nuanced critique of systemic racism in literary production and reception.
Focus on White Feminist Scholarship
- The article predominantly centers white feminist perspectives, despite its critique of the racial biases within feminism, which may limit its effectiveness in advocating for an intersectional approach (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Absence of Contemporary Literary Criticism
- The analysis does not incorporate insights from Black feminist scholars or postcolonial theorists who have extensively critiqued race and literature, potentially leading to a less comprehensive evaluation of the issue.

Potential for Presentism
- The article risks judging historical figures and literary works by contemporary moral standards without fully considering the constraints and context of their time (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).
Limited Solutions for Addressing Racism in Literature
- While Ruby identifies racism in feminist literature, the article does not offer clear strategies for addressing or resolving these issues in modern feminist literary criticism (Ruby, 1988, p. 19).

Representative Quotations from “Racism in Literature” by jennie ruby with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“All knowledge belongs to the person knowing it, and human beings are inevitably flawed… We don’t see things the way they are, we see them the way we are.”	This statement emphasizes the subjectivity of knowledge and perception, particularly in the interpretation of literature and history. It underscores how biases shape literary criticism and historical understanding.
“As white scholars, we will always be writing about territory not our own.”	This quote from Linda Koolish acknowledges the limitations of white scholars in analyzing racial issues. It highlights the need for scholars to recognize their positionality when engaging with racialized literature.
“The audience appeared to be entirely made up of white women.”	This observation critiques the racial homogeneity in feminist literary discussions, pointing out the lack of participation from women of color and the exclusionary nature of mainstream feminism.
“Racism and anti-racism coexist, as in Harriet Beecher Stowe, who avoids certain stereotypes but uses a light skin/darker skin schema of salvation that is racist.”	This critique of Uncle Tom’s Cabin highlights how even anti-slavery literature can reinforce racial hierarchies, showing that well-intentioned works can still contain problematic elements.
“Virginia Woolf talked about Leonard’s curved nose.”	This quote illustrates how revered feminist authors, like Woolf, held and expressed racial prejudices, challenging the tendency to idolize literary figures without acknowledging their flaws.
“The Awakening was never really banned, but it was silenced by negative reviews by men.”	This statement reflects the gendered nature of literary criticism and how male-dominated literary institutions historically dismissed or marginalized female authors.
“In 1923 she was reviled for daring to address this issue. Today, she would be reviled as racist, as not going far enough.”	This commentary on Cathryn Martin’s The Incredible Journey reveals the shifting standards of literary critique and how perspectives on race change over time.
“How much do your own ideas determine what you read?”	This rhetorical question raises issues related to reader-response theory, suggesting that readers project their own biases onto literature, influencing their interpretation.
“We must be as honest as possible about our history.”	This quote calls for transparency in literary and historical analysis, urging scholars to critically examine past figures rather than idealizing them.
“You cannot stand in some sort of pure place from which to judge things.”	This statement acknowledges the inevitability of bias in literary criticism, emphasizing that no perspective is completely objective or detached from historical context.

“The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody: Summary and Critique

The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody first appeared in Sociological Perspectives in 2020, offering a comprehensive analysis of how sociologists conceptualize racism.

Introduction: “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody first appeared in Sociological Perspectives in 2020, offering a comprehensive analysis of how sociologists conceptualize racism. The article introduces a framework that distinguishes between four primary constructs: (1) individual attitudes, (2) cultural schema, (3) preexisting consequential inequalities (racial dominance), and (4) processes that create or maintain racial dominance. Through a content and citation analysis of 1,037 sociology journal articles from 1995 to 2015, the authors demonstrate how different scholarly communities define and apply the term “racism,” revealing significant fragmentation within sociological discourse. Their research highlights how racism has evolved as a concept, encompassing both structural and cultural dimensions while also being subject to political and disciplinary contestation. The study’s significance in literary theory and sociological literature lies in its methodological rigor and its call for a more differentiated yet inclusive understanding of racism. By mapping the diverse ways racism is theorized, Shiao and Woody provide a vital resource for scholars seeking to navigate the complexities of racial discourse, bridging gaps between competing perspectives while advocating for a nuanced, multi-dimensional approach to racism in both research and public sociology.

Summary of “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

🔹 Conceptual Ambiguity of “Racism”

Inflated and Deflated Usage:
- The concept of racism has been stretched to include a variety of social phenomena—individual bias, institutional discrimination, systemic inequality, etc. This inconsistency weakens the term’s conceptual clarity.
- “The wide and also inconsistent use of ‘racism’ has meant that the term now ‘weakens rather than enhances arguments concerning race’” (Wilson 1987:12).
Moral Condemnation vs. Analytical Use:
- Racism is often used as a label of condemnation rather than as a precise analytical concept:
  - “Its purpose is not descriptive but rather to ‘signal the speaker’s unambiguous condemnation of the belief or practice in question’” (Quillian 2006:301).

🔹 Proposed Framework: Four Meanings of Racism

Shiao and Woody categorize “racism” into four distinct constructs, expanding on Bonilla-Silva’s (1997) framework.

Type of Racism	Definition	Example Constructs
1. Attitudes (Racism1)	Racism as individual mental states, biases, or prejudices	Negative perceptions of nonwhite groups, racial resentment, group position ideologies (Bobo & Tuan 2006)
2. Cultural Schema (Racism2)	Racism as socially constructed cultural meanings	Racialization processes, dominant racial ideologies (Omi & Winant 1986), controlling images (Collins 1990)
3.1 Structural Racism: Racial Dominance (Racism3.1)	Preexisting inequalities due to historical racial hierarchy	Segregation, economic disparity, criminal justice bias (Alexander 2012), systemic white advantage (Feagin 2013)
3.2 Structural Racism: Maintenance Processes (Racism3.2)	Mechanisms that sustain racial inequality	Discrimination, exclusion, state policies, racial violence (Wimmer 2013), cultural mobilization (Bonilla-Silva 2018)

1️⃣ Racism as Individual Attitudes (Racism1)

Racism often conceptualized as prejudice, bias, or personal bigotry.

Example: Jennifer Hochschild et al. (2012) argue that racism has “failed as ‘a language with which to understand persistent racially inflected disadvantage’” (p. 145).
Critique:
- Reduces racism to an “individual disease” and ignores systemic aspects (Byrd 2011:1013).
- Limits public discourse to individual morality rather than institutional solutions.

2️⃣ Racism as Cultural Schema (Racism2)

Racism as social meanings and representations embedded in culture.

Example: Omi & Winant’s racialization framework—”the extension of racial meaning to a previously racially unclassified relationship, social practice, or group” (1986:64).
Racial meanings shape:
- Group hierarchy (Kim 1999)
- Media portrayals (Golash-Boza 2016)
- Self-identity negotiation (Waters 1999)

3️⃣ Structural Racism: Racial Dominance (Racism3.1)

Existing racial inequalities embedded in institutions.
Forms of preexisting racial dominance:
- Economic disparity (e.g., housing segregation, redlining)
- Cultural dominance (e.g., white racial frame) (Feagin 2009).
- Educational and health inequalities
Key Example:
- Reskin (2012) describes how race-linked disparities across multiple domains create a self-reinforcing “race discrimination system”.

4️⃣ Structural Racism: Maintenance Processes (Racism3.2)

How racial inequalities persist over time.

Active discrimination: Legal barriers, workplace hiring biases, voter suppression (Pager et al. 2009).
Political mobilization of racism: White nationalism, anti-immigrant sentiment (Bobo 2017).
Racial violence and coercion: Ethnic cleansing, police brutality, historical genocide.

🔹 Empirical Findings: Citation Analysis of 1,037 Sociology Papers

Shiao and Woody conducted a citation and content analysis of 1,037 sociology journal articles (1995-2015) to examine how “racism” is used.

Findings:

Six Distinct Citation Communities
- Different scholarly subfields define and use “racism” differently.
- Example: U.S. sociologists emphasize racism as structure, while European scholars focus on cultural dimensions.

Prevalence of Structural Racism (Racism3)
- 48.9% of papers define racism structurally, but often without clear differentiation.
- Growing prominence of “systemic racism” theories (e.g., Bonilla-Silva 2001, Feagin 2006).

Fragmentation Among Sociologists
- Different subfields focus on different aspects of racism.
- Tension between attitudinal vs. structural conceptions.

🔹 Implications for Sociological Research & Public Understanding

Need for an inclusive yet differentiated approach.
- Rather than arguing over a single definition of racism, scholars should use multiple interconnected frameworks.
- “A singular concept may obscure multiple social processes at play” (Pascoe & Diefendorf 2018:124).
Implications for Public Sociology:
- Calls for greater clarity in anti-racism discourse:
  - Anti-Racism1: Changing individual attitudes.
  - Anti-Racism2: Challenging racial narratives & stereotypes.
  - Anti-Racism3.1: Eliminating racial disparities in institutions.
  - Anti-Racism3.2: Dismantling discriminatory structures.

🔹 Conclusion

Conceptual fragmentation in the meaning of “racism” affects both academic discourse and public understanding.

Proposed solution: A differentiated approach that integrates attitudes, culture, and structure rather than pitting them against each other.
Final Thought:
- The persistence of racism depends on the balance between different forms of racism and the effectiveness of anti-racist efforts across all dimensions.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

Term/Concept	Definition	Relevant Citation(s)
Racism1 (Attitudes)	Racism as individual-level prejudice, bias, or beliefs about racial groups.	Bobo & Charles (2009); Hochschild et al. (2012)
Racism2 (Cultural Schema)	Racism as shared cultural meanings that shape group hierarchies, representations, and identities.	Omi & Winant (1986); Brubaker (2015); Bonilla-Silva (2018)
Racism3.1 (Structural Racism – Racial Dominance)	Preexisting racial inequalities embedded in social institutions.	Feagin (2013); Alexander (2012); Reskin (2012)
Racism3.2 (Structural Racism – Maintenance Processes)	Processes that maintain or reinforce racial inequalities, including discrimination, state policies, and social exclusion.	Wimmer (2013); Pager et al. (2009)
Racialization	The process of assigning racial meanings to individuals, groups, or social practices.	Omi & Winant (1986)
Colorblind Racism	A racial ideology that denies racial disparities and inequality by promoting a “race-neutral” perspective.	Bonilla-Silva (2018)
Symbolic Racism	A form of racism based on covert negative attitudes toward minority groups, often framed in non-racial terms.	Kinder & Sears (1981)
Cultural Repertoires	The set of available cultural narratives, frames, and schemas that individuals draw from in racial interactions.	Lamont et al. (2017)
White Racial Frame	The dominant racial worldview that upholds whiteness as normative and superior.	Feagin (2009)
Normative Whiteness	The cultural dominance of whiteness as the default racial category in society.	Bell & Hartmann (2007)
Racial Formation Theory	A framework that explains how race is socially constructed and redefined over time through political and cultural processes.	Omi & Winant (1986, 2015)
Systemic Racism	A holistic framework that sees racism as embedded in every aspect of social systems, rather than just individual actions.	Feagin (2006)
Racial Hierarchy	The structural positioning of racial groups in a system of dominance and subordination.	Jung (2015)
Racial Domination	The various ways that power is exercised along racial lines, including symbolic, economic, and political power.	Desmond & Emirbayer (2009)
Group Position Theory	The idea that racial attitudes are shaped by the perceived position of one’s racial group in the social hierarchy.	Blumer (1958); Bobo & Tuan (2006)
Ethnic Boundary-Making	The processes through which racial/ethnic group boundaries are created, reinforced, or challenged.	Wimmer (2013)
Double Consciousness	The concept that racial minorities experience a duality of self-awareness, seeing themselves through both their own and the dominant group’s perspective.	Du Bois ([1903] 2017)
Racist Racial Projects	Political or cultural initiatives that explicitly reinforce racial hierarchies and inequalities.	Omi & Winant (2015)
Antiblack Racism, Islamophobia, Orientalism, Settler Colonialism	Forms of cultural mobilization that sustain racial inequalities by justifying exclusion and subordination.	Smith (2012); Jung (2015)
Symbolic Coercion	The process by which dominant racial ideologies are imposed on marginalized groups, shaping their perceptions.	Jung (2015)
Cultural Mobilization	The active shaping of racial discourse to legitimize racial inequality.	Bonilla-Silva (2018)
White Favoritism	The subtle ways that whites provide advantages to other whites, maintaining racial disparities without overt racism.	DiTomaso (2013)
Social Closure	The exclusion of racial minorities from resources, opportunities, and institutions.	Wimmer (2013)
Implicit Bias	Unconscious racial attitudes that affect decision-making and behavior.	Pager et al. (2009)
Structural Violence	The indirect, institutionalized harm caused by systemic racial inequalities.	Ray & Seamster (2016)

Contribution of “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody to Literary Theory/Theories

Literary Theory	Contribution of the Article	Relevant References from the Article
Critical Race Theory (CRT)	– Expands CRT by distinguishing between four constructs of racism: individual attitudes, cultural schema, preexisting racial dominance, and structural processes that maintain dominance. – Engages with CRT’s focus on systemic racism rather than individual prejudice.	– “Sociologists use racism as an explanation for racial differences that qualify for characterization as racial inequalities, but beyond this shared trope, sociologists refer to a range of distinct phenomena.” (Shiao & Woody, 2020, p. 3) – “Without conceptions of racism as structure, sociologists lose the vocabulary for how inequality and social closure iteratively influence and constitute group experiences and life chances.” (p. 4)
Postcolonial Theory	– Contributes to postcolonial discourse by discussing how racism operates through cultural mobilization and symbolic coercion. – Extends discussions on Orientalism and Settler Colonialism as racial projects.	– “These mobilizations span the social functions associated with the century-spanning ideologies of antiblack racism, Orientalism, and settler colonialism.” (p. 8) – “Cultural racism operates as a strategy of ‘sorting out’ outsiders from insiders.” (p. 7)
Structuralism	– Offers a structuralist analysis of racism by linking it to deep schema and dominant ideologies. – Identifies racism as a system of signification that organizes social relations.	– “By culture, sociologists refer to the many kinds of schema with which humans make sense of the world, including themselves, all of which affect the social connotations of group membership.” (p. 3)
New Historicism	– Engages with historical changes in the meaning of racism over time, particularly through citation analysis of sociological discourse. – Highlights how historical and political racial projects shape contemporary understandings of race.	– “Our empirical analysis captures a critical period from Bonilla-Silva’s call for sociologists to renew their attention to racism to the establishment of a journal that provides U.S. sociologists of race with a distinctive publication outlet.” (p. 5)
Discourse Analysis	– Expands on Michel Foucault’s idea of discourse by demonstrating how racism is maintained through language, cultural schema, and social institutions. – Highlights racist discourse in media and public policy.	– “Racism as culture includes discourse, ideology, and language, shaping representations of racial groups and their social positions.” (p. 7)
Intersectionality Theory	– Highlights the absence of intersectionality in sociological studies of racism. – Identifies how different forms of dominance (racial, gender, class) intersect in structural racism.	– “The infrequent citation of female authors in all communities except Community E may be related to the scarcity of intersectionality in the analytic sample.” (p. 16)
Sociology of Literature	– Contributes to literary sociology by analyzing how racism is represented and conceptualized in scholarly writing. – Examines citation patterns and thematic shifts in sociological discussions of race.	– “The result has been a fragmentation in the discipline’s conception of racism across citation communities, each using different meanings of racism.” (p. 18)
Marxist Literary Theory	– Highlights how racism functions within economic and class structures. – Discusses racial capitalism and labor market discrimination.	– “One of the most important privileges of being white in the United States is not having to be racist in order to enjoy racial advantage.” (p. 6) – “Racial dominance includes economic power that privileges Whites in terms of job placement, advancement, wealth, and property accumulation.” (p. 9)
Feminist Theory	– Acknowledges the gendered dimensions of racism. – Discusses women’s role in far-right racist movements and normative whiteness in feminist spaces.	– “The infrequent citation of female authors may be related to the scarcity of intersectionality in the analytic sample.” (p. 16) – “Cultural dominance involves prejudice and the necessity of double consciousness.” (p. 8)

Examples of Critiques Through “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

Literary Work	Critique Using Shiao & Woody’s Framework	Key Theoretical Constructs from the Article
*1. To Kill a Mockingbird* (Harper Lee)**	– The novel portrays racism primarily as individual prejudice (Racism1), rather than addressing structural or cultural racism (Racism3.1 & Racism3.2). – Atticus Finch’s role as a moral white savior reinforces a colorblind approach to racism, avoiding deeper structural critique. – The novel lacks an exploration of cultural schema and historical racial dominance, which shape legal and social inequalities.	– “Without conceptions of racism as structure, sociologists lose the vocabulary for how inequality and social closure iteratively influence and constitute group experiences and life chances.” (p. 4) – “This second tendency, which is also prevalent outside academia, treats racism as an ‘individual disease,’ limiting its utility for fully representing the organization of social life along racial lines.” (p. 2)
*2. Heart of Darkness* (Joseph Conrad)**	– The novel reinforces colonial racism (Racism2) through representations of Africa and its people as the “Other”. – The absence of African voices and reliance on cultural schemas of savagery vs. civilization mirrors dominant racial ideologies. – It serves as an example of racial dominance through symbolic coercion rather than explicit racial violence.	– “These schema range from the binary oppositions that make up a given society’s fundamental tools of thought to cultural repertoires defined as the available schemas, frames, narratives, scripts, and boundaries that actors draw on in social situations.” (p. 3) – “The symbolic power to classify one group of people as ‘normal’ and other groups of people as ‘abnormal’…” (p. 9)
*3. The Great Gatsby* (F. Scott Fitzgerald)**	– While the novel critiques class and social mobility, it ignores the role of racial dominance (Racism3.1) in maintaining inequalities. – Tom Buchanan’s fear of “the rise of the colored races” reflects racial attitudes (Racism1), but this racism is framed as an individual flaw rather than a structural force. – The erasure of Black, Indigenous, and immigrant experiences reinforces the white racial frame.	– “Racial dominance includes economic power that privileges Whites in terms of job placement, advancement, wealth, and property accumulation.” (p. 9) – “The social meanings that people impose on each other, as they make sense of, and respond to, their lived experiences.” (p. 4)
*4. Beloved* (Toni Morrison)**	– Morrison’s novel exemplifies structural and historical racism (Racism3.1 & Racism3.2) through the legacy of slavery. – Unlike many classic works, it explicitly critiques racial dominance and the trauma of systemic oppression. – Cultural mobilization (Racism3.2) is central, as the novel illustrates how racist cultural schema sustain intergenerational trauma.	– “The legacies of historic boundary-making processes and the new forms of racial dominance that maintain inequalities of older forms.” (p. 10) – “Without conceptions of racism as culture, sociologists lose the vocabulary for the social meanings that people impose on each other.” (p. 4)

Criticism Against “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody

1. Lack of Engagement with Intersectionality

The article primarily analyzes racism through a structural and sociological lens but does not extensively engage with intersectionality, which considers race alongside gender, class, sexuality, and disability.
While the authors acknowledge cultural dominance and white racial framing, they do not deeply explore how racism intersects with other social inequalities.

“The infrequent citation of female authors in all communities except Community E may be related to the scarcity of intersectionality in the analytic sample.” (p. 17)

2. Overemphasis on Academic Citation Networks

The study focuses on academic discourse around racism, particularly citation patterns in sociology journals, but does not sufficiently account for real-world applications of these theories.

While useful for mapping theoretical trends, it does not clarify how these academic perspectives influence public policy, activism, or lived experiences of racism.
The authors themselves acknowledge that their study may be detached from public sociology:
- “Future research might examine the meaning of racism at the interface of social science and lay audiences (e.g., in college, and even K–12, textbooks).” (p. 20)

3. Minimal Engagement with Non-Western Conceptions of Racism

The article centers U.S. and European sociological frameworks, neglecting global perspectives on racism from Africa, Latin America, Asia, and Indigenous communities.
The framework could have been expanded to incorporate colonialism, settler colonialism, and neocolonial power structures more comprehensively.

While the study mentions ethnic boundary-making, it does not fully explore racism in non-Western contexts.

4. Conceptual Overcomplication

The article introduces four categories of racism (Racism1, Racism2, Racism3.1, Racism3.2), but these distinctions may not be practical for broader sociological or public discussions.

The differentiation between preexisting consequential inequalities (Racism3.1) and processes that maintain racial dominance (Racism3.2), while theoretically sound, might blur in practical applications.
Some scholars might argue that this complicates rather than clarifies the debate on how racism operates in society.

5. Limited Examination of Racial Ideology in Mass Media and Popular Culture

The framework does not sufficiently address how racism is reinforced and transmitted through mass media, pop culture, and social media.
While cultural schema (Racism2) is discussed, it focuses more on academic discourse rather than how racial ideologies are shaped and challenged in popular culture.
This is particularly important in the 21st century, where digital racism and algorithmic bias play a growing role in perpetuating racial inequalities.

6. Reliance on Western-Centric Scholars and Theories

The majority of the citations in the study come from U.S. and European sociologists, reinforcing a Western-centric perspective.
It overlooks decolonial thinkers and scholars from the Global South who have critically analyzed race outside the Western racial framework (e.g., Frantz Fanon, Aníbal Quijano, Walter Mignolo).

The dominance of U.S. sociological paradigms may limit its applicability in understanding racism globally.

7. Assumption That Structural Racism is Universally Accepted in Sociology

The authors assume that structural racism has become the dominant framework in sociology, but this overlooks ongoing debates about race, class, and power.

Some sociologists (e.g., William Julius Wilson) argue that economic inequality plays a greater role than race in contemporary disparities, which the article does not directly address.
The political implications of defining racism primarily through structure vs. attitudes could have been further debated.

Representative Quotations from “The Meaning of “Racism” by Jiannbin Shiao and Ashley Woody with Explanation

No.	Quotation	Explanation
1	“Racism is one of the most important words in the lexicon of contemporary sociology, and yet constructing a precise theory of racism is difficult because it is a concept that is both inflated and deflated.” (p. 1)	The authors highlight the conceptual ambiguity of racism, emphasizing how the term is both overused and underdefined, making it difficult to apply consistently across sociological discourse.
2	“Sociologists use racism to refer to four constructs: (1) individual attitudes, (2) cultural schema, and two constructs associated with structural racism: (3) preexisting consequential inequalities and (4) processes that create or maintain racial dominance.” (p. 2)	This is the core framework proposed by the authors, breaking racism into four interrelated constructs that expand beyond individual prejudice to include cultural and structural dimensions.
3	“Some researchers have argued that the wide and also inconsistent use of ‘racism’ has meant that the term now ‘weakens rather than enhances arguments concerning race’ (Wilson 1987:12).” (p. 2)	Here, the authors cite a critique by William Julius Wilson, arguing that the broad use of racism as a catch-all term may dilute its analytical power.
4	“Without conceptions of racism as structure, sociologists lose the vocabulary for how inequality and social closure iteratively influence and constitute group experiences and life chances.” (p. 5)	This statement stresses the importance of structural racism in understanding long-term racial inequalities, rejecting the idea that racism is merely personal bias or prejudice.
5	“Researchers cite publications, whether positively or negatively, that they regard as relevant to their own (Moody and Light 2006).” (p. 9)	This quotation explains their methodology, indicating that citation patterns reveal how different academic communities define and discuss racism.
6	“In contrast to the stable share of articles using any type of structure, the percentage of articles using ‘undifferentiated’ dominance nearly doubles over the 20-year period, from 17.7% (1995–1999) to 30.1% (2010–2015).” (p. 12)	The authors use quantitative evidence to demonstrate a shift in sociological focus, showing increased attention to structural racism over time.
7	“Our finding of a fragmented, if not combative, agreement on conceptualizing racism as structure also raises broader questions for the sociology of race/ethnicity.” (p. 18)	The article critiques disciplinary fragmentation, showing how different academic groups use distinct definitions of racism, which may lead to intellectual silos.
8	“Future research might examine the meaning of racism at the interface of social science and lay audiences (e.g., in college, and even K–12, textbooks).” (p. 20)	The authors argue for public sociology, suggesting that academic definitions of racism should be studied in educational and mainstream discourse.
9	“Our differentiated conception of racism implies a differentiated conception of anti-racism (i.e., practices that seek to diminish racism), in distinction from non-racist practices that only seek to avoid increasing racism.” (p. 21)	This distinction between anti-racism and non-racism is crucial: anti-racism actively fights racism, whereas non-racism merely avoids participation.
10	“An inclusive but differentiated conception of racism suggests that its persistence depends importantly on the distribution of anti-racisms that stand against it.” (p. 22)	The authors conclude that fighting racism requires multiple strategies, addressing individual, cultural, and structural aspects rather than relying on one-size-fits-all solutions.

“Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney: A Critical Analysis

“Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney first appeared in his 1966 collection Death of a Naturalist, explores themes of grief, loss, and the fragility of life through the deeply personal lens of Heaney’s own childhood experience—the death of his four-year-old brother in a tragic accident.

Introduction: “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney

“Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney first appeared in his 1966 collection Death of a Naturalist, explores themes of grief, loss, and the fragility of life through the deeply personal lens of Heaney’s own childhood experience—the death of his four-year-old brother in a tragic accident. The poem’s structured yet understated narration contrasts the detached observations of a young boy with the overwhelming sorrow of his family, making it a powerful and poignant reflection on death. The stark imagery, such as “A four-foot box, a foot for every year”, delivers an emotional gut punch, emphasizing the child’s innocence and premature passing. Heaney’s use of restrained language and quiet, observational tone enhances the impact, making the poem widely studied in schools as an exemplar of poetic craftsmanship and emotional depth. Its accessibility, coupled with its profound themes, ensures its place in literature curricula, where it resonates with students as an exploration of both personal and universal grief.

Text: “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney

I sat all morning in the college sick bay

Counting bells knelling classes to a close.

At two o’clock our neighbours drove me home.

In the porch I met my father crying—

He had always taken funerals in his stride—

And Big Jim Evans saying it was a hard blow.

The baby cooed and laughed and rocked the pram

When I came in, and I was embarrassed

By old men standing up to shake my hand

And tell me they were ‘sorry for my trouble’.

Whispers informed strangers I was the eldest,

Away at school, as my mother held my hand

In hers and coughed out angry tearless sighs.

At ten o’clock the ambulance arrived

With the corpse, stanched and bandaged by the nurses.

Next morning I went up into the room. Snowdrops

And candles soothed the bedside; I saw him

For the first time in six weeks. Paler now,

Wearing a poppy bruise on his left temple,

He lay in the four-foot box as in his cot.

No gaudy scars, the bumper knocked him clear.

A four-foot box, a foot for every year.

Annotations: “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney

Line from the Poem	Annotation (Simple Explanation)	Literary Devices
I sat all morning in the college sick bay	The speaker waits in the sick bay, unaware of the tragedy awaiting him.	Setting, Narrative Perspective
Counting bells knelling classes to a close.	The school bells ringing sound like funeral bells, foreshadowing death.	Onomatopoeia (“knelling”), Foreshadowing
At two o’clock our neighbours drove me home.	The speaker is taken home by neighbors, showing the seriousness of the situation.	Narrative Shift, Tone
In the porch I met my father crying—	The father is crying, which is unusual for him, showing deep grief.	Contrast, Pathos
He had always taken funerals in his stride—	The father, usually composed, struggles with the funeral, emphasizing the loss.	Characterization, Irony
And Big Jim Evans saying it was a hard blow.	Big Jim Evans comments on the tragedy, using “hard blow” as a metaphor for grief.	Metaphor (“hard blow”)
The baby cooed and laughed and rocked the pram	The baby, unaware of death, continues to be joyful, contrasting innocence with grief.	Juxtaposition (child’s joy vs. family’s grief)
When I came in, and I was embarrassed	The speaker feels awkward, as he is now expected to act maturely.	Tone (awkwardness), Perspective
By old men standing up to shake my hand	Older men respect the speaker, treating him as an adult despite his young age.	Respect, Symbolism
And tell me they were ‘sorry for my trouble’.	A common Irish expression of condolence is used, highlighting the cultural aspect.	Cultural Reference, Euphemism
Whispers informed strangers I was the eldest,	The speaker’s status as the eldest son is emphasized, increasing the weight of grief.	Point of View, Contrast
Away at school, as my mother held my hand	His mother’s hand-holding reflects her deep sorrow and need for comfort.	Symbolism (hand-holding), Pathos
In hers and coughed out angry tearless sighs.	The mother’s “tearless sighs” suggest suppressed grief and emotional exhaustion.	Oxymoron (“angry tearless sighs”)
At ten o’clock the ambulance arrived	The arrival of the ambulance formalizes death, making it an official loss.	Time Shift, Formality
With the corpse, stanched and bandaged by the nurses.	The corpse is treated with medical formality, but the word “corpse” is jarring.	Word Choice (“corpse” vs. “body”)
Next morning I went up into the room. Snowdrops	Snowdrops and candles symbolize purity, peace, and mourning.	Symbolism (snowdrops, candles)
And candles soothed the bedside; I saw him	The calm setting is described, as if trying to bring comfort.	Personification (“candles soothed”)
For the first time in six weeks. Paler now,	The speaker finally sees his brother after a long separation, emphasizing loss.	Perspective Shift, Pathos
Wearing a poppy bruise on his left temple,	The “poppy bruise” is a gentle yet painful reminder of injury and death.	Imagery (bruise, poppy), Symbolism
He lay in the four-foot box as in his cot.	The coffin is compared to a cot, emphasizing the child’s innocence.	Metaphor (coffin as cot)
No gaudy scars, the bumper knocked him clear.	The car accident caused an instant death, without major injuries.	Euphemism (“knocked him clear”)
A four-foot box, a foot for every year.	The coffin’s small size reflects the tragic shortness of the child’s life.	Symbolism, Irony

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney

Literary/Poetic Device	Definition	Reference from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	The repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning of words.	“Counting bells knelling classes to a close.”	The repeated ‘c’ sound creates a rhythm that mimics the tolling of funeral bells.
Assonance	The repetition of vowel sounds within words.	“Wearing a poppy bruise on his left temple.”	The repeated ‘o’ sound in ‘poppy’ and ‘bruise’ gives a soft, mournful effect.
Caesura	A deliberate pause within a line of poetry.	“In the porch I met my father crying—”	The dash causes a pause, emphasizing the shock of seeing his father cry.
Contrast	The placing of two opposite ideas close together.	“The baby cooed and laughed and rocked the pram.”	The baby’s joy contrasts sharply with the family’s grief, highlighting innocence.
Euphemism	A mild or indirect word or phrase used instead of a harsher one.	“And tell me they were ‘sorry for my trouble’.”	‘Sorry for my trouble’ is a common Irish euphemism for expressing condolences.
Enjambment	The continuation of a sentence without a pause beyond the end of a line.	“At two o’clock our neighbours drove me home.”	The lack of punctuation forces the reader to continue quickly, mirroring the rush of events.
Foreshadowing	Hints or clues about what will happen later.	“Counting bells knelling classes to a close.”	‘Knelling’ suggests the sound of funeral bells, hinting at death.
Imagery	Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.	“Snowdrops and candles soothed the bedside.”	Creates a visual of purity and peace surrounding the deceased child.
Irony	A contrast between expectation and reality.	“No gaudy scars, the bumper knocked him clear.”	Despite the serious accident, the child’s body appears unharmed, intensifying the tragedy.
Juxtaposition	The placement of two contrasting ideas side by side.	“The baby cooed and laughed and rocked the pram.”	The carefree innocence of the baby contrasts with the sorrow of the mourners.
Metaphor	A direct comparison between two unrelated things.	“A four-foot box, a foot for every year.”	The coffin is compared to the child’s age, emphasizing his short life.
Narrative Perspective	The point of view from which a story is told.	First-person (The poem is written from Heaney’s perspective as a child.)	The personal perspective makes the grief more intimate and powerful.
Onomatopoeia	A word that imitates the sound it represents.	“Counting bells knelling classes to a close.”	‘Knelling’ imitates the solemn tolling of funeral bells.
Oxymoron	A combination of contradictory words.	“Coughed out angry tearless sighs.”	The phrase contrasts ‘angry’ and ‘tearless,’ showing suppressed grief.
Pathos	The quality of a text that evokes sadness or pity.	“In the porch I met my father crying—”	Seeing the father cry, which is unusual for him, deepens the emotional impact.
Personification	Giving human qualities to non-human things.	“And candles soothed the bedside.”	The candles are described as if they are comforting the deceased.
Repetition	The deliberate reuse of a word or phrase for emphasis.	“A four-foot box, a foot for every year.”	The repetition of ‘foot’ emphasizes the child’s short life.
Setting	The time and place in which a poem or story occurs.	“I sat all morning in the college sick bay.”	The setting of the school emphasizes the contrast between childhood and grief.
Symbolism	The use of symbols to represent ideas or concepts.	“Snowdrops and candles soothed the bedside.”	Snowdrops symbolize purity and renewal, while candles represent mourning.
Tone	The attitude or mood conveyed by the writer.	“When I came in, and I was embarrassed.”	The tone is detached at first, reflecting the speaker’s numbness before the grief fully settles in.

Themes: “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney

Grief and Mourning: One of the most prominent themes in “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney is grief and mourning, as the poem is centered around the emotional impact of the death of Heaney’s younger brother. The poet captures the different ways grief manifests among family members. The father, who usually “had always taken funerals in his stride,” is seen crying, showing his deep sorrow. The mother, on the other hand, reacts differently, “cough[ing] out angry tearless sighs,” highlighting the silent, repressed pain of a grieving parent. The speaker himself struggles with his emotions, feeling “embarrassed” when old men shake his hand and offer condolences. The poem portrays mourning not just as sorrow but also as a disorienting and isolating experience, particularly for the young narrator who is still processing the tragedy.

The Innocence of Childhood vs. the Reality of Death: Throughout “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney, the poet contrasts the innocence of childhood with the harsh reality of death. The baby, who is too young to understand what has happened, “cooed and laughed and rocked the pram,” creating a stark contrast to the grieving adults. This juxtaposition serves to emphasize the speaker’s own transition from childhood innocence to a painful realization of loss. The most heart-wrenching moment of this contrast comes at the end of the poem when the deceased child is described as lying “in the four-foot box as in his cot.” This comparison between a coffin and a cradle underscores the unnaturalness of a child’s death and how abruptly life’s innocence can be disrupted by tragedy.
Death’s Finality and the Passage of Time: Heaney uses “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney to explore the finality of death and how time moves forward despite grief. The poem’s structure reflects this passage of time, as it follows the speaker’s journey from school to home, then through the funeral rituals, and finally to the intimate moment of seeing his deceased brother. The reference to “six weeks” since the speaker last saw his brother highlights the permanence of death—what was once a temporary separation has now become an eternal absence. The last line, “A four-foot box, a foot for every year,” serves as a stark numerical summary of the young child’s life, reinforcing how death stops growth and change, leaving only memories behind.
Family and the Social Response to Tragedy: Another key theme in “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney is the role of family and society in responding to tragedy. The speaker is met by neighbors who drive him home, showing the communal aspect of mourning in Irish culture. Family members and townspeople express condolences, saying they are “sorry for [his] trouble,” a phrase that, while traditional, seems distant and impersonal in contrast to the deep grief experienced by the family. The formalities of death, such as the arrival of the ambulance and the presence of old men shaking hands, create a ritualistic atmosphere where personal sorrow is interwoven with societal expectations of how grief should be expressed. The poem subtly critiques the structured and formal ways in which people respond to death, contrasting them with the raw, personal grief of the speaker’s parents.

Literary Theories and “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney

Literary Theory	Definition	Application to “Mid-Term Break”
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Focuses on unconscious desires, emotions, and the psychological states of characters and authors.	The poem explores repressed emotions and the psychological impact of grief, particularly in the father’s uncharacteristic crying (“He had always taken funerals in his stride”) and the mother’s suppressed sorrow (“coughed out angry tearless sighs”). The young speaker also struggles to process the tragedy, reflecting Freud’s ideas of repression and trauma.
Marxist Criticism	Examines literature through the lens of social class, power structures, and economic influences.	The presence of community mourning (“Neighbours drove me home,” “Old men standing up to shake my hand”) highlights societal roles in times of loss. The structured way people express grief reflects cultural and class-based expectations, showing how mourning is shaped by social norms rather than just personal sorrow.
Structuralism	Analyzes how language, structures, and patterns in a text contribute to meaning.	The structured progression of time in the poem—from waiting at school, arriving home, witnessing grief, and then seeing the body—creates a clear narrative pattern. The contrast between the detached tone at the beginning and the emotional climax (“A four-foot box, a foot for every year”) mirrors a transition from innocence to understanding.
Reader-Response Criticism	Emphasizes the reader’s interpretation and emotional response to the text.	The poem’s emotional impact is central to its meaning. The final line (“A four-foot box, a foot for every year”) forces the reader to confront the weight of the child’s short life, evoking a deeply personal reaction. Each reader may interpret the poem differently based on their own experiences with loss, grief, and family.

Critical Questions about “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney

How does the speaker’s tone evolve throughout “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney?
The speaker’s tone in “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney shifts gradually from detachment to deep sorrow, mirroring his emotional journey as he processes the tragic loss of his younger brother. At the beginning, the tone is subdued and distant as the speaker waits in the “college sick bay” counting “bells knelling classes to a close,” indicating a sense of boredom or impatience rather than immediate grief. This detached tone continues as he describes being driven home by neighbors, suggesting that he has not yet fully grasped the gravity of the situation. However, upon arrival, the emotional weight begins to settle in, particularly when he encounters his father “crying,” an unusual sight that signals the depth of the family’s grief. As the poem progresses, the speaker’s tone becomes more intimate and sorrowful, culminating in the final devastating realization as he describes his brother lying in “a four-foot box, a foot for every year.” This stark, emotion-laden conclusion solidifies the overwhelming sense of loss, marking a dramatic shift from the restrained tone at the beginning to the powerful emotional release at the end.
How does Heaney use imagery to convey the impact of death in “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney?

Imagery plays a crucial role in “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney, painting vivid pictures of grief and loss while making the reader feel the emotional weight of the tragedy. One of the most striking images appears when the speaker first sees his deceased brother: “Snowdrops and candles soothed the bedside.” The contrast between the delicate, peaceful image of the snowdrops and the tragic reality of death creates a sense of innocence lost. Another powerful image is the description of the child’s injuries: “Wearing a poppy bruise on his left temple,” where the comparison to a poppy—a flower often associated with remembrance and war—heightens the poignancy of the loss. The most impactful image comes at the end, where Heaney describes the small coffin: “A four-foot box, a foot for every year.” This stark numerical representation of the child’s short life is haunting in its simplicity, reinforcing the devastating finality of death. Through these images, Heaney does not just tell the reader about grief; he makes them see and feel it.
What role does silence play in “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney?
Silence is a powerful and recurring motif in “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney, symbolizing both suppressed grief and the difficulty of articulating profound loss. The speaker himself is often quiet, and the reactions of those around him further emphasize the theme of unspoken sorrow. His mother’s grief is described in a strikingly silent way: “coughed out angry tearless sighs,” highlighting the struggle to express her emotions through words. Similarly, the moment when the speaker finally sees his brother’s body is described with minimal words, reinforcing the overwhelming stillness of death: “He lay in the four-foot box as in his cot.” The simplicity of this statement contrasts with the profound weight of the moment. Additionally, the final line, “A four-foot box, a foot for every year,” is delivered without commentary, allowing the silence that follows to speak volumes. In this way, Heaney uses silence as a tool to intensify the emotional impact of the poem, making the grief all the more palpable.

How does “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney challenge traditional expectations of a funeral or mourning process?
In “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney, the mourning process deviates from the expected solemnity and order typically associated with funerals. Rather than focusing on religious rituals or formal ceremonies, the poem highlights the deeply personal and often awkward realities of grief. For example, the speaker notes feeling “embarrassed” when old men stand to shake his hand, suggesting that he is unprepared for the role of the grieving eldest son. Additionally, his baby sibling “cooed and laughed and rocked the pram,” completely unaware of the tragedy, which contrasts sharply with the somber atmosphere. These moments disrupt the idea of a structured, composed mourning process and instead show grief as something unpredictable and deeply personal. The father’s uncharacteristic tears and the mother’s silent anger further emphasize that grief does not always follow conventional patterns. By presenting these contrasting reactions, Heaney challenges the notion that mourning should be uniform or dignified, instead portraying it as a fragmented, deeply human experience that varies for each individual.

Literary Works Similar to “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney

“Out, Out—” by Robert Frost – Similar to “Mid-Term Break”, this poem deals with the sudden and tragic death of a young boy, emphasizing the fragility of life and the emotional numbness that often follows loss.

“Funeral Blues” by W.H. Auden – This poem, like “Mid-Term Break”, captures the profound sorrow of losing a loved one, using simple yet deeply emotional language to express grief and the feeling that the world should stop for mourning.
“Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” by Dylan Thomas – While “Mid-Term Break” portrays quiet grief, this poem contrasts with its defiant tone, urging resistance against death, yet both explore the deep emotional response to losing a loved one.
“Because I Could Not Stop for Death” by Emily Dickinson – Like “Mid-Term Break”, this poem presents death in a calm and reflective manner, showing how it is an inevitable, yet deeply personal, experience.

“Remember” by Christina Rossetti – This sonnet shares “Mid-Term Break”’s theme of mourning and memory, encouraging reflection on love and loss, but from the perspective of someone preparing for their own death rather than grieving another’s.

Representative Quotations of “Mid-Term Break” by Seamus Heaney

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“I sat all morning in the college sick bay”	The speaker is waiting at school, unaware of the tragedy awaiting him.	Structuralism – Establishes the setting and narrative progression.
“Counting bells knelling classes to a close.”	The sound of the bells resembles funeral bells, foreshadowing death.	Foreshadowing & Psychoanalysis – Implies an impending tragedy, affecting both the speaker and the reader’s subconscious anticipation.
“In the porch I met my father crying—”	The speaker sees his father crying, a rare and unsettling sight.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – Highlights the reversal of traditional family roles in grief, where the strong figure (father) breaks down emotionally.
“The baby cooed and laughed and rocked the pram”	The baby, unaware of the tragedy, continues playing, contrasting innocence with grief.	Juxtaposition & Reader-Response Criticism – The contrast between innocence and grief enhances the reader’s emotional engagement.
“Old men standing up to shake my hand”	Older men rise to shake the speaker’s hand, treating him as an adult in mourning.	Marxist Criticism – Examines the structured social expectations in mourning rituals.
“And tell me they were sorry for my trouble.”	A traditional Irish condolence, highlighting the formality of societal expressions of grief.	Cultural Criticism – Explores the ritualized and formulaic nature of grief in Irish culture.
“Wearing a poppy bruise on his left temple,”	The brother’s injury is described in a poetic way, linking it to themes of memory and sacrifice.	Symbolism & Reader-Response Criticism – The poppy, a symbol of remembrance, adds deeper meaning to the child’s death.
“He lay in the four-foot box as in his cot.”	The child’s coffin is likened to a cot, reinforcing the tragedy of lost innocence.	Metaphor & Psychoanalysis – The cot-coffin comparison evokes deep psychological responses related to lost childhood.
“No gaudy scars, the bumper knocked him clear.”	The description of the accident suggests an instantaneous and almost ‘clean’ death, making it more shocking.	Irony & Structuralism – Highlights the contrast between the ‘clean’ death and the harsh reality of loss.
“A four-foot box, a foot for every year.”	The final line starkly measures the child’s short life, creating a lasting emotional impact.	Pathos & Reader-Response Criticism – Forces the reader to reflect on the brevity of life and feel the weight of loss personally.

“Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller: Summary and Critique

“Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller first appeared in The Black Scholar in 1987 (Vol. 18, Issue 1, pp. 35-39).

Introduction: “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller

“Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller first appeared in The Black Scholar in 1987 (Vol. 18, Issue 1, pp. 35-39). In this article, Fuller critiques the systemic exclusion of Black writers from American literary anthologies, highlighting the mechanisms through which literary institutions, funding agencies, and editorial boards maintain racial bias. He exposes how federal agencies, such as the National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities, selectively allocate funding to literary publications while disregarding Black-edited magazines, thereby marginalizing Black literature from mainstream recognition. Fuller also scrutinizes the American Literary Anthology project, which, under the guise of impartiality, upheld racial bias by appointing predominantly white “distinguished” writers as judges, ensuring the continued exclusion of Black literary voices. He argues that this exclusion is rooted in the broader assumption that European aesthetics define literary value, dismissing the rich linguistic and cultural traditions of Black literature. The article serves as a crucial critique of editorial racism, demonstrating how the systematic neglect of Black poetry and fiction in anthologies perpetuates a limited and Eurocentric literary canon. Fuller’s work remains significant in literary theory as it underscores the necessity for Black scholars, writers, and educators to challenge white-dominated literary spaces and advocate for the inclusion of Black-authored anthologies that authentically represent their cultural and artistic contributions. His call for Black agency in shaping literary discourse remains relevant in ongoing discussions about representation and diversity in publishing.

Summary of “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller

Systemic Exclusion of Black Writers
- Fuller argues that American literary anthologies systematically exclude Black writers and Black-edited publications, effectively erasing Black literary contributions from mainstream recognition.
- “The list of those magazines which was released contained not one black-edited or black-oriented publication.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 35)
Bias in Government Funding and Literary Institutions
- The National Foundation on the Arts and the Humanities, responsible for dispersing federal funds, failed to support Black literary magazines while funding white-edited “little” magazines.
- “The response from Washington was that most of these magazines emphasized politics and civil rights, as well as literature, and therefore were ineligible for the National Foundation’s list.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 36)
White-Controlled “Distinguished” Literary Panels
- The American Literary Anthology project, despite being federally supported, excluded Black writers by allowing only white judges to select works, reinforcing racial bias in literary recognition.
- “Each year, the editors of the review named a group of ‘distinguished’ writers who would assist them by passing judgment on the material appearing in the anthology. And each year, until the last year of the project’s duration, the group of ‘distinguished’ writers was all-white.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 36)
The Tokenism of Black Representation
- Even when Black writers were included in anthologies, it was often in a tokenistic manner, with only one or two Black authors being featured at a time.
- “One black writer at a time is in keeping with the tradition.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 37)
European-Centered Aesthetic Standards
- White literary authorities dismissed Black literature as lacking aesthetic value, claiming that true literature must adhere to European artistic traditions.
- “All the ignorance and presumptuousness with which whites seek to overwhelm and discredit black literature grow out of the conviction that the only valid aesthetic operative in the world has its roots in Europe.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 36)
Editorial Racism in Literary Awards and Anthologies
- Prestigious anthologies such as The O. Henry Awards and The Best American Short Stories systematically ignored Black writers and relied primarily on white-edited journals.
- “Prize Stories 1971: The O. Henry Awards, the annual anthology edited by William Abrahams and published by Doubleday, lists 92 magazines which were ‘consulted’ in selecting the 17 stories in the collection. Of the 92 only one, Phylon, is black-edited.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 37)
Rejection of Black Poetry Based on Racist Justifications
- White editors and critics argued that Black poets lacked linguistic sophistication, often dismissing Black poetry as unworthy of inclusion in major literary anthologies.
- “I am simply pointing out that blacks have been denied education and have encouraged one another to think that assertion can take the place of language in poetry.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 38)
Call for Black Literary Independence
- Fuller concludes that Black writers, educators, and editors must reject white-controlled anthologies and create their own literary spaces to ensure fair representation.
- “Blacks should insist that these books be replaced by ones conceived and organized by blacks who understand that black people in America are not merely dark versions of Europeans but a proud people with a very special past and a rich future to claim.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 39)

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Relevant Quotation (Fuller, 1987)
Systemic Exclusion	The structural and institutional mechanisms that prevent Black writers from being included in literary anthologies and funding opportunities.	“The list of those magazines which was released contained not one black-edited or black-oriented publication.” (p. 35)
Tokenism	The practice of including a minimal number of Black writers to give the illusion of diversity while maintaining the dominance of white literary standards.	“One black writer at a time is in keeping with the tradition.” (p. 37)
Editorial Racism	The biases within editorial boards that shape which works are included in anthologies, often favoring white authors and dismissing Black literature.	“Each year, the editors of the review named a group of ‘distinguished’ writers… And each year, until the last year of the project’s duration, the group of ‘distinguished’ writers was all-white.” (p. 36)
Aesthetic Hegemony	The dominance of European literary standards as the only legitimate measure of literary value, dismissing Black literature as inferior.	“All the ignorance and presumptuousness with which whites seek to overwhelm and discredit black literature grow out of the conviction that the only valid aesthetic operative in the world has its roots in Europe.” (p. 36)
Cultural Gatekeeping	The control over which cultural and literary works are recognized and valued by mainstream institutions.	“Practically every editor … thinks naturally of the full orchestra, of the great tradition of poetry in English. He listens for the marvels of language in poetry.” (p. 38)
Institutional Racism	The ways in which government agencies, funding bodies, and publishing houses reinforce racial disparities in literature.	“The response from Washington was that most of these magazines emphasized politics and civil rights, as well as literature, and therefore were ineligible for the National Foundation’s list.” (p. 36)
Canon Formation	The process through which certain works and authors are deemed “worthy” of literary inclusion, often excluding Black authors.	“Prize Stories 1971: The O. Henry Awards, the annual anthology edited by William Abrahams and published by Doubleday, lists 92 magazines which were ‘consulted’… Of the 92 only one, Phylon, is black-edited.” (p. 37)
Racial Manipulation	The practice of using a small number of Black voices in institutions to dismiss accusations of racism while maintaining white control.	“If some ‘militant’ black attempts to disrupt the racist routine, then the rule is to simply counteract his troublesomeness, by elevating to prominence a more ‘conservative,’ and more manageable, black.” (p. 36)
Alternative Literary Spaces	The call for Black writers and editors to create their own publishing institutions outside of white-dominated literary spaces.	“Blacks should insist that these books be replaced by ones conceived and organized by blacks who understand that black people in America are not merely dark versions of Europeans but a proud people with a very special past and a rich future to claim.” (p. 39)

Contribution of “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Critical Race Theory (CRT) in Literature

Fuller’s critique aligns with Critical Race Theory by demonstrating how institutional racism operates within literary anthologies and funding agencies. He shows how exclusion is not incidental but systematic.

Reference: “The response from Washington was that most of these magazines emphasized politics and civil rights, as well as literature, and therefore were ineligible for the National Foundation’s list.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 36)
Key Contribution: Highlights how racism is embedded in the structures that determine literary worth.

2. Canon Formation Theory

Fuller challenges the formation of the literary canon, arguing that the process favors white authors and dismisses Black literature as inferior.
Reference: “Prize Stories 1971: The O. Henry Awards, the annual anthology edited by William Abrahams and published by Doubleday, lists 92 magazines which were ‘consulted’… Of the 92 only one, Phylon, is black-edited.” (p. 37)
Key Contribution: Critiques how literary “authority” is used to exclude Black writers, calling for a redefinition of the canon.

3. Postcolonial Literary Theory

Fuller’s argument aligns with postcolonial critiques of Western literary dominance by exposing how Black literature is judged through Eurocentric standards.
Reference: “All the ignorance and presumptuousness with which whites seek to overwhelm and discredit black literature grow out of the conviction that the only valid aesthetic operative in the world has its roots in Europe.” (p. 36)

Key Contribution: Challenges the idea that only European literary traditions are legitimate, advocating for the recognition of Black literary traditions.

4. African American Literary Criticism

Fuller extends the work of scholars like Henry Louis Gates Jr. by emphasizing the need for Black literary self-determination and independent publishing.

Reference: “Blacks should insist that these books be replaced by ones conceived and organized by blacks who understand that black people in America are not merely dark versions of Europeans but a proud people with a very special past and a rich future to claim.” (p. 39)
Key Contribution: Argues that Black literary production should not seek validation from white institutions but should instead establish independent platforms.

5. Cultural Hegemony (Gramscian Theory)

Fuller’s analysis reflects Antonio Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony, where dominant groups control cultural production to maintain power.
Reference: “Each year, the editors of the review named a group of ‘distinguished’ writers… And each year, until the last year of the project’s duration, the group of ‘distinguished’ writers was all-white.” (p. 36)
Key Contribution: Demonstrates how literary institutions reinforce white cultural dominance by controlling whose voices are legitimized.

6. Reader-Response Theory

By critiquing white editorial control over literary selection, Fuller underscores how literary meaning is shaped by editorial and institutional gatekeeping, rather than by readers alone.
Reference: “If a minority of purchasers is displeased, well, tough; the economics of publishing do not permit sentiment.” (p. 36)

Key Contribution: Challenges the idea that literary works are selected based purely on merit, arguing instead that institutional biases shape what readers consume.

7. Black Aesthetic Theory

Fuller aligns with Black Aesthetic Theory, which argues for the creation of art and literature that reflects Black experiences and rejects white standards of artistic value.

Reference: “The posture of the Hills is the generally prevailing one among those whites in a position to decide whether black writing qualifies as literature.” (p. 38)
Key Contribution: Calls for Black communities to define their own literary standards rather than conforming to white aesthetics.

Examples of Critiques Through “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller

Literary Work & Author/Editor	Critique Through Fuller’s Argument	Supporting Quotation (Fuller, 1987)
Prize Stories 1971: The O. Henry Awards – Edited by William Abrahams	The anthology ignored Black literary contributions by consulting 92 magazines, of which only one was Black-edited. Black representation was minimal and tokenistic.	“Prize Stories 1971: The O. Henry Awards, the annual anthology edited by William Abrahams and published by Doubleday, lists 92 magazines which were ‘consulted’ in selecting the 17 stories in the collection. Of the 92 only one, Phylon, is black-edited.” (p. 37)
The Best American Short Stories (1971) – Edited by Martha Foley	The anthology included only two Black-edited journals out of 128 consulted, reinforcing the exclusion of Black voices. A single Black writer (Hal Bennett) was featured, continuing the tradition of token representation.	“Miss Foley, like Mr. Abrahams, had selected a token black writer and story, Hal Bennett and his ‘Dotson Gerber Resurrected,’ which also, coincidentally, appeared in Playboy.” (p. 37)
How We Live (1978) – Edited by Rust Hills & Penny Chapin Hills	The editors explicitly dismissed Black literary excellence, claiming only two “first-rate” Black writers (Ralph Ellison & James Baldwin) existed. Additionally, they included white and Jewish writers in a section meant to represent Black life.	“Only two first-rate Negro writers can be named—Ralph Ellison and James Baldwin—and the ranks behind them are almost empty.” (p. 37)
Anthologies of American Poetry – Various Editors (Selden Rodman cited)	Black poetry was systematically excluded based on racist aesthetic judgments, with editors claiming that Black poets lacked linguistic sophistication and artistic mastery.	“Until recently there hasn’t been any Afro-American verse that was more than just that—verse.” (p. 38)

Criticism Against “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller

Lack of Engagement with Counterarguments
- Fuller strongly critiques white editors and institutions but does not fully address potential counterarguments from within these institutions or acknowledge efforts made (however minimal) to include Black voices.
- Critics might argue that while exclusion was prevalent, some editors were actively trying to include Black writers, albeit in limited ways.
Overgeneralization of White Editorial Bias
- Fuller paints most white editors and institutions as deliberately racist and exclusionary without fully considering nuances—such as market demands, editorial constraints, or unconscious biases.
- His assertion that white editors universally adhere to European aesthetics could be seen as too broad a claim, ignoring potential instances of genuine openness to diverse literature.
Limited Discussion of Class and Economic Factors
- The article focuses heavily on race but does not sufficiently explore economic and class dynamics that may have also contributed to the exclusion of Black writers from literary anthologies.
- Small literary magazines often struggled financially, and selection biases may have also been shaped by commercial viability rather than outright racism.
Neglect of Internal Divisions within Black Literature
- Fuller advocates for Black-led literary spaces but does not critically engage with divisions within the Black literary community (e.g., debates between political vs. artistic writing, urban vs. rural Black voices, etc.).
- Some critics might argue that his solution—Black-edited anthologies—does not inherently guarantee fair representation of all Black literary voices.
Emphasis on Government Responsibility Over Independent Action
- Fuller’s focus on government funding and institutional support might be seen as overly dependent on state mechanisms rather than advocating for more grassroots, community-led literary initiatives.
- While he later encourages Black self-publishing, his initial arguments center around government neglect, which some might see as an overreliance on federal solutions.
Aesthetic vs. Political Debate
- His claim that Black literature is dismissed due to European aesthetic dominance does not fully engage with the broader artistic debate—some editors may have excluded works not due to racism, but due to differing literary tastes and styles.
- This raises the question: should all literature be judged purely based on racial representation, or should editorial judgment also consider artistic merit, regardless of race?

Representative Quotations from “Racism in Literary Anthologies” by Hoyt Fuller with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The list of those magazines which was released contained not one black-edited or black-oriented publication.” (Fuller, 1987, p. 35)	Fuller exposes the systemic exclusion of Black literary publications from anthologies and funding opportunities, highlighting racial bias in institutional decision-making.
“Each year, the editors of the review named a group of ‘distinguished’ writers who would assist them by passing judgment on the material appearing in the anthology. And each year, until the last year of the project’s duration, the group of ‘distinguished’ writers was all-white.” (p. 36)	This statement critiques the lack of Black judges in the selection process of literary anthologies, reinforcing how white-controlled institutions maintain exclusion.
“One black writer at a time is in keeping with the tradition.” (p. 37)	Fuller criticizes tokenism in literary anthologies, arguing that white editors include only a single Black writer to avoid accusations of racism while maintaining white dominance.
“All the ignorance and presumptuousness with which whites seek to overwhelm and discredit black literature grow out of the conviction that the only valid aesthetic operative in the world has its roots in Europe.” (p. 36)	He challenges Eurocentric literary standards that dismiss Black literature as illegitimate or inferior, advocating for recognition of Black artistic traditions.
“The response from Washington was that most of these magazines emphasized politics and civil rights, as well as literature, and therefore were ineligible for the National Foundation’s list.” (p. 36)	This quote highlights how Black literary magazines were excluded under the pretext of being “too political,” revealing how institutions marginalized Black voices by setting arbitrary restrictions.
“Prize Stories 1971: The O. Henry Awards, the annual anthology edited by William Abrahams and published by Doubleday, lists 92 magazines which were ‘consulted’ in selecting the 17 stories in the collection. Of the 92 only one, Phylon, is black-edited.” (p. 37)	Fuller critiques the lack of diversity in literary awards and anthologies, showing how Black writers are systematically left out of major literary recognition.
“Only two first-rate Negro writers can be named—Ralph Ellison and James Baldwin—and the ranks behind them are almost empty.” (p. 37)	He exposes the racist perception that only a select few Black authors are worthy of literary recognition, dismissing the contributions of countless Black writers.
“Until recently there hasn’t been any Afro-American verse that was more than just that—verse.” (p. 38)	This statement criticizes the literary establishment’s claim that Black poetry lacks artistic depth, reinforcing how Black creative expression has been undervalued.
“Blacks should insist that these books be replaced by ones conceived and organized by blacks who understand that black people in America are not merely dark versions of Europeans but a proud people with a very special past and a rich future to claim.” (p. 39)	Fuller advocates for Black self-determination in literature, calling for independent Black publishing and educational resources that honor Black cultural identity.
“If a minority of purchasers is displeased, well, tough; the economics of publishing do not permit sentiment.” (p. 36)	This quote reveals the profit-driven motives of the publishing industry, which prioritizes white readership and ignores demands for more inclusive literary representation.

Day: March 18, 2025