“Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft first appeared in The Cambridge History of Postcolonial Literature, published by Cambridge University Press.
Introduction: “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft
“Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft first appeared in The Cambridge History of Postcolonial Literature, published by Cambridge University Press. This chapter explores the complex relationship between postcolonialism and postmodernism, highlighting their shared yet distinct approaches to literary and cultural theory. Ashcroft argues that while postmodernism deconstructs centralized master narratives, postcolonialism actively resists imperialist discourse, prioritizing the material realities of colonial oppression. A key distinction he makes is that the “post” in postmodernism signifies a stylistic shift, whereas in postcolonialism, it represents a critical reading practice that interrogates power structures and histories of domination. Through references to thinkers such as Homi Bhabha, Gayatri Spivak, and Edward Said, Ashcroft outlines how postcolonial theory appropriates postmodern strategies—like deconstruction, mimicry, and irony—without relinquishing its political commitment to justice and emancipation. The chapter also examines the racialized underpinnings of imperialism, emphasizing how colonial ideologies constructed race as a tool of domination. Drawing from figures like W. E. B. Du Bois, Frantz Fanon, and the Négritude movement, Ashcroft illustrates how racial identity has been shaped by historical oppression and resistance. His work is significant in literary theory as it bridges the gap between postmodern skepticism and postcolonial activism, demonstrating how literature serves as a battleground for cultural representation and political struggle.
Summary of “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft
Ashcroft explores the intricate relationship between postcolonialism and postmodernism, emphasizing their simultaneous contestation and overlap. He argues that while postmodernism focuses on deconstructing master narratives, postcolonialism actively resists imperial discourse (Ashcroft, p. 13).
“Whereas the ‘post’ in literary postmodernism may refer to a way of writing, the ‘post’ in postcolonialism refers to a way of reading” (p. 13).
Distinction in Goals and Methods
Postmodernism seeks to dismantle centralized, logocentric European narratives, whereas postcolonialism aims to “dismantle the Centre/Margin binarism of imperial discourse” (p. 14).
Postcolonial theory does not propose a universalist ontology but instead critiques the material and discursive realities of colonial oppression (p. 15).
Political Commitment of Postcolonialism
Unlike postmodernism, which often rejects grand narratives and universalist theories, postcolonialism remains committed to justice and liberation (p. 15).
Ashcroft highlights Edward Said’s concept of “worldliness,” which emphasizes the necessity of acknowledging colonial and neocolonial oppression (p. 15).
Postmodernism’s Influence on Postcolonial Theory
Despite differences, postcolonialism adopts postmodern techniques such as decentering discourse, language analysis, mimicry, and irony to subvert colonialist narratives (p. 14).
However, postcolonialism does not abandon the ethical imperative for justice, unlike some strands of postmodernist thought (p. 16).
Race as a Colonial Construct
Ashcroft critiques the historical construction of race as a justification for European imperialism, stating that “before European racism, black people were not black” (p. 16).
Race is neither biologically nor socially fixed; it emerged as a colonial tool to categorize and subordinate peoples (p. 17).
Critique of Postmodernism’s Handling of Race
Postmodernism, especially in literary and cultural studies, often neglects larger political and economic structures, reducing race to a discursive or linguistic concept (p. 18).
“The predominance of otherness postmodernism has led us to neglect the larger structures (political, economic, educational, etc.)” (p. 18).
Racial Thinking and Colonialism
Ashcroft traces the origins of racial ideology to European philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and David Hume, who established a hierarchical framework of human difference based on skin color (p. 17).
Kant’s view that “so fundamental is the difference between the races of man […] it appears to be as great in mental capacities as in colour” exemplifies the racist foundations of Enlightenment thought (p. 17).
Postcolonial Responses to Race: Du Bois, Négritude, and Fanon
W. E. B. Du Bois: His The Conservation of Races (1897) attempted to reconcile the contradiction between biological and socio-historical definitions of race while affirming Black identity (p. 21).
Négritude Movement: Led by Léopold Sédar Senghor and Aimé Césaire, it reclaimed Black identity and culture as a form of resistance to colonialism. However, it was also criticized for its essentialist view of race (p. 23).
Frantz Fanon: His Black Skins, White Masks (1952) examined the psychological effects of racial subjugation, particularly the internalization of the colonial gaze (p. 27).
Fanon describes the alienation of Black identity, writing, “My body was given back to me sprawled out, distorted, recolored, clad in mourning in that white winter day” (p. 27).
Race as a Relational Concept
Ashcroft argues that while race itself is a socially constructed fiction, the experience of racism is real and must be acknowledged (p. 28).
“Without racism, race would not have been invented” (p. 28).
Postcolonialism’s Ethical Imperative
Unlike postmodernism, postcolonialism retains a vision of hope and agency, emphasizing the need for decolonization and racial justice (p. 28).
“Fanon’s final word is an affirmation of the necessity of a vision of hope for any project of postcolonial liberation” (p. 28).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft
Term/Concept
Definition/Explanation
Reference (Page Number)
Postcolonialism
A critical approach that examines the cultural and political impact of colonialism and imperialism, focusing on resistance and subversion of colonial narratives.
p. 13
Postmodernism
A literary and philosophical movement that critiques grand narratives, centralization, and fixed meanings, often employing irony and deconstruction.
p. 14
Centre/Margin Binarism
A concept in postcolonial theory that highlights the division between colonial powers (the Centre) and colonized subjects (the Margin), which postcolonialism seeks to dismantle.
p. 14
Deconstruction
A postmodern technique that questions and breaks down established meanings, often used in postcolonial discourse to challenge imperialist narratives.
A colonial subject’s imitation of the colonizer’s culture, which can serve as both subversion and complicity, famously explored by Homi Bhabha.
p. 14
Incredulity towards Metanarratives
A term from Jean-François Lyotard’s postmodernism that describes skepticism toward universal theories; in postcolonialism, this takes the form of resisting imperialist master narratives.
p. 14
Worldliness
Edward Said’s term for recognizing the real, material impact of colonialism rather than treating it as a purely theoretical concept.
p. 15
Ethical Universals
Despite rejecting grand narratives, postcolonialism retains a belief in justice and ethical imperatives, differentiating it from postmodernism.
p. 16
Otherness Postmodernism
A shift in postmodernism toward recognizing difference, as influenced by Laclau and Mouffe’s Hegemony and Socialist Strategy.
A literary and political movement celebrating Black identity and culture as a response to colonial racism, associated with Léopold Sédar Senghor and Aimé Césaire.
p. 23
Fact of Blackness
Frantz Fanon’s idea that racial identity is externally imposed and shaped by the colonial gaze, leading to alienation.
p. 27
Performativity
A concept (borrowed from Judith Butler) that suggests racial identity, like gender, is performed through repeated social interactions.
p. 27
The Racial Gaze
The objectifying and dehumanizing perspective imposed on racialized subjects by colonial and racist ideologies.
p. 27
Hegemony
Antonio Gramsci’s idea that power is maintained through cultural and ideological dominance rather than force, applicable to colonial rule.
p. 18
Contribution of “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft to Literary Theory/Theories
Ashcroft asserts that postcolonialism is not merely a temporal condition (i.e., post-independence) but an ongoing process of engaging with colonial legacies. He defines postcolonialism as “post-invasion and not post-independence” (p. 13).
The text emphasizes that postcolonialism critically interrogates the Centre/Margin binarism of imperial discourse (p. 14), aligning with Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978).
It examines how postcolonialism appropriates but also diverges from postmodernism, stating that “postcolonialism remains unashamedly emancipatory” in contrast to postmodern skepticism (p. 16).
The book highlights key postcolonial concerns, including mimicry (Homi Bhabha), race and subjectivity (Frantz Fanon), and strategic essentialism (Gayatri Spivak), reinforcing postcolonial studies as a politically engaged discipline.
2. Postmodern Literary Theory
Ashcroft highlights the intersection of postmodernism and postcolonialism but asserts their key differences, noting that while postmodernism deconstructs master narratives, postcolonialism actively resists the master discourse of imperialism (p. 14).
The book critiques Jean-François Lyotard’s incredulity toward metanarratives by arguing that for postcolonialism, resistance to imperial ideology is more than skepticism—it is an act of political engagement (p. 14).
He acknowledges the use of postmodern strategies such as irony, parody, and decentering, but emphasizes that postcolonialism retains a commitment to justice and material struggles (p. 16).
The text contributes to the debate on whether postcolonialism should be absorbed into postmodernism or remain distinct, reinforcing the idea that postcolonialism carries a more activist imperative than postmodern literary theory.
Ashcroft interrogates the construction of race as a colonial invention, arguing that “before European racism, black people were not black” (p. 16).
The text aligns with CRT by exposing how racial categories were historically produced to justify imperial domination, particularly through figures like Kant and Hume (p. 17).
His discussion on race as a floating signifier (p. 22) echoes Stuart Hall’s argument that race lacks inherent meaning but gains significance through discourse and power relations.
The book critiques postmodern approaches to race, arguing that reducing race to a discursive construct ignores the real, material effects of racism (p. 18), reinforcing CRT’s emphasis on systemic racism and structural inequality.
Ashcroft employs poststructuralist methods by challenging essentialist definitions of race, national identity, and colonial discourse.
His critique of postmodernism’s failure to address real-world oppression aligns with deconstruction’s emphasis on interrogating how meaning is constructed (p. 15).
He engages with Derrida’s idea of differance by demonstrating how race is relational and historically contingent rather than biologically fixed (p. 22).
The text highlights how postcolonial writers employ mimicry and hybridity to subvert colonial authority, aligning with Homi Bhabha’s deconstructive approach to identity (p. 14).
5. Marxist Literary Theory
Ashcroft critiques postmodernism’s rejection of grand narratives, arguing that postcolonialism retains its concern for liberation and justice (p. 16).
He acknowledges the intersection of capitalism and imperialism, recognizing that colonial racial categories were used to enforce economic hierarchies (p. 17).
His discussion of Frantz Fanon’s Black Skin, White Masks (1952) supports a Marxist analysis of race as a function of economic and social oppression (p. 27).
He aligns with Antonio Gramsci’s concept of hegemony, explaining how racial ideologies are embedded within colonial discourse to maintain social control (p. 18).
6. Cultural Studies and Identity Politics
Ashcroft critiques postmodernism’s focus on difference without material context, arguing that race must be analyzed within its historical and political framework (p. 18).
His discussion of W. E. B. Du Bois’ “double consciousness” (p. 22) contributes to identity politics by showing how marginalized subjects navigate multiple racial identities.
The book examines Négritude as both an essentialist movement and a necessary political strategy, aligning with debates in cultural studies about the role of racial identity in resistance (p. 23).
He affirms the role of literature in shaping and contesting racialized identities, reinforcing the importance of representation in cultural and literary studies.
Conclusion:
Bill Ashcroft’s Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race makes significant contributions to literary theory by:
Differentiating postcolonialism from postmodernism while acknowledging their intersections.
Reinforcing critical race theory’s argument that race is a colonial construct with real material consequences.
Employing poststructuralist and deconstructive methods to challenge racial and colonial essentialisms.
Aligning postcolonialism with Marxist critiques of imperialism and economic exploitation.
Expanding cultural studies by emphasizing literature’s role in shaping and contesting racial identities.
Examples of Critiques Through “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft
Literary Work & Author
Critique Through Ashcroft’s Framework
Things Fall Apart – Chinua Achebe
Ashcroft critiques Achebe’s novel as a foundational postcolonial text that dismantles imperial narratives. Unlike postmodern works that merely deconstruct meaning, Things Fall Apart offers a counter-narrative to colonial history, aligning with Ashcroft’s assertion that “postcolonialism remains unashamedly emancipatory” (p. 16). Achebe’s novel challenges the Centre/Margin binarism and reclaims indigenous storytelling.
Cambridge – Caryl Phillips
Phillips’ novel is analyzed through the lens of the colonial gaze and the internalization of racist discourse. Ashcroft highlights how Emily, the plantation owner’s daughter, becomes complicit in colonial racism, demonstrating how “the objectifying gaze of colonial power” shapes perceptions of race and humanity (p. 19).
Black Skin, White Masks – Frantz Fanon
Ashcroft engages with Fanon’s psychological analysis of colonial subjectivity, particularly his argument that race is imposed externally through colonial discourse. He references Fanon’s “Look, a Negro!” passage to illustrate how race is “relational rather than essential” (p. 27). Fanon’s work is foundational in postcolonial studies for its articulation of alienation and racial trauma.
The Conservation of Races – W. E. B. Du Bois
Ashcroft critiques Du Bois’ balancing act between recognizing race as a social construct while also using it as a political tool for Black solidarity. He notes that “Du Bois walks a tightrope between definitions of race and the need to propose that the Negro had a contribution to make” (p. 22), highlighting the tension between race as a lived experience and an ideological construct.
Criticism Against “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft
Oversimplification of Postmodernism vs. Postcolonialism
Ashcroft argues that postcolonialism is “unashamedly emancipatory” (p. 16) in contrast to postmodernism’s skepticism. However, critics argue that postmodernism itself has politically engaged strands, such as Lyotard’s critique of power structures, which Ashcroft does not fully acknowledge.
Ambiguity in Defining Postcolonialism
While Ashcroft asserts that “postcolonialism refers to post-invasion and not post-independence” (p. 13), this broad definition is problematic. It risks conflating vastly different historical experiences under a single theoretical umbrella, ignoring specific sociopolitical contexts.
Insufficient Engagement with Non-Anglophone Postcolonial Theory
Ashcroft predominantly engages with theorists writing in English (Said, Spivak, Bhabha) but does not sufficiently address contributions from non-Western intellectual traditions, such as Latin American decolonial thought (e.g., Aníbal Quijano, Walter Mignolo).
Tendency to Conflate Race and Colonialism
The text treats race as a colonial invention, arguing that “before European racism, black people were not black” (p. 16). While this aligns with Stuart Hall’s work, it risks downplaying pre-colonial conceptions of identity and racial hierarchies that existed outside European imperialism.
Limited Discussion of Economic Factors
While Ashcroft acknowledges capitalism’s role in colonialism (p. 17), he does not deeply explore economic dimensions such as dependency theory or world-systems analysis, which provide a more materialist critique of postcolonial conditions.
Problematic Engagement with Essentialism in Négritude
Ashcroft discusses Négritude as a form of “strategic essentialism” (p. 25), yet he does not fully address the internal critiques of Négritude from within African intellectual circles, such as critiques by Frantz Fanon and Wole Soyinka.
Underdeveloped Feminist and Gender Analysis
While postcolonialism has strong feminist strands (e.g., Spivak, Mohanty), Ashcroft’s discussion largely neglects gendered perspectives on colonialism, racialization, and postcolonial identity.
Lack of Engagement with Contemporary Postcolonial Realities
The text focuses on theoretical constructs but lacks detailed discussions of 21st-century neocolonialism, migration, and digital globalization, making its framework seem somewhat dated.
Potential Reduction of Race to Discourse
While Ashcroft critiques postmodernism’s tendency to treat race as a floating signifier (p. 22), some critics argue that his own approach does not sufficiently engage with how race functions in legal, institutional, and structural frameworks beyond literary discourse.
Limited Exploration of Indigenous Theorization
The book discusses colonialism largely through the lens of former British and French colonies but does not significantly incorporate Indigenous perspectives from settler-colonial contexts, such as North America or Australia.
Representative Quotations from “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft with Explanation
“The relationship between postcolonialism and postmodernism is a vexed mixture of contestation and imbrication.” (p. 13)
Ashcroft highlights the complex and intertwined nature of these two theories, which both critique dominant narratives but differ in their purpose—postmodernism deconstructs, while postcolonialism resists.
“Postcolonialism’ refers to post-invasion and not post-independence; it identifies neither a chronology nor a specific ontology.” (p. 13)
This statement rejects a rigid chronological understanding of postcolonialism, arguing that it is an ongoing process of resistance rather than a mere historical period after colonial rule.
“Lyotard’s ‘incredulity towards metanarratives’ becomes something more than incredulity in postcolonialism: it is the active resistance to the master discourse of imperialism and the radical transformation of its tools.” (p. 14)
Ashcroft contrasts postmodern skepticism with postcolonial resistance, suggesting that postcolonialism takes a more politically engaged stance in dismantling imperial structures.
“Postcolonial theorists have little trouble in appropriating postmodern approaches to subjectivity, discourse, and representation, without abandoning the political imperative of the field.” (p. 15)
While postmodernism denies stable subjectivities, postcolonialism selectively adopts its techniques while maintaining a commitment to political activism and liberation.
“Postcolonialism is unashamedly emancipatory, its driving energy a concern with justice and liberation.” (p. 16)
Unlike postmodernism’s rejection of universal truths, postcolonialism asserts a clear ethical and political purpose—to challenge oppression and advocate for justice.
“Before European racism, black people were not black.” (p. 16)
This provocative claim underscores that race as a category was historically constructed by colonial powers as a justification for subjugation, rather than being an inherent, pre-existing reality.
“Race, like any signifier, is a function of difference, yet this is hardly adequate to explain the human cost of racism.” (p. 18)
Ashcroft critiques purely linguistic or theoretical approaches to race, emphasizing that racism has real, material consequences beyond discourse.
“Negritude was less a celebration of an essential blackness than it was an act of rebellion.” (p. 24)
This challenges the common perception of Negritude as merely essentialist, arguing instead that it was a strategic form of resistance against colonial oppression.
“The experience of blackness arises unbidden out of the fact that ‘consciousness of the body is solely a negating activity’.” (p. 26)
Quoting Fanon, Ashcroft illustrates how racialized individuals experience their identity as externally imposed through the colonial gaze, reinforcing their exclusion.
“Without racism, race would not have been invented, and the continued power and ubiquity of this non-existent category of race lies in the persistence of racism and its consequences.” (p. 28)
This final assertion ties together Ashcroft’s argument that race is a colonial construct sustained by structures of oppression, rather than an innate biological or cultural truth.
Suggested Readings: “Critical Histories: Postcolonialism, Postmodernism, and Race” by Bill Ashcroft
Platt, Len, and Sara Upstone, eds. Postmodern literature and race. Cambridge University Press, 2015.
GBOGI, TOSIN. “Is There Life Besides “Coloniality?”: Metapoetics and the Second Level of Decoloniality in Niyi Osundare’s Poetry.” Research in African Literatures, vol. 52, no. 3, 2021, pp. 139–66. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/48679341. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
Wade, Peter. “Blacks and Indigenous People in the Postmodern and Postcolonial Nation – and Beyond.” Race and Ethnicity in Latin America, Pluto Press, 2010, pp. 85–111. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt183p73f.10. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
Aronowitz, Stanley. “Postmodernism and Politics.” Social Text, no. 18, 1987, pp. 99–115. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/488695. Accessed 16 Mar. 2025.
“Walking Away” by Cecil Day-Lewis, first appeared in 1956 in his collection The Gate and Other Poems, is personal and reflective poem explores the themes of parental love, separation, and the painful yet necessary process of a child gaining independence.
Introduction: “Walking Away” by Cecil Day-Lewis
“Walking Away” by Cecil Day-Lewis, first appeared in 1956 in his collection The Gate and Other Poems, is personal and reflective poem explores the themes of parental love, separation, and the painful yet necessary process of a child gaining independence. The poem’s enduring popularity as a textbook poem stems from its universal resonance with parents and children alike, as well as its evocative imagery and poignant emotional depth. The poet recalls watching his son, aged eighteen, take his first independent steps away from him—an act that symbolizes the inevitable detachment between parent and child. Through powerful metaphors such as a “satellite / Wrenched from its orbit” and “a winged seed loosened from its parent stem,” Day-Lewis vividly conveys the struggle between holding on and letting go. The poem suggests that selfhood begins with such moments of separation, reinforcing the idea that love is not about possession but about allowing growth. The lasting emotional impact of the parting, which “gnaws at [his] mind still,” highlights the poem’s emotional authenticity, making it a staple in literature curricula for its exploration of universal human experiences.
Text: “Walking Away” by Cecil Day-Lewis
It is eighteen years ago, almost to the day – A sunny day with leaves just turning, The touch-lines new-ruled – since I watched you play Your first game of football, then, like a satellite Wrenched from its orbit, go drifting away
Behind a scatter of boys. I can see You walking away from me towards the school With the pathos of a half-fledged thing set free Into a wilderness, the gait of one Who finds no path where the path should be.
That hesitant figure, eddying away Like a winged seed loosened from its parent stem, Has something I never quite grasp to convey About nature’s give-and-take – the small, the scorching Ordeals which fire one’s irresolute clay.
I have had worse partings, but none that so Gnaws at my mind still. Perhaps it is roughly Saying what God alone could perfectly show – How selfhood begins with a walking away, And love is proved in the letting go.
Line-by-Line Annotations: “Walking Away” by Cecil Day-Lewis
Line
Explanation in Simple English
It is eighteen years ago, almost to the day –
The poet remembers an event that happened exactly 18 years ago.
A sunny day with leaves just turning,
It was a bright day, and the season was changing, symbolizing transition.
The touch-lines new-ruled – since I watched you play
The football field was freshly marked, and he watched his child play.
Your first game of football, then, like a satellite
His child was playing his first football game, an important milestone.
Wrenched from its orbit, go drifting away
The poet compares his child to a satellite that is pulled away from its path, symbolizing separation.
Behind a scatter of boys. I can see
The child moves away, blending into the group of other boys, showing independence.
You walking away from me towards the school
The poet sees his child moving away towards school, marking the transition to independence.
With the pathos of a half-fledged thing set free
The child is compared to a young bird that has just learned to fly but is not fully prepared.
Into a wilderness, the gait of one
The child is entering an unknown world, just like an inexperienced person stepping into life.
Who finds no path where the path should be.
The child is uncertain about where to go, symbolizing the struggles of growing up.
That hesitant figure, eddying away
The child is uncertain and drifts away slowly, showing hesitation.
Like a winged seed loosened from its parent stem,
The poet compares the child to a seed that has left the parent plant, symbolizing natural separation.
Has something I never quite grasp to convey
The poet struggles to express the deep emotions attached to this moment.
About nature’s give-and-take – the small, the scorching
Life is about gaining and losing; separation is necessary but painful.
Ordeals which fire one’s irresolute clay.
Challenges and hardships shape and strengthen a person’s character.
I have had worse partings, but none that so
The poet acknowledges that he has experienced greater losses, but this one still affects him deeply.
Gnaws at my mind still. Perhaps it is roughly
The memory still troubles him, showing how significant this moment is.
Saying what God alone could perfectly show –
The experience teaches a deep truth about life and love, something only God fully understands.
How selfhood begins with a walking away,
A person’s identity and independence start with separation from loved ones.
And love is proved in the letting go.
True love is not about holding on but allowing someone to grow and be free.
The repetition of the “aw” sound creates a lingering, melancholic tone.
Caesura
“I have had worse partings, but none that so / Gnaws at my mind still.”
A pause in the middle of a line mimics reflection and hesitation.
Contrast
“I have had worse partings, but none that so / Gnaws at my mind still.”
The contrast between past experiences and this parting highlights its emotional impact.
Direct Address
“I watched you play”
The poet speaks directly to his child, making the poem more personal and intimate.
Dissonance
“The small, the scorching / Ordeals which fire one’s irresolute clay.”
The harsh sounds of “scorching” and “ordeals” reflect emotional pain.
Emotive Language
“Gnaws at my mind still.”
Conveys deep emotional distress and longing.
End-stopping
“And love is proved in the letting go.”
A full stop at the end of the poem provides closure to the idea of parental love.
Enjambment
“Your first game of football, then, like a satellite / Wrenched from its orbit, go drifting away”
The continuation of a sentence across lines mimics the drifting movement of the child.
Euphemism
“Has something I never quite grasp to convey”
The poet avoids explicitly stating the pain of separation, making it more subtle.
Imagery
“A sunny day with leaves just turning”
Creates a vivid picture of the setting, reinforcing the theme of change.
Metaphor
“Like a satellite wrenched from its orbit”
The child is compared to a satellite being pulled away, symbolizing forced separation.
Paradox
“And love is proved in the letting go.”
Suggests that true love is demonstrated through separation, which seems contradictory.
Personification
“The small, the scorching / Ordeals which fire one’s irresolute clay.”
“Fire” is given human qualities to symbolize hardships shaping a person.
Repetition
“Walking away”
The phrase is repeated to reinforce the central theme of separation.
Symbolism
“Into a wilderness”
The “wilderness” represents the uncertainty and challenges of growing up.
Tone Shift
From “I have had worse partings” to “And love is proved in the letting go.”
The tone moves from regret to acceptance, showing personal growth.
Themes: “Walking Away” by Cecil Day-Lewis
Parental Love and Separation: One of the most prominent themes in “Walking Away” is the deep, unconditional love a parent has for their child and the painful necessity of separation. The poem reflects on a father’s emotions as he watches his son take his first independent steps away from him, marking a significant transition in their relationship. The father recalls a specific moment—his child playing football—which becomes symbolic of his son’s gradual detachment. The phrase “like a satellite / Wrenched from its orbit” highlights the abruptness and forcefulness of this separation, conveying the father’s emotional struggle. The poet acknowledges that while he has faced other painful partings, none have affected him as profoundly as this moment, stating, “I have had worse partings, but none that so / Gnaws at my mind still.” This suggests that parental love is deeply intertwined with the bittersweet experience of watching a child grow and become independent. The poem ultimately conveys the idea that love, at its core, involves letting go, even when it is difficult.
The Pain of Change and Growing Up: Day-Lewis explores the inevitable pain that comes with change, particularly in the context of growing up and gaining independence. The poet vividly describes his son as a “half-fledged thing set free / Into a wilderness,” comparing him to a young bird that is not yet fully ready to leave the nest. This metaphor captures the uncertainty and vulnerability of childhood transitions, where a child may not yet feel prepared to navigate the world alone. The father’s sadness is evident in his reflection on how this moment still “gnaws at [his] mind,” showing that, even years later, the pain of watching his son grow up remains fresh in his memory. The poem encapsulates the universal experience of parents witnessing their children mature and the emotional difficulty of accepting that they must face life’s challenges on their own. Through powerful imagery and emotive language, the poet conveys how growth is often accompanied by loss.
Nature as a Metaphor for Life and Growth
Nature is a recurring metaphor in the poem, used to illustrate the natural process of growth, separation, and self-discovery. The poet describes his child as “a winged seed loosened from its parent stem,” likening the act of growing up to a seed being carried away by the wind. This metaphor reinforces the idea that separation is an unavoidable and necessary part of life, just as seeds must leave the parent plant to grow into something new. The phrase “nature’s give-and-take” further emphasizes the balance of life, where holding on and letting go are equally essential. This natural imagery helps the reader understand that while the father’s experience is painful, it is also a fundamental part of life’s cycle. Just as nature ensures the survival of a species by allowing seeds to scatter and grow independently, so too must parents let their children go, trusting that they will find their own path.
Identity and Selfhood: The poem also explores how personal identity and selfhood develop through separation and independence. The final lines, “How selfhood begins with a walking away, / And love is proved in the letting go,” encapsulate this theme powerfully. The poet acknowledges that in order for a child to form their own identity, they must experience detachment from their parents. This is an essential part of life’s journey, where an individual must face challenges, make mistakes, and learn on their own to become truly independent. The phrase “who finds no path where the path should be” reflects the uncertainty of early independence, as the child must navigate life without clear direction. However, despite the difficulties, this process is necessary for growth and self-discovery. The poet ultimately suggests that true parental love is demonstrated through trust and the willingness to step back, allowing a child to become their own person.
Literary Theories and “Walking Away” by Cecil Day-Lewis
Literary Theory
Application to “Walking Away”
References from the Poem
Psychoanalytic Criticism (Freudian Analysis)
This theory examines the psychological struggles and emotions of the poet, particularly the subconscious impact of separation anxiety. The poem reveals the father’s internal conflict—his love for his child versus his fear of losing control. The father experiences emotional distress, shown through imagery of forced separation (“like a satellite / Wrenched from its orbit”), suggesting a deep-seated fear of abandonment. Freud’s concept of the Oedipal complex could also be explored, as the poem highlights the father’s difficulty in accepting his child’s growth into independence.
“Gnaws at my mind still”—shows that even after 18 years, the emotional pain lingers in the father’s subconscious.
This theory examines the poem’s use of binary opposites, such as attachment vs. separation, dependence vs. independence, and love vs. loss. These opposing forces create the emotional depth of the poem, illustrating that growth and separation are interconnected. The structure of the poem also reflects these tensions through enjambment, reinforcing the continuous nature of emotions. The final contrast between holding on and letting go encapsulates the poem’s deeper message.
“How selfhood begins with a walking away, / And love is proved in the letting go.”—illustrates the binary opposition of separation and love.
Marxist Criticism
A Marxist reading could interpret the poem as a reflection on social structures and the expectations of personal independence. The child is leaving behind the safety of the familial unit and entering the structured world of school, which could symbolize larger societal forces shaping individuals. The father’s struggle reflects a loss of authority, as his child must conform to external social systems beyond parental control. The reference to the football field (“The touch-lines new-ruled”) may symbolize society’s imposed boundaries and rules.
“Into a wilderness, the gait of one / Who finds no path where the path should be.”—suggests that despite structured systems like school, the journey to independence is still uncertain.
Reader-Response Criticism
This theory focuses on how different readers interpret the poem based on their own experiences. A parent reading the poem might strongly identify with the father’s pain, whereas a younger reader might relate to the child’s struggle for independence. The open-ended and universal nature of the poem allows for multiple interpretations based on personal perspectives. The metaphor of the “winged seed loosened from its parent stem” may resonate differently with readers, depending on their stage in life—some might see it as a necessary step toward growth, while others may feel the loss more deeply.
“The small, the scorching / Ordeals which fire one’s irresolute clay.”—readers may interpret this as either a painful loss or a necessary challenge for personal growth.
Critical Questions about “Walking Away” by Cecil Day-Lewis
How does Cecil Day-Lewis use imagery to convey the emotional impact of separation?
Imagery plays a crucial role in “Walking Away”, as it vividly captures the father’s emotional turmoil and the physical act of his child moving away. The poem opens with a nostalgic recollection of “a sunny day with leaves just turning,” which sets the scene for change and transition, symbolizing the shift from childhood to independence. The most striking imagery comes in the simile, “like a satellite / Wrenched from its orbit, go drifting away,” which suggests both violent detachment and an uncontrolled trajectory, emphasizing the father’s helplessness in the face of his child’s growth. The natural imagery continues with “Like a winged seed loosened from its parent stem,” reinforcing the inevitability of separation as a natural process. However, the choice of “loosened” rather than “freed” hints at the father’s reluctance to let go. Through these images, the poem conveys the emotional weight of watching a child transition into independence, making the separation feel both painful and inevitable.
How does the poem explore the theme of parental love and its complexities?
Day-Lewis presents parental love as both deeply affectionate and inherently painful. The speaker experiences a bittersweet realization that true love involves allowing a child to grow independently. The father acknowledges that although he has faced more difficult partings in life, “none that so / Gnaws at my mind still,” suggesting that the emotional struggle of watching his child become independent is a unique kind of pain. The phrase “selfhood begins with a walking away, / And love is proved in the letting go” reinforces the idea that love is not possessive but rather demonstrated through trust and sacrifice. The poem ultimately portrays parenthood as a journey filled with both joy and sorrow, where love requires the courage to release rather than to hold on tightly. This complexity is what makes “Walking Away” resonate deeply with parents and children alike, as it captures the universal experience of growing up and letting go.
What role does nature play in the poem, and how does it reflect the poem’s themes?
Nature is a dominant motif in “Walking Away”, used to symbolize the inevitable cycle of growth and separation. The reference to “leaves just turning” at the beginning of the poem signals a seasonal shift, mirroring the transition in the father-son relationship. The metaphor of the “winged seed loosened from its parent stem” suggests that the child’s journey toward independence is part of the natural order, much like a seed detaching from a plant to grow elsewhere. Similarly, the “small, the scorching / Ordeals which fire one’s irresolute clay” suggests that hardships and challenges are necessary for shaping one’s identity, just as fire hardens clay. These natural images reinforce the idea that separation, while painful, is essential for growth. The father’s initial resistance to this change contrasts with the broader natural message that independence is both necessary and inevitable.
How does the structure and tone of the poem enhance its meaning?
The structure of “Walking Away” mirrors the emotional journey of the speaker, moving from nostalgic recollection to painful realization and, finally, to acceptance. The poem consists of four five-line stanzas, maintaining a controlled form that reflects the father’s attempt to process his emotions rationally. However, the use of enjambment, such as “Your first game of football, then, like a satellite / Wrenched from its orbit, go drifting away,” creates a flowing, uninterrupted movement that mimics both the drifting of the child and the father’s unresolved feelings. The tone shifts from warm reminiscence in the first stanza to sorrowful contemplation in the middle, ultimately arriving at a resigned but wise acceptance: “And love is proved in the letting go.” This gradual shift in tone reflects the speaker’s emotional evolution—from resisting change to understanding that true love involves releasing control. The poem’s structure and tone work together to reinforce its message about the complexities of love and the inevitability of growth.
Literary Works Similar to “Walking Away” by Cecil Day-Lewis
“Follower” by Seamus Heaney – This poem explores the changing parent-child dynamic, where a son admires his father’s strength in youth but later sees him grow old and dependent, mirroring the themes of growing up and shifting roles in “Walking Away.”
“Eden Rock” by Charles Causley – This reflective poem also deals with separation, memory, and the longing for a past connection, much like how the father in “Walking Away” reminisces about a poignant moment of parting.
“Mother, Any Distance” by Simon Armitage – Similar to “Walking Away”, this poem examines the tension between parental attachment and the child’s inevitable need for independence, using metaphors to depict the emotional difficulty of letting go.
“Piano” by D. H. Lawrence– This poem explores themes of nostalgia, childhood memories, and the bittersweet pain of time passing, resonating with the father’s reflections in “Walking Away.”
“Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night” by Dylan Thomas – While primarily about loss, this poem shares thematic connections with “Walking Away”, particularly the struggle between holding on and accepting that separation is a natural and necessary part of life.
Representative Quotations of “Walking Away” by Cecil Day-Lewis
The father recalls a memory from nearly two decades ago, emphasizing the long-lasting impact of this moment.
Psychoanalytic Criticism – Highlights the deep emotional imprint of separation, showing how past experiences shape the subconscious.
“A sunny day with leaves just turning”
The poet sets the scene, using seasonal change as a metaphor for his child’s transition from dependency to independence.
Structuralism – The contrast between warmth (sunny day) and change (turning leaves) reflects the duality of parental love and separation.
“Like a satellite / Wrenched from its orbit, go drifting away”
The poet compares his child’s separation to a satellite being forcibly removed from its orbit, conveying a sense of painful detachment.
Reader-Response Criticism – Different readers may interpret this metaphor as either a traumatic loss or a necessary part of growth, depending on their personal experiences.
“You walking away from me towards the school”
The father watches his child walk toward a new stage in life, symbolizing independence and the beginning of selfhood.
Marxist Criticism – The child is moving away from the familial unit into an institutional structure (school), reflecting broader societal expectations.
“With the pathos of a half-fledged thing set free”
The child is compared to a young bird learning to fly, reinforcing the theme of vulnerability and uncertain independence.
Naturalism – Suggests that human experiences, like those in nature, involve struggle and adaptation, reinforcing the inevitability of change.
“Like a winged seed loosened from its parent stem”
The poet uses natural imagery to illustrate the inevitability of separation, emphasizing that it is part of life’s cycle.
Eco-criticism – Nature serves as a guiding force, reflecting organic processes of growth, detachment, and renewal.
“Has something I never quite grasp to convey”
The father struggles to fully articulate the deep emotions attached to this experience.
Deconstruction – Highlights the limitations of language in fully capturing complex human emotions, questioning whether words can ever truly express parental loss.
“The small, the scorching / Ordeals which fire one’s irresolute clay”
The poet acknowledges that challenges and struggles shape an individual’s character, just as fire hardens clay.
Existentialism – Suggests that personal identity is forged through experiences of suffering and separation, reinforcing self-discovery.
“I have had worse partings, but none that so / Gnaws at my mind still.”
The father acknowledges that while he has faced other painful separations, this moment of watching his child grow remains the most haunting.
Psychoanalytic Criticism – The persistent emotional impact suggests unresolved attachment and subconscious longing.
“How selfhood begins with a walking away, / And love is proved in the letting go.”
The final lines reflect the poem’s central message: true love means allowing independence, even when it is painful.
Humanism – Emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization, reinforcing the belief that love must be selfless and nurturing.
Suggested Readings: “Walking Away” by Cecil Day-Lewis
Lewis, CDay. “Walking away.” Nurture: the voice of the National Union of Associations for Christian Parent-controlled Schools 49.1 (2015): 7.
Flint, F. Cudworth. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, vol. 7, no. 3, 1949, pp. 260–62. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/426668. Accessed 8 Mar. 2025.
“Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida first appeared in an academic journal, discussing the profound impact of racial and cultural mixing on Brazilian literature and identity.
Introduction: “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida
“Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida first appeared in an academic journal, discussing the profound impact of racial and cultural mixing on Brazilian literature and identity. The article explores how Brazil’s colonial history, marked by the Portuguese settlers’ interactions with Indigenous and African populations, created a unique social structure where racial integration, while not erasing prejudice, shaped the nation’s cultural and artistic development. Gomes de Almeida traces the representation of mixed-race individuals in Brazilian literature, from the 17th-century poetry of Gregório de Matos, who both admired and resented the presence of mulattos in society, to the 19th-century Romanticism of José de Alencar, who mythologized racial mixing through idealized narratives of Indigenous-European unions. The article highlights how realism and modernism further refined these portrayals, particularly in the works of Machado de Assis, a mulatto writer who became Brazil’s most esteemed literary figure, and Jorge Amado, who celebrated Afro-Brazilian culture in novels like Tenda dos Milagres. Through an analysis of these literary movements, Gomes de Almeida underscores how racial integration in Brazil, unlike in other post-colonial societies, became a defining literary theme, challenging European racial hierarchies and offering a distinct vision of national identity. The article is significant in literary theory as it emphasizes how literature not only reflects historical realities but actively participates in shaping the discourse on race and national identity.
Summary of “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida
Historical Context of Racial Mixing in Brazil
Unlike English North America, Portuguese colonizers in Brazil arrived without families, leading to widespread intermixing with Indigenous and African women (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
This process created a racially mixed society, where the children of these unions often occupied an intermediate social space, forming an early working and artisan class (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
The mixed-race presence was reflected in early Brazilian art, such as the works of Aleijadinho (1738–1814) and Manuel da Costa Ataíde, who depicted a mulatto Virgin Mary in his paintings (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Early Literary Representations of Racial Mixing
In the 17th century, Gregório de Matos captured the paradoxical attitudes toward mixed-race people: while mulatto women were admired, mulatto men were satirized for competing with white elites (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
His poetry reflects both admiration for and anxiety about Brazil’s racial hybridity, illustrating an early awareness of race relations in the colony (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Romanticism and Indianist Myth-making
During the 19th century, José de Alencar idealized the fusion of Indigenous and European cultures in novels like O Guarani (1857) and Iracema (1865), presenting racial mixing as part of Brazil’s national identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
However, Africans were largely excluded from this nationalist myth due to the ongoing practice of slavery (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
In contrast, Bernardo Guimarães’ novel A Escrava Isaura (1875) depicted a nearly white mulatta as the heroine, demonstrating the reluctance to fully embrace blackness in literature (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Realist Literature and the Rise of Mixed-Race Intellectuals
The late 19th-century Realist movement addressed racial prejudice more directly, as seen in Aluísio Azevedo’sO Mulato (1881), which critiques the discrimination faced by educated mulattos (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Machado de Assis, Brazil’s greatest writer and a dark-skinned mulatto, overcame racial barriers to become the first president of the Brazilian Academy of Letters, proving the ability of mixed-race individuals to integrate into elite society (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Euclides da Cunha and the Racial Debate
In Os Sertões (1902), Euclides da Cunha initially adopted racial theories that condemned racial mixing but later acknowledged the resilience of mixed-race people in the backlands of Brazil (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
This shift highlights the growing recognition of mestiçagem (racial mixing) as a defining characteristic of Brazilian identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Modernism and the Cultural Celebration of Racial Mixing
The 1920s Modernist Movement embraced Brazil’s racial and cultural hybridity, as exemplified by Mário de Andrade’sMacunaíma (1928), which uses indigenous and African myths to define Brazilian identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Oswald de Andrade’s “Cannibalism” movement advocated for absorbing European influences while maintaining Brazil’s unique mixed heritage (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Jorge Amado and Afro-Brazilian Representation
Jorge Amado revolutionized Brazilian literature by centering Afro-Brazilian culture in novels like Jubiabá (1935) and Tenda dos Milagres (1969), which celebrated racial mixing as a national strength (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
His work marked a shift from seeing racial mixing as a social problem to viewing it as a source of cultural vitality (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Conclusion: Literature as a Reflection of Brazil’s Racial Identity
The long trajectory of Brazilian literature reflects evolving attitudes toward race, from early ambivalence to Romantic idealization, Realist critique, and Modernist celebration (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Writers like Alencar, Machado de Assis, Mário de Andrade, and Jorge Amado played key roles in shaping the discourse on racial integration, ultimately affirming mestiçagem as central to Brazilian identity (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida
Theoretical Term/Concept
Definition
Relevance in the Article
Mestiçagem (Racial Mixing)
The blending of different racial and ethnic groups into a single society.
Central to Brazilian identity and literature, shaping cultural and artistic expressions (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Indianism (Indianismo)
A literary movement that idealized Indigenous people as noble ancestors of Brazil.
Seen in José de Alencar’s O Guarani and Iracema, where Indigenous-European integration is celebrated (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Romantic Nationalism
The use of literature to construct a national identity based on myths and idealized histories.
Brazilian Romanticism elevated Indigenous figures while neglecting African contributions (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Social Hierarchy & Mulatto Identity
The positioning of mixed-race individuals within a social structure influenced by colonialism.
Figures like Gregório de Matos and Machado de Assis show the shifting roles of mulattos in Brazilian society (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Scientific Racism
19th-century pseudoscientific theories claiming racial hierarchies and white superiority.
Euclides da Cunha initially embraced but later questioned these ideas in Os Sertões (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Modernism & Cultural Cannibalism
The Modernist movement’s approach to absorbing and transforming European influences into a distinct Brazilian culture.
Oswald de Andrade’s “Cannibalism” movement advocated for the fusion of cultural elements (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Afro-Brazilian Cultural Recognition
The acknowledgment of African heritage in shaping Brazil’s culture and literature.
Jorge Amado’s works like Tenda dos Milagres celebrate the African influence on Brazilian society (Gomes de Almeida, 2015).
Challenges Eurocentric Narratives: Highlights how Brazilian literature diverges from the European colonial framework by incorporating racial and cultural mixing into national identity (Almeida, 2015).
Colonial Power and Racial Hierarchy: Shows how Portuguese colonization in Brazil fostered a different racial structure compared to other colonies, influencing literature (Casa Grande e Senzala, Gilberto Freyre) (Almeida, 2015).
Literary Responses to Colonization: Discusses how Brazilian literature reflects the nation’s struggle for identity post-independence, using Romantic Indianism and later Afro-Brazilian narratives (O Guarani, Iracema) (Almeida, 2015).
Hybridity as a National Identity: Examines how racial and cultural blending in literature is presented as Brazil’s defining characteristic (Macunaíma, Mário de Andrade) (Almeida, 2015).
Racial Mixing as a Literary Theme: Shows how literature moved from idealizing Indigenous-European mixing (Romanticism) to embracing full racial hybridity (Modernism) (Almeida, 2015).
Afro-Brazilian Contributions: Later novels, especially Tenda dos Milagres by Jorge Amado, fully recognize and celebrate Afro-Brazilian culture, contrasting earlier dismissals of Black heritage (Almeida, 2015).
3. Romantic Nationalism
Construction of National Identity: Brazilian Romantic literature idealized the Indigenous figure as a heroic symbol of the nation, while ignoring or marginalizing African influences (O Guarani, Iracema) (Almeida, 2015).
Nationalist Myth-Making: Romantic Indianism sought to establish a noble ancestry for Brazilians, aligning with the country’s independence movement (Almeida, 2015).
Literary Exclusion of Afro-Brazilians: Romanticism promoted Indigenous identity but rarely depicted Afro-Brazilians positively, as seen in A Escrava Isaura (Bernardo Guimarães), where the enslaved protagonist is a near-white mulatta (Almeida, 2015).
Literature as a Reflection of Racial Prejudice: O Mulato (Aluísio Azevedo, 1881) critiques systemic racism and the barriers faced by mixed-race individuals in Brazilian society (Almeida, 2015).
Race and Social Mobility: Shows how literature reflects the difficulty of racial integration, as seen in the marginalization of mixed-race intellectuals (Machado de Assis overcame this but faced obstacles) (Almeida, 2015).
Debunking Scientific Racism: Works like Os Sertões (Euclides da Cunha) reflect the transition from racial determinism to a more nuanced understanding of mixed-race identity (Almeida, 2015).
5. Modernist Literary Theory (Oswald de Andrade’s “Cannibalism”)
Cultural Cannibalism as Resistance: The Cannibal Manifesto (Oswald de Andrade) advocated for devouring European influences and transforming them into something uniquely Brazilian, a theme reflected in Macunaíma (Almeida, 2015).
Rejection of European Models: The Modernist movement, led by Mário de Andrade and Jorge Amado, sought to create a literary identity based on Brazil’s racial and cultural diversity rather than European ideals (Almeida, 2015).
Literary Representation of Afro-Brazilian Identity: Jubiabá and Tenda dos Milagres (Jorge Amado) shifted the focus to Afro-Brazilian cultural contributions, marking a break from past literary traditions (Almeida, 2015).
6. Realism and Naturalism
Race and Social Class in Realist Fiction: O Mulato (1881) is one of the first Brazilian novels to portray a mixed-race protagonist who struggles against societal racism, showing literature’s shift from Romantic idealism to Realist critique (Almeida, 2015).
Depiction of Racial Tensions: Os Sertões (1902) exposes the contradictions of racial theory in Brazil, illustrating the resilience of mixed-race communities despite the scientific racism of the time (Almeida, 2015).
Critique of Social Structures: Realist literature revealed how racial prejudice was deeply embedded in Brazilian society, even after slavery was abolished in 1888 (Almeida, 2015).
7. Afro-Brazilian Literary Criticism
Recognition of Afro-Brazilian Culture: Jorge Amado’s works (Tenda dos Milagres, Jubiabá) fully embrace Afro-Brazilian identity, celebrating its cultural influence on Brazil (Almeida, 2015).
Challenging Eurocentrism in Literature: Highlights how Afro-Brazilian cultural expressions, including music, religion, and folklore, became integral to literary narratives (Almeida, 2015).
Defending Racial Mixing as a Strength: Tenda dos Milagres argues that Brazil’s greatest cultural contribution to the world is its racial hybridity (Almeida, 2015).
Examples of Critiques Through “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida
Literary Work
Critique through “Literature and Racial Integration”
Key References from Almeida’s Work
Iracema (1865) by José de Alencar
The novel idealizes racial mixing through the romance between a Portuguese colonizer and an indigenous woman, symbolizing national integration. However, it largely omits African influence, focusing on the European-Indian fusion.
Almeida highlights that Indianist literature served nationalist purposes, but ignored the African role in Brazilian identity (Almeida, p. 75).
O Mulato (1881) by Aluísio Azevedo
This novel critiques racial prejudice, showing a well-educated mulatto protagonist unable to escape racial discrimination. It exposes the social barriers that persisted despite Brazil’s racial mixing.
Almeida recognizes the novel as the first to feature a mulatto protagonist, emphasizing how racial prejudice hindered social mobility (Almeida, p. 77).
Os Sertões (1902) by Euclides da Cunha
The book reflects positivist racial theories but contradicts them by admiring the resilience of mixed-race sertanejos. It reveals contradictions in 19th-century racial ideology.
Almeida notes that da Cunha’s portrayal of racial mixing evolved from racist theory to an acknowledgment of its strength (Almeida, p. 78-80).
Tenda dos Milagres (1969) by Jorge Amado
This novel celebrates Afro-Brazilian culture and racial integration, challenging European-centric intellectualism and racism. It portrays mixed-race identity as central to Brazilian identity.
Almeida considers this work a turning point, as it fully embraces racial mixing and Afro-Brazilian culture as integral to Brazil’s literary and social identity (Almeida, p. 82-83).
Criticism Against “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida
Overemphasis on Racial Harmony
Almeida portrays racial integration as a defining and largely positive aspect of Brazilian history but overlooks the deep and persistent racial inequalities that continue to exist.
The text sometimes minimizes the structural racism that shaped (and still shapes) Brazilian society, particularly in terms of economic and social mobility.
Limited Engagement with Postcolonial Theory
While Almeida discusses colonial racial mixing, he does not engage deeply with postcolonial critiques that address power imbalances and the lasting impact of European dominance.
The work does not fully explore how literature reflects colonial hegemonic ideologies, nor how Afro-Brazilian and Indigenous voices have been historically marginalized in literary traditions.
Romanticization of Racial Mixing
Almeida follows Gilberto Freyre’s notion of lusotropicalism, which idealizes Portuguese colonialism as more benevolent and open to racial mixing compared to other colonial powers.
Critics argue that this perspective downplays the violence, exploitation, and systemic oppression experienced by Afro-Brazilians and Indigenous peoples.
Neglect of Black Literary Voices
The text gives more weight to mixed-race and indigenous representation in literature while offering limited focus on Black-authored literary works that directly challenge racism.
Writers like Lima Barreto and Cruz e Souza, who explicitly dealt with racial identity and injustice, receive relatively less attention compared to Romantic and Modernist authors.
Essentialist Approach to Brazilian Identity
The work presents Brazilian identity as inherently mixed-race (mestiçagem), but this framing can obscure the ongoing racial stratification in Brazilian society.
The concept of a “unified Brazilian race” can be problematic, as it ignores the continued social exclusion of Afro-Brazilians and Indigenous communities.
Lack of Feminist and Gender Analysis
While discussing racial integration, the book does not critically analyze the role of gender, particularly how interracial relationships were often the result of colonial sexual violence.
The portrayal of Indigenous and Black women in literature is not sufficiently scrutinized in terms of how they were exoticized and objectified by white and male authors.
Absence of a Comparative Global Perspective
The book largely focuses on Brazil’s racial integration in isolation, without comparing it to similar processes in other former colonies such as the Caribbean or Latin America.
A broader comparative analysis could strengthen the argument by showing how Brazil’s experience fits into wider postcolonial and racial discourse.
Representative Quotations from “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida with Explanation
“Brazil tended to accept racial mixing as a de facto reality.”
This statement highlights how racial mixing was an inherent part of Brazilian colonial history due to Portuguese settlers’ interactions with Indigenous and African populations. It sets the stage for Almeida’s argument about Brazil’s unique racial integration compared to other colonial nations.
“Although this historical circumstance did not eliminate racial prejudice, it made a strict policy of discrimination… totally impractical.”
Almeida acknowledges that racial mixing did not eradicate racism but argues that Brazilian society could not sustain segregationist policies like those in the United States. This reflects the argument that Brazil’s racial structure was distinct, yet still marked by prejudice.
“The noteworthy fact is that mulatto features are not restricted to the Virgin but invade the whole composition.”
This refers to Manuel da Costa Ataíde’s painting of the Assumption, where the Virgin and angels are depicted with mixed-race features. It symbolizes the deep racial integration in Brazil’s artistic and cultural expression.
“Among the non-European peoples who contributed to the historical formation of Brazil—Amerindians and Africans—it was the Indians who first came to the fore in the Romantic imagination.”
Almeida critiques how Romanticism in Brazilian literature idealized Indigenous peoples while marginalizing Africans, reflecting nationalistic myth-making rather than an authentic portrayal of racial integration.
“The African is not linked to the genesis of the Brazilian, not even in the lyrical and idealized form that Alencar applies to the Indian.”
This highlights a gap in Brazilian literary history, where African heritage was often excluded from national identity-building efforts in literature, unlike Indigenous heritage.
“A mulatto appears for the first time as a novel’s central character in the work that opens the realist period of Brazilian literature; in fact, its title is O Mulato (1881).”
Almeida points out that racial themes gained more direct attention in Realist literature, shifting from the symbolic Romantic portrayals of racial mixing to addressing social barriers against mixed-race individuals.
“If Brazil has contributed something important to the enrichment of world culture, it is because of ethnic intermingling—this is the sign of our presence in the legacy of humanism.”
This reflects Almeida’s central thesis that Brazil’s most defining cultural contribution is racial and cultural mixing, which he sees as a positive force in shaping national identity.
“In Macunaíma the issue of racial mixing is extrapolated from the limited domain of social or sociological mimetism to embrace, on a symbolic level, the whole of Brazilian reality.”
Almeida discusses Mário de Andrade’s Macunaíma, emphasizing how Modernist literature fully integrated racial and cultural mixing into its representation of Brazilian identity.
“Pedro Archanjo, the reverse of Argolo, represents moral resistance to racism and as such is the spokesman for some of the ideas that are dearest to the author’s heart.”
Almeida highlights how Jorge Amado’s Tenda dos Milagres directly challenges racist ideologies by presenting a protagonist who embraces and defends Afro-Brazilian culture.
“Today in Brazil, considered as a whole, this experience has been considerably extended and the original elements of the mix… have been joined by others: Italians, Germans, Arabs, Japanese, and many more.”
The final argument in Almeida’s work acknowledges that Brazilian racial integration has continued beyond its colonial roots, incorporating a wide range of immigrant influences.
Suggested Readings: “Literature and Racial Integration” by José Mauricio Gomes de Almeida
Mauricio Gomes de Almeida, José. “Literature and Racial Integration.” Diogenes 48.191 (2000): 72-83.
Goff, Brian L., et al. “Racial Integration as an Innovation: Empirical Evidence from Sports Leagues.” The American Economic Review, vol. 92, no. 1, 2002, pp. 16–26. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/3083319. Accessed 15 Mar. 2025.
Jefferson, Ruth Bryant. “Some Obstacles to Racial Integration.” The Journal of Negro Education, vol. 26, no. 2, 1957, pp. 145–54. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2293340. Accessed 15 Mar. 2025.
“The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan first appeared in the 1650 collection Silex Scintillans, a devotional poetry book reflecting Vaughan’s deep spiritual and metaphysical concerns.
Introduction: “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan
“The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan first appeared in the 1650 collection Silex Scintillans, a devotional poetry book reflecting Vaughan’s deep spiritual and metaphysical concerns. The poem explores themes of Christ’s humble birth, the paradox of divine majesty and earthly suffering, and the hope for spiritual enlightenment. Vaughan contrasts the grandeur expected of the Messiah with the stark reality of Jesus’ birth in a stable, highlighting the world’s rejection of its Savior: “A stable was Thy Court, and when / Men turn’d to beasts, beasts would be men.” The poem also draws attention to the burdens of Christ’s journey, both literal and symbolic, emphasizing that from the moment of His birth, He was destined for hardship: “He travels to be born, and then / Is born to travel more again.” Vaughan’s striking imagery, rich biblical allusions, and reflective tone make “The Nativity” a popular textbook poem, as it encapsulates key Christian theological concepts while demonstrating the lyrical depth of metaphysical poetry. The final plea for divine illumination, “Lord! grant some light to us, that we / May with them find the way to Thee!”, reinforces the poem’s enduring relevance as a meditation on faith, grace, and salvation.
Clothing represents wealth and comfort, which Jesus lacked.
Themes: “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan
Divine Humility and Christ’s Lowly Birth: “The Nativity” highlights the stark contrast between Christ’s divine status and His humble birth in a stable. Vaughan emphasizes this paradox through lines such as “A stable was Thy Court” and “And their poor manger was Thy throne”, illustrating how Jesus, the King of Kings, was born in the most modest of circumstances. The poet underscores the idea that while earthly rulers are surrounded by luxury, Christ, who possesses the power to turn His “rays to gold”, chooses simplicity and suffering. This theme reinforces the Christian belief in humility as a virtue and presents Christ’s birth as an act of divine condescension—where God takes on human form in the most unassuming way to bring salvation to mankind.
Suffering and Sacrifice: “The Nativity” presents Jesus’ birth not just as a joyous event but as the beginning of a life filled with suffering and sacrifice. Vaughan writes, “He travels to be born, and then / Is born to travel more again”, portraying Christ’s earthly journey as one of ceaseless hardship. The line “Thy grief exceeds all copies still” emphasizes that no suffering in the world can compare to His. Through these verses, the poem aligns with Christian theology, which views Jesus’ life as a sacrificial mission, culminating in His crucifixion. Vaughan presents Christ’s suffering as a necessary condition for human redemption, reinforcing the idea that salvation comes through trials and tribulations.
The Contrast Between Earthly and Heavenly Realities: “The Nativity” explores the contrast between the transient struggles of earthly existence and the eternal rewards of heaven. Vaughan draws attention to how Christ was “not welcomed here” but ultimately “didst provide us mansions there”, suggesting that while the world may reject divine truth, heaven holds a place for the faithful. This contrast is further highlighted in the poet’s plea, “Lord! grant some light to us, that we / May with them find the way to Thee!”, indicating that divine guidance is needed to navigate the darkness of the world. The theme suggests that while earthly life is filled with suffering and uncertainty, faith leads to an eternal, divine home.
Light as a Symbol of Divine Revelation: “The Nativity” frequently employs imagery of light and darkness to symbolize divine revelation and human ignorance. The poet describes the guiding star as “Thy star runs page, and brings / Thy tributary Eastern kings”, illustrating how celestial light leads the wise to Christ. However, Vaughan also laments the spiritual darkness of the world, writing, “Behold what mists eclipse the day! / How dark it is! Shed down one ray”, underscoring the need for divine illumination. The final plea, “And say once more, ‘Let there be light,'” echoes the Genesis creation narrative, reinforcing the idea that Christ’s birth is a moment of new spiritual awakening, dispelling ignorance and bringing salvation.
Literary Theories and “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan
New Historicism examines the poem in its 17th-century context, considering Vaughan’s religious background and England’s political turmoil. The poem reflects the Puritan-Cavalier conflict and the shifting role of Christianity. The line “The Church thrive in her misery” suggests a historical awareness of religious persecution and the endurance of faith.
Christian Allegory
The poem functions as a Christian allegory, where Christ’s birth represents humility, suffering, and ultimate salvation. The contrast in “A stable was Thy Court” shows how Vaughan presents Jesus as the divine king whose suffering and earthly rejection lead to eternal redemption.
Symbolism and Imagery Theory
Through Symbolism and Imagery Theory, the poem’s use of light and darkness is a key element. Vaughan describes divine revelation as “Behold what mists eclipse the day!” and concludes with “Let there be light,” reinforcing light as a symbol of spiritual truth and guidance.
Metaphysical Poetic Analysis
Metaphysical Poetic Analysis focuses on Vaughan’s use of paradox, conceits, and religious meditation. The paradox in “He travels to be born, and then / Is born to travel more again” reflects metaphysical themes of divine mystery, emphasizing Christ’s eternal journey between heaven and earth.
Critical Questions about “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan
How does “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan depict the paradox of Christ’s divinity and humility?
In “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan, the poet presents Christ as both a divine figure and a humble servant, creating a powerful paradox. The poem juxtaposes images of royal power with those of extreme humility, as seen in the line “A stable was Thy Court”, which contrasts the grandeur of a king’s court with the simplicity of a stable. Vaughan further highlights this paradox by showing that while Jesus had the power to “turn Thy rays to gold”, He was instead born into poverty, wrapped not in fine cloth but in “no swaddling silks”. This question invites a deeper exploration of how Vaughan’s portrayal of Christ’s birth aligns with Christian theology and the broader metaphysical tradition, which often grapples with the coexistence of the earthly and the divine.
What role does light and darkness play in “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan, and how does it reflect spiritual enlightenment? Throughout “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan, the poet employs imagery of light and darkness to symbolize spiritual revelation and ignorance. The night of Christ’s birth is described as a moment of divine illumination, as seen in “But stay: what light is that doth stream / And drop here in a gilded beam?”, referring to the star guiding the Magi. However, Vaughan also presents the world as being in darkness, lamenting, “Behold what mists eclipse the day! / How dark it is! Shed down one ray.” This contrast raises a critical question: does Vaughan view Christ’s birth as a moment of universal enlightenment, or does he suggest that humanity still struggles with spiritual blindness? Analyzing the interplay of light and dark in the poem can offer insights into Vaughan’s theological vision and his perspective on divine grace.
How does “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan use religious symbolism to critique human society? “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan does more than celebrate Christ’s birth; it also critiques the world’s moral and spiritual failings. The poem suggests that while animals recognize Christ’s divinity—“Men turn’d to beasts, beasts would be men”—humanity fails to acknowledge Him. This reversal of roles implies that men have lost their moral superiority, while animals, through their humility, act more righteously. Additionally, the reference to taxation—“And not deliver’d till she pay. A tax? ’tis so still!”—criticizes the societal structures that burden even the most sacred moments of life. This question encourages an analysis of how Vaughan uses biblical imagery to reflect on human corruption and the failure of society to embrace true divinity.
What is the significance of Vaughan’s plea for divine guidance in “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan? In the closing lines of “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan, the poet makes a direct plea for divine intervention, asking for spiritual guidance: “Lord! grant some light to us, that we / May with them find the way to Thee!” This request raises the question of whether Vaughan sees Christ’s birth as sufficient for humanity’s salvation or if continued divine assistance is needed. The poet’s reference to the star that led the wise men—“It is Thy star runs page, and brings / Thy tributary Eastern kings”—suggests that without such guidance, people remain lost in spiritual darkness. This question invites a discussion on Vaughan’s perspective on faith: does he believe that divine revelation alone is enough, or must individuals actively seek the light of Christ in their lives?
Literary Works Similar to “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan
“On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity” by John Milton Like “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan, this poem celebrates the birth of Christ, using rich imagery and divine symbolism to contrast Christ’s humility with His heavenly glory.
“A Hymn on the Nativity” by Ben Jonson This poem, similar to “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan, reflects on the spiritual significance of Christ’s birth, emphasizing themes of divine light and redemption.
“Christmas” by George Herbert Much like “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan, Herbert’s poem explores the paradox of Christ’s lowly birth and His divine majesty, blending religious devotion with lyrical beauty.
“Upon Christ His Birth” by Richard Crashaw Similar to “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan, this poem employs metaphysical conceits and intense religious imagery to depict the incarnation of Christ as a moment of divine intervention.
Representative Quotations of “The Nativity” by Henry Vaughan
Matar, Nabil I. “George Herbert, Henry Vaughan, and the Conversion of the Jews.” Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 30, no. 1, 1990, pp. 79–92. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/450685. Accessed 12 Mar. 2025.
“Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh first appeared in The Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology in 2013.
Introduction: “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh
“Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh first appeared in The Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology in 2013. In this article, Frosh critically examines the entanglements between psychoanalysis and colonialism, emphasizing how psychoanalytic theory has historically been shaped by colonialist ideology and racist assumptions. He highlights Freud’s conception of the “primitive” or “savage” mind as a foundational problem, arguing that this terminology perpetuates a Eurocentric developmental hierarchy that aligns with colonialist thought (Frosh, 2013, p. 142). At the same time, Frosh acknowledges the potential of psychoanalysis to critique and dismantle colonialist discourse, particularly through its exploration of the “colonizing gaze” and the “racist imaginary.” He draws on Fanon’s (1952) seminal work, Black Skin, White Masks, to illustrate how psychoanalysis can be applied to postcolonial psychology, especially in understanding how racialized subjects internalize colonial oppression (p. 146). Frosh also discusses the tension between psychoanalysis as a tool of resistance and its historical complicity in reinforcing racial hierarchies, pointing out how its individualistic framework often neglects sociohistorical realities (p. 141). The article has gained popularity due to its critical engagement with both psychoanalysis and postcolonial theory, making a compelling case for their mutual relevance while also exposing the ideological blind spots within psychoanalytic thought. By incorporating perspectives from theorists such as Edward Said, Jacques Lacan, and Slavoj Žižek, Frosh’s work remains a significant contribution to contemporary debates on race, colonialism, and psychology (p. 152).
Summary of “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh
1. Postcolonial Ambivalence Toward Psychoanalysis
Postcolonial theory has had an uneasy relationship with psychoanalysis due to its individualistic focus and its neglect of sociohistorical concerns (Frosh, 2013, p. 141).
Despite its critical tools, psychoanalysis has historically drawn from colonialist ideology, particularly in Freud’s notion of the “primitive mind” (Frosh, 2013, p. 141).
However, psychoanalysis challenges linear developmental assumptions, acknowledging that all subjects harbor elements of primitivity, disrupting the civilized/primitive binary (Frosh, 2013, p. 141).
2. The Colonial Foundations of Psychoanalysis
Freud’s work reinforced colonialist ideas by categorizing “savage” and “civilized” mentalities (Frosh, 2013, p. 143).
In Totem and Taboo, Freud equates the mental lives of “savages” with neurotics, implying a developmental hierarchy (Frosh, 2013, p. 143).
Freud writes, “There are men still living who, as we believe, stand very near to primitive man, far nearer than we do” (Freud, 1913, p. 1, as cited in Frosh, 2013, p. 143).
Freud linked “savages” to children, portraying them as emotionally underdeveloped (Frosh, 2013, p. 144).
The savage/civilized distinction is not just developmental—it racializes inferiority, making it a tool of colonial justification (Frosh, 2013, p. 144).
3. The Racist Gaze and the Colonized Subject
Drawing from Fanon’s Black Skin, White Masks, Frosh discusses the alienating impact of the white gaze on Black subjects (Frosh, 2013, p. 146).
Fanon describes his experience of being reduced to an object:
“I found that I was an object in the midst of other objects” (Fanon, 1952, p. 109, as cited in Frosh, 2013, p. 146).
The white child’s reaction—fear and fascination—reinforces the racialized alienation of the Black subject (Frosh, 2013, p. 146).
Fanon employs Lacan’s mirror stage to show that the Black subject’s reflection is distorted by colonial stereotypes, creating double alienation (Frosh, 2013, p. 147).
Psychoanalysis carries embedded colonial biases, even when used in progressive critical theory (Frosh, 2013, p. 144).
Celia Brickman (2003) argues that Freud’s “universalizing reconfigurations” displaced European antisemitism onto “primitives,” women, and homosexuals (Frosh, 2013, p. 145).
Freud’s binary of rational/civilized vs. irrational/primitive mirrors the colonial justification of dominance (Frosh, 2013, p. 145).
Even in modern psychoanalysis, terms like “primitive fantasies” unconsciously reproduce colonial assumptions (Frosh, 2013, p. 146).
5. The Racist Imaginary: Projection and Fantasy
Psychoanalysis helps explain the excessive nature of racist ideology—its passionate hatred beyond rational justification (Frosh, 2013, p. 148).
Adorno et al. (1950) theorized that racism stems from authoritarian family structures, creating personalities that externalize fear onto scapegoats (Frosh, 2013, p. 148).
Racism is not just mistaken belief—it is a psychically charged structure, maintained by projection and paranoia (Frosh, 2013, p. 148).
Fanon (1952) showed how colonialism constructs Blackness as hypersexual, aggressive, and inferior, making Black bodies the repository for White anxieties (Frosh, 2013, p. 149).
“The White man projects his repressed sexuality onto the Black, constructing him in fantasy as a sexual paragon and an object for his homosexual desire” (Fanon, 1952, p. 170, as cited in Frosh, 2013, p. 149).
6. Psychoanalysis, Colonial Enjoyment, and Excess
Žižek (1993) describes the racist fantasy of the “stolen enjoyment”—the idea that the Other possesses what the White subject lacks (Frosh, 2013, p. 151).
Racism is fueled by the obsession with the “excessive” enjoyment of others—whether in music, food, or sexuality (Frosh, 2013, p. 151).
“The White subject needs the Black to define itself; and it desires the Black as the repository of those necessary things—above all, sexuality—which it has repudiated” (Frosh, 2013, p. 150).
The racist subject, believing they have lost something (power, morality, racial purity), projects their perceived lack onto the Other (Frosh, 2013, p. 151).
7. Psychoanalysis as a Tool for Postcolonial Theory
Despite its colonial legacy, psychoanalysis offers critical tools for postcolonial analysis (Frosh, 2013, p. 152).
It reveals how colonialism psychologically conditions both colonizer and colonized, embedding racism within the unconscious (Frosh, 2013, p. 152).
Said (2003) used Freud’s Moses and Monotheism to argue that identity is always fractured, and European identity is haunted by its colonial other (Frosh, 2013, p. 150).
Psychoanalysis helps explain why racism persists—not just as a political structure but as a psychic investment in domination (Frosh, 2013, p. 153).
Frosh warns that psychoanalysis itself must be decolonized before it can fully contribute to anti-racist discourse (Frosh, 2013, p. 153).
Conclusion
Psychoanalysis has a problematic colonial legacy, reinforcing hierarchies of race and civilization (Frosh, 2013, p. 154).
However, it also offers powerful insights into the psychological mechanisms of racism, such as projection, alienation, and fantasy (Frosh, 2013, p. 154).
Postcolonial thinkers like Fanon, Said, and Žižek have used psychoanalysis to unmask the racist imaginary and colonial trauma (Frosh, 2013, p. 154).
The challenge remains to use psychoanalysis as a critical tool without reproducing its colonial assumptions (Frosh, 2013, p. 154).
References (as cited in Frosh, 2013)
Fanon, F. (1952). Black Skin, White Masks.
Freud, S. (1913). Totem and Taboo.
Freud, S. (1927). The Future of an Illusion.
Freud, S. (1939). Moses and Monotheism.
Said, E. (2003). Freud and the Non-European.
Žižek, S. (1993). Tarrying with the Negative.
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh
Term/Concept
Definition/Explanation
Reference in Frosh (2013)
Colonialist Ideology in Psychoanalysis
The way psychoanalytic theory, especially Freud’s, incorporates colonial and racial assumptions about “primitive” vs. “civilized” mentalities.
p. 141-144
Primitive Mind/Savage Mind
Freud’s notion that “primitive” societies and children share irrational, undeveloped ways of thinking, reinforcing colonial hierarchies.
p. 143
Colonizing Gaze
The way in which colonial subjects are looked at as objects rather than subjects, particularly in Fanon’s experience of the “white gaze.”
p. 146
Racist Imaginary
The unconscious projections and fantasies that sustain racism, rooted in paranoia, desire, and disavowal.
p. 148
Projection
A defense mechanism where undesirable qualities in the self are attributed to the racialized other, reinforcing prejudice.
A condition where the subject is distanced from their own identity due to the external gaze and colonial oppression, as discussed in Fanon’s work.
p. 146-147
Mirror Stage (Lacanian Theory)
A psychoanalytic concept describing the formation of the ego through identification with an external image; Fanon critiques how this is racialized in colonialism.
p. 147
Epidermalization
Fanon’s idea that colonial oppression inscribes racial inferiority onto the skin, making race a lived bodily experience.
p. 149
Unconscious Desire and Racism
The psychoanalytic view that racism is fueled by unconscious desires, particularly projections of repressed sexual and aggressive impulses.
Žižek’s idea that racism is fueled by the belief that the racialized Other enjoys life in an excessive way that threatens the dominant group.
p. 151
Melancholia and Postcolonial Identity
The grief or loss experienced in postcolonial societies due to historical trauma and the erasure of indigenous identity.
p. 150
Psychic Investment in Racism
The idea that racism is not just a political or social issue but a deep psychological investment in preserving power structures.
p. 153
Splitting
A psychological defense where the world is divided into good and bad, reinforcing racial binaries (e.g., civilized vs. primitive).
p. 148-149
Paranoia and the Racial Other
The racist subject experiences the Other as a threat to identity and projects fears onto them, as seen in Adorno’s work on authoritarian personalities.
p. 148
Psychoanalysis as a Colonial Tool
The idea that psychoanalysis has historically aligned with colonialist discourse, reinforcing racial and civilizational hierarchies.
p. 144-145
Psychoanalysis as a Subversive Tool
Despite its colonial entanglements, psychoanalysis provides critical tools to deconstruct racism and colonial power.
p. 152-153
Contribution of “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh to Literary Theory/Theories
1. Postcolonial Theory
Critique of the “Colonizing Gaze”:
Frosh builds on Frantz Fanon’s analysis of colonial alienation, explaining how psychoanalysis can uncover the deep psychological damage caused by colonialism.
Example: Fanon’s description of being objectified by the white gaze (Fanon, 1952) is re-examined through Lacanian psychoanalysis.
“The Black subject, subjected to the racist gaze, sees itself in the White mirror that removes the possibility of self-assertion and mastery and instead creates further fragmentation.” (p. 146)
Epidermalization and the Inscription of Race on the Body:
Frosh applies Fanon’s notion that race is not just a social construct but a felt bodily experience ingrained in psychoanalysis.
“Colonial power is built on this capacity of the colonizer to remove the source of subjecthood from the colonized; and this power is reflected and institutionalized continuously by the gaze.” (p. 149)
Psychoanalysis as a Tool for Decolonization:
Despite its colonial entanglements, psychoanalysis can deconstruct colonial narratives in literature by exposing unconscious racial biases.
“Psychoanalysis also influences contemporary postcolonial theory… offering a vocabulary and set of conceptual tools for articulating the subtle manner in which sociocultural processes construct, and are in turn supported by, psychic configurations.” (p. 150)
2. Psychoanalytic Criticism
Reevaluation of Freud’s “Primitive Mind” in Literary Analysis:
Frosh critiques Freud’s developmental model, which equates non-European cultures with childhood, reinforcing colonialist hierarchies.
“Freud’s postulation of the ‘primitive’ or ‘savage’ mind, which still infects psychoanalytic thinking, is a prime example here.” (p. 143)
The Role of the Unconscious in Racialized Fantasies:
Psychoanalysis can help decode how literary texts encode racist fantasies and fears, as seen in colonial-era literature (e.g., Heart of Darkness).
“Racist persecution of the Black is therefore fuelled by sexual hatred, something evidenced by lynchings throughout history.” (p. 150)
Projection and the Racial Other:
Freudian projection explains how racist characters in literature project their disavowed fears, desires, and anxieties onto racialized figures.
“The racist subject will both be drawn to and repelled by the object of hatred, and in spite of all evidence to the contrary, will hold a genuine conviction that its very existence is threatening.” (p. 148)
Racism as a Psychological Structure, Not Just a Social One:
Frosh aligns with CRT scholars (e.g., Derrick Bell) in asserting that racism is not just a structural issue but deeply embedded in psychic and cultural discourse.
“Racial categories are particularly useful repositories for such anti- or pseudo-thinking, not just because they are socially valorized for political purposes (such as colonialism and economic exploitation), but because they are fundamentally ’empty’ categories.” (p. 149)
The “Racist Imaginary” and Stereotyping in Literature:
Literature perpetuates stereotypes of the Other by encoding unconscious racial fears (e.g., the savage, hypersexual Black man in colonial fiction).
“Psychoanalysis provides a vocabulary that facilitates discussion of what might be called the excessive dimension of racist discourse.” (p. 148)
The Function of “Enjoyment” (Jouissance) in Racist Representations:
Žižek’s concept of enjoyment (jouissance) helps explain the contradictory portrayal of racialized figures as both feared and desired.
“Whiteness, supported by an ideology of ‘purity’ and a disavowal of sexuality, needs the Black ‘other’ as a repository of its own discontent.” (p. 151)
4. Cultural Studies and Ideology Critique
Colonialism and the Production of Knowledge:
Psychoanalysis has historically reinforced colonialist thought through its Eurocentric assumptions, which Cultural Studies scholars challenge.
“Freud deployed the idea that the thinking of what he called ‘savages’ was not only contrasted to ‘civilized’ mentality, but also revealed the origins of mental life both for the culture as a whole.” (p. 143)
Psychoanalysis as a Counter-Ideological Tool:
By exposing how racial hierarchies are naturalized in psychoanalytic discourse, Frosh highlights how literary texts can be read critically against their own ideological assumptions.
“Even though psychoanalysis has frequently aligned itself with colonialist tendencies, it also offers tools to deconstruct the categories that support them.” (p. 152)
Fanon’s “Double Alienation” and Identity Formation in Literature:
Frosh revisits Fanon’s double alienation to explain how colonial and postcolonial literature often depicts racialized subjects caught between two worlds (e.g., hybridity in postcolonial literature).
“The Lacanian subject looks in the mirror and sees its image reflected back to it… The Black subject, however, sees an image of the White’s gaze that fixes them in place.” (p. 147)
Conclusion: Theoretical Legacy in Literary Studies
Frosh’s work enhances literary theory by:
Deepening Postcolonial Criticism through psychoanalysis, particularly Fanon’s theories.
Challenging Eurocentric Psychoanalysis by revealing its racial biases.
Applying Critical Race Theory to Literature, showing how race is a psychological and ideological construct.
Providing a framework for interpreting racial alienation in postcolonial fiction, film, and cultural narratives.
Examples of Critiques Through “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh
Literary Work
Critique through Frosh’s Framework
Joseph Conrad – Heart of Darkness
– Examines how colonialist ideology is embedded in language and psychology. – Freud’s notion of the “primitive” and “savage” mind aligns with how Africa is portrayed as the irrational “other” (Frosh, 2013, p. 142). – The “colonial gaze” reduces the native population to objects rather than subjects (Frosh, 2013, p. 146).
Charlotte Brontë – Jane Eyre
– The character of Bertha Mason can be analyzed through the “racist imaginary” (Frosh, 2013, p. 148). – Bertha is depicted as an embodiment of the “irrational” and “primitive” mind, reinforcing colonialist anxieties (Frosh, 2013, p. 149). – Rochester’s treatment of Bertha parallels the colonial drive to dominate the “other” (Frosh, 2013, p. 152).
Frantz Fanon – Black Skin, White Masks
– Fanon’s use of psychoanalysis to explain racial alienation aligns with Frosh’s argument on how colonialism psychologically constructs subjectivity (Frosh, 2013, p. 145). – The “epidermalization” of Black identity (Frosh, 2013, p. 147) explains the internalization of colonial discourse by the colonized. – The “White gaze” in Fanon’s work reflects the psychoanalytic idea of the “mirror stage” where the Black subject is forced into an alienated identity (Frosh, 2013, p. 146).
Jean Rhys – Wide Sargasso Sea
– A postcolonial reimagining of Jane Eyre, it challenges the psychoanalytic assumption of the “civilized” vs. “primitive” binary (Frosh, 2013, p. 150). – The narrative gives voice to the colonized subject, disrupting the colonizing gaze (Frosh, 2013, p. 151). – Explores the psychological trauma of colonial displacement and racialization, in line with Frosh’s critique of colonialist psychology (Frosh, 2013, p. 153).
Criticism Against “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh
Overgeneralization of Psychoanalysis’ Role in Colonialism
Frosh argues that psychoanalysis is deeply implicated in colonialist ideology, but some critics suggest he overgeneralizes Freud’s theories without considering their progressive potential.
Freud’s universalization of the unconscious could be seen as a critique of colonial binaries rather than a reinforcement (Freud, Totem and Taboo).
Limited Engagement with Contemporary Psychoanalytic Theories
While Frosh critiques classical psychoanalysis, he does not fully engage with modern revisions of psychoanalysis that challenge its colonialist past.
Postcolonial psychoanalysts, such as Homi Bhabha and Achille Mbembe, have reformulated psychoanalytic theories to resist colonial narratives, which Frosh does not explore in depth.
Potential Overemphasis on the “Racist Imaginary”
The concept of the racist imaginary (Frosh, 2013, p. 148) suggests that racism is largely the result of psychological projection, but critics argue that this perspective risks downplaying the material and structural dimensions of racism.
Social, economic, and political factors contribute significantly to colonial racism, beyond just unconscious psychological dynamics.
Binary View of Psychoanalysis as Both Oppressive and Subversive
Frosh simultaneously critiques psychoanalysis for its colonialist underpinnings while also claiming it can be subversive and critical.
Some critics argue this dual stance lacks clarity: Is psychoanalysis inherently colonial, or can it be fully repurposed for postcolonial critique?
Neglect of Alternative Psychological Frameworks
The article focuses on psychoanalysis as the primary psychological framework for analyzing colonialism, but other approaches such as cognitive psychology or indigenous psychology are largely ignored.
Alternative psychological perspectives could provide more nuanced insights into colonial trauma and resistance.
Underrepresentation of Non-Western Psychoanalytic Thought
Frosh’s discussion centers primarily on European psychoanalysts (Freud, Lacan, Žižek), while non-Western contributions to psychoanalytic thought are largely absent.
Critics argue that including African, Caribbean, and Asian psychoanalytic thinkers (e.g., Fanon’s contemporaries, Dalit psychoanalysis, African spiritual psychologies) would enrich the analysis.
Reliance on Freudian and Lacanian Psychoanalysis
The article heavily relies on Freud and Lacan’s theories, despite significant critiques of their Eurocentric and patriarchal biases.
Feminist and decolonial scholars have argued that other psychoanalytic traditions (e.g., Klein, Winnicott, Fanonian psychoanalysis) could offer a less colonialist perspective on subjectivity.
Insufficient Engagement with Indigenous Epistemologies
While the article critiques the colonialist framing of the “primitive mind,” it does not explore indigenous epistemologies as alternatives to psychoanalytic models.
A broader engagement with indigenous philosophies of mind, healing, and subjectivity could counterbalance the focus on Western psychoanalysis.
Representative Quotations from “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh with Explanation
“Postcolonial theory has been ambivalent towards psychoanalysis, for good reasons.” (Frosh, 2013, p. 141)
Frosh highlights the tension between postcolonialism and psychoanalysis. He acknowledges that while psychoanalysis can offer insights into colonial subjectivity, it also carries colonialist assumptions.
“Freud’s postulation of the ‘primitive’ or ‘savage’ mind, which still infects psychoanalytic thinking, is a prime example here.” (p. 141)
Critiques Freud’s theory for reinforcing colonialist binaries, positioning non-European societies as “primitive” in comparison to the “civilized” West.
“Psychology needs postcolonialism quite patently, because without the challenge of postcolonial thinking it drifts into ahistorical and highly abstracted models of the mind.” (p. 142)
Argues that psychology often ignores sociohistorical factors and needs postcolonialism to avoid abstract, Eurocentric assumptions.
“Postcolonialism needs psychology more subtly, because without some kind of effective psychological input it essentializes the sociohistorical and is left grasping for a theory of the subject.” (p. 142)
Suggests that postcolonialism benefits from psychological insights to understand subjectivity beyond purely historical and sociopolitical frameworks.
“Psychoanalysis is thus an exemplary incidence of a disciplinary practice that both draws on colonialism and disrupts its categories at the same time.” (p. 145)
Describes the paradox of psychoanalysis: it both reflects and critiques colonialist ideology, making it both problematic and useful for postcolonial studies.
“The savage is the other, the not ‘us’.” (p. 143)
Highlights the colonialist language in Freud’s work, which positions non-European people as an externalized, lesser “other.”
“Psychoanalysis has some of its roots in colonialist assumptions that continue to resonate in contemporary theory and clinical practice.” (p. 150)
Acknowledges that colonialist language and biases in psychoanalysis persist, even in modern applications.
“Colonial power is built on this capacity of the colonizer to remove the source of subjecthood from the colonized.” (p. 146)
Draws from Fanon to argue that colonialism dehumanizes and strips agency from the colonized through psychological mechanisms.
“Racism is not a ‘simple belief’ and its irrationality is not solely in the area of its truth claims.” (p. 148)
Critiques conventional views of racism, arguing that it operates through unconscious psychological structures rather than mere misinformation.
“Psychoanalysis can be used both to trouble colonial and racist assumptions, and as a stepping stone to some subversive theory.” (p. 152)
Concludes that despite its colonial baggage, psychoanalysis remains a valuable tool for challenging racist and colonialist ideologies.
Suggested Readings: “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism” by Stephen Frosh
Frosh, Stephen. “Psychoanalysis, colonialism, racism.” Journal of Theoretical and Philosophical Psychology 33.3 (2013): 141.
Frosh, Stephen. “Psychoanalysis, Colonialism, Racism.” A Deeper Cut: Further Explorations of the Unconscious in Social and Political Life, edited by David Morgan, Karnac Books, 2021, pp. 25–52. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.23338182.9. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.
FROSH, STEPHEN. “Towards a Psychosocial Psychoanalysis.” American Imago, vol. 73, no. 4, 2016, pp. 469–82. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26303653. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.
HOOK, DEREK. “The Primal Scene of Anti-Blackness: The Masochist Jouissance of White Racism.” The Comparatist, vol. 46, 2022, pp. 7–28. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/27181573. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.
“Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley first appeared in 1739 in the collection Hymns and Sacred Poems.
Introduction: “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley
“Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley first appeared in 1739 in the collection Hymns and Sacred Poems. This hymn, better known today as “Hark! The Herald Angels Sing”, became one of the most celebrated Christmas carols of all time due to its rich theological depth and lyrical beauty. The poem encapsulates the essence of the Nativity, emphasizing themes of divine incarnation, redemption, and heavenly rejoicing. Wesley’s verses highlight the profound significance of Christ’s birth, with lines like “Hark! the herald angels sing, ‘Glory to the newborn King!’” underscoring the angelic proclamation of joy and salvation. The hymn’s popularity as a textbook poem stems from its didactic nature, presenting core Christian beliefs in a structured, poetic form that is both memorable and instructive. Its rhythmic and melodic adaptation, later modified by composer Felix Mendelssohn, further cemented its place in both religious and literary traditions. The hymn’s universal appeal, clear message of hope, and celebratory tone continue to make it an enduring classic in hymnody and Christian education.
Text: “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley
Hark how all the Welkin rings “Glory to the Kings of Kings “Peace on Earth, and Mercy mild “God and Sinners reconcil’d!
Joyful all ye Nations rise Join the Triumph of the Skies Universal Nature say “Christ the Lord is born to Day!
Christ, by highest Heav’n ador’d Christ, the Everlasting Lord Late in Time behold him come Offspring of a Virgin’s Womb
Veil’d in Flesh, the Godhead see Hail th’ Incarnate Deity! Pleas’d as Man with Men t’ appear Jesus, our Immanuel here!
Hail the Heav’nly Prince of Peace! Hail the Sun of Righteousness! Light and Life to All he brings Ris’n with Healing in his Wings
Mild he lays his Glory by Born—that Man no more may die Born—to raise the Sons of Earth Born—to give them Second Birth
Come, Desire of Nations, come Fix in Us thy humble Home Rise, the Woman’s Conqu’ring Seed Bruise in Us the Serpent’s Head
Now display thy saving Pow’r Ruin’d Nature now restore Now in Mystic Union join Thine to Ours, and Ours to Thine
Adam’s Likeness, Lord, efface Stamp thy Image in its Place Second Adam from above Reinstate us in thy Love
Let us Thee, tho’ lost, regain Thee, the Life, the Inner Man: O! to All Thyself impart Form’d in each Believing Heart
Annotations: “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley
Part represents the whole—”Thine” (Jesus) and “Ours” (humanity).
Themes: “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley
The Joyful Proclamation of Christ’s Birth: “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley emphasizes the joy and celebration surrounding the birth of Jesus Christ. The poem opens with a grand proclamation: “Hark how all the Welkin rings”, describing the heavens resounding with praise. The joyous nature of this event is further reinforced in the lines “Joyful all ye Nations rise, Join the Triumph of the Skies”, where Wesley calls upon all nations to unite in celebration. Even “Universal Nature” is depicted as rejoicing, emphasizing that Christ’s birth is not only significant for humanity but for all of creation. The hymn’s triumphant and exultant tone underscores the belief that Jesus’ birth is a moment of divine glory, bringing peace and reconciliation between God and humankind. This theme reflects the Christian belief that Christmas is an occasion of universal joy, as it marks the fulfillment of God’s promise of salvation.
The Incarnation and Divinity of Christ: “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley highlights the incarnation—the belief that Jesus is both fully divine and fully human. This is evident in the lines “Veil’d in Flesh, the Godhead see, Hail th’ Incarnate Deity!”, which portray Jesus as God taking on human form. Wesley further affirms Christ’s divine nature by calling him “Christ, the Everlasting Lord”, emphasizing his eternal existence. The hymn also makes a direct reference to Jesus’ miraculous birth: “Offspring of a Virgin’s Womb”, acknowledging the Christian doctrine of the Virgin Birth. The phrase “Jesus, our Immanuel here” encapsulates this theme, as “Immanuel” means “God with us,” signifying God’s presence among humanity. Through these lines, Wesley conveys that Christ’s birth is not an ordinary event—it is a divine act that brings God directly into the human world, fulfilling the prophecy of the Messiah.
Salvation and Redemption through Christ: “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley presents salvation and redemption as central themes, portraying Christ’s birth as the foundation of God’s plan to save humanity from sin and death. The hymn emphasizes Christ’s humility and sacrifice in the line “Mild he lays his Glory by, Born—that Man no more may die”, illustrating that Jesus willingly left his divine glory to come to earth for the sake of humankind. Wesley continues this theme with “Born—to raise the Sons of Earth, Born—to give them Second Birth”, referencing the Christian concept of spiritual rebirth—the idea that faith in Christ grants eternal life. The hymn also refers to Christ as the “Second Adam from above”, reinforcing the belief that Jesus came to correct the sin of the first Adam and offer a new path to righteousness. By repeating “Born—to”, Wesley stresses that Jesus’ birth is not only a cause for celebration but also the beginning of humanity’s salvation.
The Defeat of Sin and the Restoration of Humanity: “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley emphasizes Christ’s victory over sin and the restoration of fallen humanity. Wesley references the biblical prophecy from Genesis 3:15 in the lines “Rise, the Woman’s Conqu’ring Seed, Bruise in Us the Serpent’s Head”, portraying Jesus as the one who will crush Satan’s power. This theme is further developed with the plea “Adam’s Likeness, Lord, efface, Stamp thy Image in its Place”, signifying that Jesus came to erase the sinful nature inherited from Adam and restore believers in the image of God. The hymn expresses the longing for humanity’s full redemption through the line “Reinstate us in thy Love”, reinforcing the belief that Christ’s birth is not just a historical event but a divine act meant to reconcile people with God. Through these verses, Wesley conveys that Jesus’ coming marks the beginning of humanity’s transformation, restoring what was lost through sin and bringing the promise of eternal life.
Literary Theories and “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley
Literary Theory
Application to “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley
Theological Criticism
This hymn reflects Christian theology, particularly the doctrines of Incarnation, Redemption, and Salvation. The lines “Veil’d in Flesh, the Godhead see, Hail th’ Incarnate Deity!” emphasize the belief that Christ is both divine and human. The hymn also highlights Christ’s mission to reconcile sinners with God, as seen in “God and Sinners reconcil’d!” This interpretation aligns with theological readings that focus on religious significance.
Historical Criticism
Understanding the hymn’s historical context in 18th-century England helps interpret its purpose. Wesley, a leader in the Methodist movement, wrote this during a time of religious revival. The line “Join the Triumph of the Skies” reflects the evangelical emphasis on communal worship and celebration of faith. Historical criticism examines how the hymn responded to religious and cultural movements of its time.
A formalist analysis of the hymn focuses on its structure, poetic devices, and linguistic techniques. The repetition of “Born—to raise the Sons of Earth, Born—to give them Second Birth” emphasizes the theme of spiritual rebirth. The use of parallelism and alliteration, such as in “Hail the Heav’nly Prince of Peace!”, enhances the lyrical quality. This approach studies the hymn as a self-contained literary work, independent of historical or theological context.
Reader-response criticism examines how different audiences interpret the hymn based on personal beliefs and experiences. A Christian reader may view “Jesus, our Immanuel here!” as a profound expression of faith, while a non-religious reader might appreciate its poetic elements without the theological implications. The hymn’s meaning varies based on the reader’s perspective, making its interpretation subjective.
Critical Questions about “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley
How does “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley reflect the theological significance of Christ’s birth?
“Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley reflects the theological significance of Christ’s birth by emphasizing the doctrines of Incarnation, Redemption, and Salvation. The hymn presents Jesus as both divine and human, as seen in the line “Veil’d in Flesh, the Godhead see, Hail th’ Incarnate Deity!”. This statement highlights the Christian belief that Christ, though born in human form, retains his divine nature. The hymn also underscores Christ’s mission of redemption with “God and Sinners reconcil’d!”, signifying that Jesus’ birth is the beginning of humanity’s salvation. Furthermore, the repeated phrase “Born—to raise the Sons of Earth, Born—to give them Second Birth” reinforces the doctrine of spiritual rebirth, which is central to Christian theology. Wesley’s hymn, therefore, is not just a celebration of Jesus’ birth but a declaration of its spiritual and salvific purpose, making it a deeply theological piece of religious poetry.
In what ways does “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley use poetic and literary devices to enhance its message?
“Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley employs various poetic and literary devices to enhance its message of joy, salvation, and divine glory. One prominent device is alliteration, as seen in “Hail the Heav’nly Prince of Peace!”, which adds a rhythmic and melodic quality to the hymn. Parallelism is also a key feature, particularly in the repetition of “Born—to raise the Sons of Earth, Born—to give them Second Birth”, emphasizing Christ’s role in humanity’s spiritual transformation. Metaphor is another significant literary technique, as in “Hail the Sun of Righteousness!”, where Christ is compared to the sun, symbolizing light, warmth, and divine truth. Additionally, personification appears in “Universal Nature say”, suggesting that all of creation rejoices in Christ’s birth. These poetic elements not only enhance the hymn’s lyrical beauty but also strengthen its emotional and theological impact, making its message more profound and memorable.
How does “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley reflect the historical and cultural context in which it was written?
“Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley reflects the historical and cultural context of 18th-century England, particularly the Methodist movement and the religious revival of the time. Wesley, a co-founder of Methodism, sought to renew Christian faith and devotion, and his hymns played a crucial role in spreading this message. The hymn’s emphasis on joyful praise and communal worship is evident in “Join the Triumph of the Skies”, which encourages believers to participate in a heavenly celebration of Christ’s birth. This aligns with Methodist teachings that emphasized enthusiastic worship, personal faith, and evangelism. Additionally, the hymn’s focus on salvation and rebirth, as in “Born—to give them Second Birth”, reflects the Methodist emphasis on spiritual transformation and the need for a personal experience of God’s grace. By incorporating these themes, Wesley’s hymn resonated with contemporary Christian audiences, reinforcing the broader religious movement of his time.
What is the significance of the title “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley, and how does it shape the reader’s understanding of the poem?
The title “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley immediately establishes the occasion and purpose of the poem. The use of the word “Hymn” indicates that this piece is meant for worship and communal singing, aligning with the tradition of religious hymnody. The phrase “Christmas Day” sets the specific context, highlighting the significance of Christ’s birth as a moment of divine fulfillment and celebration. The title prepares the reader for a joyful and reverent reflection on the Nativity, reinforced by lines like “Hark how all the Welkin rings”, which depict the heavens resounding with praise. Additionally, the title frames the hymn as a seasonal and theological work, meant to be sung and meditated upon during Christmas celebrations. This shapes the reader’s interpretation and engagement, making the hymn not just a poetic composition but an act of devotion, intended to be part of a larger spiritual experience.
Literary Works Similar to “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley
“While Shepherds Watched Their Flocks” by Nahum Tate – Like “Hymn for Christmas Day”, this poem-hymn narrates the announcement of Christ’s birth by angels, emphasizing divine revelation and joyous celebration.
“Christ’s Nativity” by Henry Vaughan – This poem shares Wesley’s focus on the spiritual significance of Christ’s birth, using rich imagery and reverent praise to depict the incarnation.
“On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity” by John Milton – Like Wesley’s work, Milton’s poem presents Christ’s birth as a cosmic event, with a grand and celebratory tone that highlights its impact on heaven and earth.
“See Amid the Winter’s Snow” by Edward Caswall – This hymn-like poem echoes Wesley’s themes of joy, salvation, and divine love, portraying Christ’s birth as a moment of grace and redemption for humanity.
Representative Quotations of “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley
Quotation
Context
Theoretical Perspective
“Hark how all the Welkin rings”
The opening line sets the tone for the hymn, depicting the heavens resounding with praise for Christ’s birth.
Theological Criticism – Highlights divine praise and worship as central to Christian faith.
“Glory to the King of Kings”
This line exalts Christ as the supreme ruler, emphasizing his divine kingship.
Historical Criticism – Reflects 18th-century religious emphasis on Christ’s divine kingship.
“Peace on Earth, and Mercy mild”
A declaration of Christ’s mission to bring peace and mercy to humanity through his birth.
Moral Criticism – Emphasizes Christ’s ethical mission of peace and mercy.
“God and Sinners reconcil’d!”
Expresses the core Christian belief in Christ’s role in reconciling sinful humanity with God.
Soteriological Criticism – Focuses on salvation and atonement as key Christian doctrines.
“Veil’d in Flesh, the Godhead see”
Affirms the Incarnation, portraying Jesus as both divine and human.
Incarnational Theology – Explores the mystery of Christ as God in human form.
“Born—to raise the Sons of Earth”
Describes Christ’s role in elevating humanity from sin and granting salvation.
Redemptive Perspective – Highlights Christ’s role in lifting humanity from sin.
“Born—to give them Second Birth”
Refers to the theological concept of spiritual rebirth through faith in Christ.
Spiritual Transformation – Examines rebirth as a theological necessity in Christian faith.
“Hail the Sun of Righteousness!”
Symbolically portrays Christ as the Sun, bringing enlightenment and righteousness.
Symbolism and Allegory – Uses metaphor to depict Christ as a guiding light.
“Adam’s Likeness, Lord, efface”
A plea to remove the sinful nature inherited from Adam and replace it with Christ’s holiness.
Anthropological Theology – Analyzes humanity’s transformation through Christ’s influence.
“Reinstate us in thy Love”
A call for divine restoration, asking for reconciliation with God’s love.
Divine Grace Perspective – Emphasizes the necessity of God’s love for spiritual renewal.
Suggested Readings: “Hymn for Christmas Day” by Charles Wesley
Tucker, Karen B. Westerfield. “‘Shew Us Thy Salvation’: Charles Wesley and the Liturgical Year.” Wesley and Methodist Studies 11.2 (2019): 166-191.
Kimbrough, S. T. “Literary and Ecclesial Sources Used in Charles Wesley’s Poetry.” The Lyrical Theology of Charles Wesley: A Reader (Expanded Edition), 1st ed., The Lutterworth Press, 2013, pp. 73–91. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt1cgdz67.9. Accessed 12 Mar. 2025.
SISTER M. CLEMENT EAGAN. “A HYMN FOR CHRISTMAS DAY.” Poems, Volume 1, Catholic University of America Press, 1962, pp. 78–83. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt32b325.15. Accessed 12 Mar. 2025.
“Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew first appeared in the Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race in 2009 as part of the broader scholarly discussion on race and politics.
Introduction: “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew
“Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew first appeared in the Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race in 2009 as part of the broader scholarly discussion on race and politics. This article critically examines the notion that Barack Obama’s election as the first African American president signified a “post-racial” America. Pettigrew challenges the idea that racism had diminished significantly, arguing instead that Obama’s victory resulted from a “perfect storm” of political conditions rather than a fundamental transformation in racial attitudes. The article highlights the persistence of racial prejudice, as demonstrated by white Southern and older voters’ reluctance to support Obama, and emphasizes the role of increased voter turnout among young and minority populations. In literary theory and political discourse, this work contributes to critical race studies by interrogating the narrative of progress often imposed on racial history. By exposing logical fallacies in post-racial arguments and using empirical data to reveal the complexities of racial attitudes, Pettigrew’s analysis aligns with scholarship that critiques optimistic yet superficial claims of racial equality. As referenced in the State of the Discipline, this article serves as an essential text in the study of race relations, political behavior, and the enduring structures of systemic inequality in the United States.
Summary of “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew
The Myth of Post-Racism
Pettigrew critiques the claim that Obama’s election signifies the end of racism in the U.S.
He argues that such views are overly optimistic and overlook systemic racial disparities (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 279).
The desire to declare racism as “solved” is an extension of historical tendencies to prematurely celebrate racial progress (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 280).
The “Perfect Storm” That Led to Obama’s Victory
Obama’s election was made possible by a unique confluence of events, not necessarily a shift in racial attitudes.
Factors included:
A well-run campaign
Economic downturn
Declining popularity of the Republican Party under George W. Bush
A highly favorable political climate (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 280).
Obama benefited from previous Black political progress and demographic shifts (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 281).
Racist Voters Still Supported Obama
Some white bigots voted for Obama due to the economic crisis, demonstrating that racial prejudice and voting decisions do not always align (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 282).
A survey found that 33% of white Democrats held negative racial stereotypes, yet 58% of them still voted for Obama (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 283).
Racism remained evident in other aspects, such as opposition to affirmative action and racially motivated legislative measures (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284).
Logical Fallacies in the Post-Racism Argument
The ecological fallacy: Inferring individual racial attitudes from aggregate voting patterns is misleading (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284).
The constant turnout composition fallacy: The assumption that the electorate remained the same as in 2004 is false; there was a significant increase in young, minority, and independent voters (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 285).
Obama’s slight improvement over Kerry’s white vote share (43% vs. 41%) does not indicate a racial transformation (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 285).
Racist Attitudes and Actions Persisted During the Campaign
Throughout Obama’s campaign, racist incidents were frequent:
Cross-burnings, threats, and racist graffiti (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 286).
Students chanting “assassinate Obama” on a school bus in Idaho (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 286).
A Republican club issuing fake $10 bills featuring Obama alongside a watermelon, ribs, and fried chicken (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287).
High-profile figures, including Hillary Clinton’s campaign surrogates, played the “race card” by spreading rumors about Obama’s background (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287).
White Southern and Elderly Voters Demonstrated Continued Racism
Older white voters (65+) were the only age group to vote more Republican in 2008 than in 2004 (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287).
White support for Obama decreased in certain Southern states like Alabama and Mississippi (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 288).
These trends contradict claims that Obama’s election erased racial divisions (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289).
The Role of Increased Minority and Youth Turnout
Key voter demographics:
Black voter turnout increased from 11% in 2004 to 13% in 2008.
Latino turnout increased from 6% to 8%, with 66% supporting Obama (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289).
The under-30 vote shifted significantly toward Obama, showing a generational difference in racial attitudes (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289).
Obama’s election does not eliminate systemic racism in housing, employment, education, and criminal justice (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).
“The basic problems are structural—rampant housing segregation, poverty, job discrimination, poor education, massive imprisonment” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).
Institutional racism remains embedded in American society and requires more than symbolic victories to overcome (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
Concluding Thoughts: A Step Forward, Not the End of Racism
Obama’s presidency represents progress but not the end of racial discrimination (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
“We are no longer ‘two nations,’ but neither are we a single, non-racialized nation” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
The fight for racial equality continues beyond the symbolic victory of a Black president (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 292).
Key Takeaways
Obama’s election was historic but did not signal a “post-racial” America.
Many white voters, including bigots, supported him for reasons unrelated to racial progress.
Logical fallacies distort the perception that racism has significantly declined.
Racist incidents and systemic inequalities persist.
Future progress in race relations depends on structural changes, not just symbolic victories.
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew
Theoretical Term/Concept
Definition
Application in Pettigrew’s Argument
Post-Racism
The belief that racism has significantly declined or ended, particularly after Obama’s election.
Pettigrew critiques this notion, arguing that systemic racism persists despite Obama’s victory (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 279).
Ecological Fallacy
A logical error where conclusions about individuals are drawn from macro-level data.
Pettigrew points out that voting patterns cannot accurately determine individual racial attitudes (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284).
Constant Turnout Composition Fallacy
The assumption that the electorate remains unchanged between elections.
Pettigrew argues that shifts in voter demographics, rather than a reduction in racism, contributed to Obama’s win (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 285).
Symbolic Racism
A form of racism that is more subtle and indirect, based on the belief that minorities violate traditional values.
Pettigrew suggests that many white voters who supported Obama still held negative stereotypes about Black people (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 283).
Blaming the Victim
The tendency to attribute structural inequalities to the perceived shortcomings of marginalized groups.
Pettigrew highlights how many Americans believe racial equality has already been achieved and hold Black communities responsible for ongoing disparities (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 280).
Racial Coding
The use of seemingly neutral language to convey racial messages.
Campaign attacks against Obama, such as calling him “elitist” or “not one of us,” were racially coded (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287).
Deracialization
A political strategy in which Black candidates avoid direct discussions of race to appeal to white voters.
Obama largely avoided racial issues except when necessary, such as in his Philadelphia speech (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284).
Implicit Bias
Unconscious racial prejudices that affect behavior and decision-making.
Many voters may have unconsciously applied racial biases while still voting for Obama (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 283).
Structural Racism
Systemic inequalities embedded in institutions and policies.
Pettigrew argues that racial disparities in housing, employment, and education remain significant (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).
Generational Political Socialization
The idea that major political events shape the attitudes of specific age groups.
Younger voters, shaped by Obama’s election, may maintain progressive racial attitudes in the long term (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289).
Contribution of “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew to Literary Theory/Theories
CRT argues that racism is not an anomaly but a deeply embedded structure within society.
Pettigrew challenges the “post-racism” narrative, emphasizing that racism remains a systemic issue despite Obama’s election (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 279).
He highlights structural barriers such as housing segregation, economic inequality, and the criminal justice system that continue to disadvantage Black Americans (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).
The concept of “blaming the victim” (Ryan, 1976) is used to explain how racial inequalities are justified by attributing them to Black individuals rather than structural forces (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 280).
2. Postcolonial Theory
Postcolonial theory critiques how race and identity are constructed through historical power dynamics.
Pettigrew deconstructs the celebratory discourse around Obama’s election, arguing that it masks continued racial oppression (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
He examines how media and political narratives shape racial identities, particularly in how Obama was framed as “non-threatening” to white voters (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284).
The “racial coding” of political attacks against Obama—such as being labeled “elitist” or “not one of us”—mirrors colonialist strategies of othering racialized individuals (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287).
3. Ideological State Apparatus (Althusserian Theory)
Louis Althusser’s concept of Ideological State Apparatuses (ISAs) explains how institutions like the media, politics, and education shape ideological beliefs.
Pettigrew critiques the media’s role in reinforcing the myth of a post-racial America, especially through journalists like John Tierney, who dismissed racism as a declining phenomenon (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 280).
He demonstrates how political discourse, shaped by dominant ideologies, minimizes systemic racism while amplifying individual success stories to suggest racial progress (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 279).
The fallacies underlying the post-racial argument are ideologically constructed to maintain white privilege by falsely portraying racial justice as achieved (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 285).
4. Narrative Theory (Meta-Narratives and Counter-Narratives)
Pettigrew deconstructs the meta-narrative that Obama’s election represents racial progress and the fulfillment of American ideals of equality (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 279).
He presents a counter-narrative that exposes the persistence of racism, as seen in the backlash against Obama, racist campaign rhetoric, and declining white support in Southern states (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287).
This aligns with literary studies on how narratives shape historical memory and political consciousness.
New Historicism argues that literary and cultural texts must be analyzed within their historical and sociopolitical contexts.
Pettigrew situates Obama’s election within the broader history of American race relations, linking it to the long struggle for Black political representation since the Voting Rights Act of 1965 (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 280).
He refutes the idea that history moves in a linear progression toward racial equality, demonstrating instead how historical inequalities persist despite symbolic victories (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
His discussion of white Southern resistance to Obama reflects the enduring legacies of segregationist politics (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287).
Structuralism examines how meaning is created through systems of signs and language.
Pettigrew identifies racial coding in political discourse, such as how words like “elitist” or “unpatriotic” carry racialized meanings when applied to Obama (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287).
He shows how white voters rationalized their support for Obama by emphasizing his light skin tone, biracial identity, and non-threatening demeanor, which semiotically distanced him from Black stereotypes (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284).
This aligns with semiotic theories that analyze how language and symbols reinforce power structures.
7. Cultural Studies and Media Theory
Pettigrew examines how media narratives constructed the myth of post-racism while simultaneously amplifying racist tropes against Obama (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 280).
He critiques the media’s selective framing, such as focusing on racial progress while ignoring structural injustices (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
His analysis contributes to cultural studies by revealing how political campaigns, media discourse, and public perceptions interact to shape racial ideologies.
Conclusion: The Article’s Theoretical Contributions
Pettigrew’s work contributes significantly to literary theory and cultural criticism by:
Challenging dominant racial narratives and exposing ideological distortions.
Providing a critical race analysis of how media and political rhetoric obscure systemic racism.
Offering a counter-narrative to the simplistic idea that racial representation equals racial justice.
Integrating historical, structuralist, and semiotic approaches to analyze the election’s symbolic and material impact.
Examples of Critiques Through “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew
Literary Work
Key Themes
Critique Through Pettigrew’s Perspective
1. To Kill a Mockingbird (Harper Lee, 1960)
Racial injustice, moral growth, and the legal system’s failure to uphold racial equality.
Pettigrew’s critique of the post-racism narrative aligns with how the novel exposes structural racism in the legal system. Just as Obama’s election did not erase racism, Atticus Finch’s legal defense of Tom Robinson does not dismantle the deeply ingrained racial prejudices of Maycomb (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).
2. The Great Gatsby (F. Scott Fitzgerald, 1925)
The American Dream, class struggle, and racial anxieties in 1920s America.
Pettigrew’s discussion of racial coding in political discourse (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 287) applies to Fitzgerald’s portrayal of Tom Buchanan’s fear of racial “degeneration.” The novel critiques the myth of the American Dream, much like Pettigrew critiques the post-racial myth by revealing the persistent inequalities beneath the surface of success (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
3. Beloved (Toni Morrison, 1987)
The psychological trauma of slavery, memory, and historical erasure.
Pettigrew highlights the danger of premature historical closure in racial discourse (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 279). Just as Obama’s victory did not signify the end of racism, Morrison’s novel argues that the traumas of slavery are not erased but continue to haunt generations (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291). The desire to forget the past mirrors the push for a post-racial America that ignores structural racism.
4. Invisible Man (Ralph Ellison, 1952)
Racial identity, invisibility, and systemic oppression.
Pettigrew’s concept of deracialization in Obama’s campaign (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284) parallels the protagonist’s realization that racial invisibility is a survival mechanism in a racist society. The novel critiques the illusion of racial progress, much like Pettigrew argues that Obama’s election did not dismantle racial hierarchies (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).
Criticism Against “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew
Overemphasis on Structural Racism Without Recognizing Individual Agency
Pettigrew focuses heavily on systemic barriers but underplays the role of individual actions in combating racism.
Critics may argue that while systemic racism persists, Obama’s presidency did signal progress in racial representation and leadership (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
Dismissal of the Symbolic Importance of Obama’s Election
While Pettigrew critiques the “post-racism” narrative, he may downplay the psychological and cultural significance of a Black president for African Americans and other minority groups.
Representation in leadership can have real-world implications for racial perceptions, even if structural inequalities remain (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 291).
Neglect of Counterarguments from Optimistic Scholars
Pettigrew largely critiques post-racial advocates like John Tierney but does not engage deeply with scholars who acknowledge both racial progress and ongoing struggles.
His critique could be more balanced by discussing theories of incremental racial progress rather than suggesting that racism remains entirely unchanged (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290).
Limited Consideration of Global and Comparative Perspectives
The analysis is centered on American race relations without broader comparisons to racial dynamics in other countries.
Pettigrew references Black European reactions to Obama’s win (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289) but does not analyze how racial politics in other democracies might provide comparative insights.
Reliance on Quantitative Voting Data Without Nuanced Qualitative Analysis
While Pettigrew uses exit-poll data to show that white support for Obama was not necessarily indicative of racial progress (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 283), some critics argue that surveys do not capture changing racial attitudes in personal and professional spaces.
A more qualitative approach—such as interviews or discourse analysis—could provide deeper insight into shifting racial dynamics beyond voting patterns.
Potential Political Bias
Pettigrew critiques conservative narratives about post-racism but does not critically analyze how liberal political discourse may also contribute to performative racial progress rather than substantive change.
The Democratic Party’s role in perpetuating racial inequalities (e.g., mass incarceration policies under Clinton) is not extensively discussed.
Underestimation of Racial Progress Among Younger Generations
The argument that racism remains largely intact may not fully account for the generational shift toward greater racial acceptance among younger Americans (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289).
Younger voters showed significantly higher levels of support for Obama, which could indicate meaningful racial progress rather than just a political alignment shift.
Rigid Binary Between Racist and Non-Racist Voters
Pettigrew highlights that many bigoted white voters still supported Obama (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 283), but this may oversimplify the complexities of racial attitudes.
Many voters may hold contradictory racial beliefs, where they acknowledge systemic racism but also support policies that perpetuate inequality.
Representative Quotations from “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew with Explanation
“It took ‘a perfect storm’ of interlocking factors to elect Obama.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 280)
Pettigrew argues that Obama’s victory was not merely a result of racial progress but was influenced by a combination of factors such as a weak Republican opponent, economic crises, and his own charisma and campaign strategy.
“Many White bigots actually voted for Obama.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 282)
He challenges the assumption that voting for a Black candidate proves the absence of racism. Some voters, despite holding prejudiced beliefs, still chose Obama due to economic concerns and other priorities.
“Racist attitudes and actions repeatedly erupted during both the primary and final campaigns.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 285)
Pettigrew points out that despite claims of a “post-racial” America, racial prejudice was evident in campaign rhetoric, media representations, and acts of racial violence during the election season.
“The post-racism thesis suffers from two logical and interrelated fallacies: the ecological fallacy and the constant turnout composition fallacy.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 284)
He critiques the idea that Obama’s victory signifies racial progress, arguing that broad assumptions about racism’s decline are flawed because voter demographics changed significantly between 2004 and 2008.
“Whites older than sixty-four years were the only age group to vote more Republican than in 2004.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 286)
This statistic is used to show how older white Americans resisted racial change, contradicting the idea that Obama’s election represented a universal racial transformation.
“Obama’s decisive victory marks a momentous milestone in the history of America’s most persistent domestic problem.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290)
Despite his criticism of the “post-racism” claim, Pettigrew acknowledges the historical significance of Obama’s presidency as a major racial milestone.
“You can’t look at that swath of hard-red states that actually grew even redder and say that we are post-racial.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 286)
He refutes the idea of a post-racial society by highlighting that several Southern states actually became more conservative and less supportive of racial progress.
“To answer Tierney’s provocative question—‘where have all the bigots gone?’—we can definitively say they have not disappeared.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 289)
Pettigrew directly counters John Tierney’s claim that racism had largely vanished after Obama’s election, emphasizing that prejudices remain deeply embedded in American society.
“The American presidency is powerful, but it has its definite limits.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290)
He tempers expectations about Obama’s ability to single-handedly dismantle systemic racism, citing economic, political, and judicial constraints.
“We are no longer ‘two nations,’ but neither are we a one, non-racialized nation.” (Pettigrew, 2009, p. 290)
Pettigrew encapsulates his argument by asserting that while progress has been made, racial divisions in America still persist and require continued attention.
Suggested Readings: “Post-Racism? Putting President Obama’s Victory In Perspective” by Thomas F. Pettigrew
Pettigrew, Thomas F. “POST-RACISM?: Putting President Obama’s Victory in Perspective1.” Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race 6.2 (2009): 279-292.
TUCH, STEVEN A., and MICHAEL HUGHES. “Whites’ Racial Policy Attitudes in the Twenty-First Century: The Continuing Significance of Racial Resentment.” The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 634, 2011, pp. 134–52. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/29779399. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.
Love, Bettina L., and Brandelyn Tosolt. “Reality or Rhetoric? Barack Obama and Post-Racial America.” Race, Gender & Class, vol. 17, no. 3/4, 2010, pp. 19–37. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41674749. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.
López, Ian F. Haney. “Post-Racial Racism: Racial Stratification and Mass Incarceration in the Age of Obama.” California Law Review, vol. 98, no. 3, 2010, pp. 1023–74. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27896699. Accessed 13 Mar. 2025.
“Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andrew C. Long first appeared in Orientalism and Literature, edited by Geoffrey P. Nash, as part of the Cambridge Critical Concepts series, published by Cambridge University Press in 2019 (pp. 235–252).
Introduction: “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long
“Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andrew C. Long first appeared in Orientalism and Literature, edited by Geoffrey P. Nash, as part of the Cambridge Critical Concepts series, published by Cambridge University Press in 2019 (pp. 235–252). In this chapter, Long engages in a critical dialogue with Edward Said’s literary criticism, particularly examining the tension between Said’s postcolonial critique of imperialism and his engagement with canonical modernist writers such as Joseph Conrad and Albert Camus. Central to Long’s argument is Aijaz Ahmad’s critique, articulated in In Theory (1992), which accuses Said of absolving cosmopolitan writers of their racial biases while being more stringent in his critiques of overtly colonialist figures. Ahmad argues that Said’s privileging of European comparative literature and his selective application of contrapuntal reading limits his engagement with Third World writers and reinforces the intellectual hierarchy of Western literary traditions.
Long explores how Said’s intellectual formation, deeply influenced by Cold War cultural critique, shaped his interpretation of literary texts. He contrasts Said’s analysis of Heart of Darkness, where Said acknowledges Conrad’s critique of imperialism but hesitates to fully address its racialized representation of Africa, with Said’s reading of Camus’ The Stranger, which Said interprets as a text of liberal settler consciousness rather than outright racism. Chinua Achebe’s landmark critique of Conrad in An Image of Africa (1975) serves as a pivotal counterpoint in the debate, arguing that Heart of Darkness dehumanizes Africans and should not be upheld as a literary classic. Long further situates this discourse in contemporary postcolonial literary responses, such as Kamel Daoud’s The Meursault Investigation, which reimagines Camus’ novel from the perspective of the unnamed murdered “Arab” and interrogates the legacy of French colonialism.
The chapter highlights the broader implications of this debate for postcolonial literary studies, addressing whether texts that employ racist tropes can still be read as critiques of empire and how they should be approached in educational and critical contexts. Long ultimately argues for a nuanced contrapuntal reading that acknowledges the limitations of these canonical texts while resisting both their outright rejection and an uncritical valorization. His work contributes to ongoing discussions in literary theory regarding the ethics of reading, the role of race in modernist literature, and the politics of canon formation in postcolonial and decolonial studies.
Summary of “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long
Main Ideas
Ahmad’s Critique of Said’s Literary Analysis
Aijaz Ahmad critiques Edward Said’s literary criticism in Orientalism and After (1992), arguing that Said absolves cosmopolitan modernist writers like Joseph Conrad and E.M. Forster of racism while critiquing others (Long, p. 235).
Ahmad claims Said’s work is shaped by Cold War intellectual traditions, particularly the influence of Lionel Trilling and Clement Greenberg (Long, p. 236).
Said’s Engagement with Conrad and Camus
Said’s work, especially in Culture and Imperialism, focuses extensively on Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness, yet he does not fully respond to Chinua Achebe’s condemnation of Conrad as a “thoroughgoing racist” (Long, p. 235).
Long compares Said’s treatment of Heart of Darkness with The Stranger by Albert Camus, arguing that while Conrad’s racism is overt, Camus’ novel represents “liberal settler consciousness” (Long, p. 235-236).
Achebe’s Rejection of Conrad and the Defense of Heart of Darkness
Achebe denounces Heart of Darkness for its racist language and portrayal of Africans, calling it a work that questions “the very humanity of black people” (Long, p. 237).
Conrad scholars like Cedric Watts and Hunt Hawkins defend Heart of Darkness, arguing it critiques rather than perpetuates imperialism (Long, p. 238).
Some scholars argue Achebe misreads Conrad, while others acknowledge the novella’s racial biases but insist on its literary complexity (Long, p. 238).
The Role of Contrapuntal Reading and Standpoint Theory
Long discusses Said’s contrapuntal reading strategy, which examines what is both “there and not there” in texts (Long, p. 241).
Said applies this method to Camus’ The Stranger, recognizing how the novel omits Algerian perspectives while framing French colonial subjects as universal figures (Long, p. 243).
Standpoint theory emerges as an essential lens in Said’s post-Orientalism work, where he examines literature from the perspective of historically marginalized groups (Long, p. 246).
The Cold War Cultural Critique and Literary Canon Formation
Said’s preference for canonical texts aligns with Cold War cultural critique, which emphasized detachment, irony, and aesthetic independence from political ideology (Long, p. 245).
Literary critics like Trilling and Greenberg argue for an elite, high-art literary tradition, which influences Said’s approach to literature (Long, p. 245).
This tradition values writers like Conrad and Camus while marginalizing Third World writers, a criticism Ahmad levels against Said (Long, p. 236).
Contemporary Postcolonial Reinterpretations
Kamel Daoud’s The Meursault Investigation (2015) offers a counter-narrative to Camus’ The Stranger, giving voice to the murdered “Arab” by telling the story from his brother’s perspective (Long, p. 247).
The novel critiques the colonial legacy of French Algeria and highlights the silencing of native voices in European literature (Long, p. 248).
Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved?
Long concludes that cosmopolitan writers cannot be entirely absolved of racism; rather, their works should be critically examined through contrapuntal reading and postcolonial critique (Long, p. 248).
While Said does not explicitly condemn writers like Conrad and Camus, his analysis reveals how their works are implicated in colonialist and racist ideologies (Long, p. 249).
The debate extends into pedagogy: should works like Heart of Darkness still be taught, and if so, in what context? (Long, p. 249).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long
Term/Concept
Definition & Explanation
Reference in the Chapter
Cosmopolitan Writer
A worldly intellectual who operates beyond national ideologies and engages with multiple cultural traditions, often associated with figures like Joseph Conrad and Albert Camus.
“The cosmopolitan writer is not the critic Edward Said but rather the cosmopolitan intellectual, a worldly figure who thinks and writes from the borders of national ideology, a detached critic.” (Long, p. 235)
Cold War Cultural Critique
A form of literary and cultural analysis shaped by Cold War ideological values, emphasizing aesthetic detachment, irony, and universalism while often marginalizing anti-colonial and Marxist perspectives.
“Said’s valuation of Joseph Conrad and many other cosmopolitan writers is rooted in what I call a Cold War cultural critique.” (Long, p. 245)
Contrapuntal Reading
A method of reading that examines both what is present and absent in a text, recognizing the ideological structures that shape its meaning.
“A contrapuntal reading recognizes the oppositions – the implicit/explicit and the absent/present – that underpin a text.” (Long, p. 241)
Standpoint Theory
A theoretical approach that emphasizes reading and interpreting literature from the perspective of marginalized or colonized subjects.
“His reading practice here is linked to standpoint, a term or hermeneutic with which we might reassess and press his idea of the contrapuntal reading.” (Long, p. 246)
A concept developed by Edward Said describing the Western construction of the “Orient” as an exotic, inferior, and monolithic Other.
“Orientalism is a book that is in spirit, if not word, supportive of Achebe’s criticism of the legacy of colonialism and racism in American and European literary criticism.” (Long, p. 237)
Postcolonial Criticism
A theoretical framework that analyzes literature through the lens of colonial histories, racial hierarchies, and imperial legacies.
“Said increasingly asserts the importance of political critique, coalescing in his ideas of the contrapuntal and, especially, standpoint.” (Long, p. 246)
A worldview that privileges European culture, history, and literature as superior or universal, often at the expense of non-Western perspectives.
“Ahmad also criticizes Said’s use of the work of Michel Foucault, as, while Said remains an avowed humanist, Foucault’s project was entirely opposed to the institutions of the Enlightenment and Western humanism.” (Long, p. 236)
Colonial Discourse
The system of representation through which colonial powers construct the identities of colonizers and the colonized.
“Achebe’s reading of Heart of Darkness is contrapuntal, as Africa is a site for Europe’s metaphysical crises and a place to stage its ‘comforting myths’.” (Long, p. 237)
Literary Canon Formation
The process through which certain texts are deemed as “great” or “universal,” often reinforcing Western-centric values while marginalizing non-Western voices.
“Should the novella be taught at all, and, if so, in what sort of pedagogical context?” (Long, p. 238)
Liberal Settler Consciousness
The ideological framework in which colonial settlers perceive themselves as both progressive and universal, while remaining complicit in colonial domination.
“The Stranger is more difficult to read as a racist text, and it is only with Said’s reading practice that we might understand how this vaunted novel of Western consciousness is in fact an insidious text of liberal settler consciousness.” (Long, p. 236)
Contribution of “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long to Literary Theory/Theories
Challenges the Eurocentrism of literary canon formation by interrogating the continued valorization of Conrad, Camus, and other modernist writers.
Critiques the exclusion of Third World writers from dominant literary discourse, aligning with Aijaz Ahmad’s arguments in In Theory (1992).
Questions how postcolonial studies should approach racist texts: “Should the novella be taught at all, and, if so, in what sort of pedagogical context?” (Long, p. 238).
Demonstrates how colonial discourse shapes literary representations, as seen in Achebe’s critique of Conrad: “Achebe’s reading of Heart of Darkness is contrapuntal, as Africa is a site for Europe’s metaphysical crises and a place to stage its ‘comforting myths’.” (Long, p. 237).
2. Contrapuntal Reading (Edward Said)
Builds on Said’s contrapuntal reading method, which highlights what is both present and absent in literary texts.
Examines how Said applied this reading strategy to Heart of Darkness and The Stranger, revealing underlying colonial ideologies.
Proposes a more rigorous application of contrapuntal reading to expose racial biases and class hierarchies in literature: “A contrapuntal reading recognizes the oppositions – the implicit/explicit and the absent/present – that underpin a text.” (Long, p. 241).
Extends contrapuntal reading to contemporary texts like Kamel Daoud’s The Meursault Investigation, which “offers a counter-narrative to Camus’ The Stranger, giving voice to the murdered ‘Arab’ by telling the story from his brother’s perspective.” (Long, p. 247).
3. Cold War Cultural Critique
Examines how Cold War intellectual traditions shaped Said’s literary criticism, influencing his engagement with modernist literature.
Highlights the ideological roots of aesthetic detachment, irony, and cosmopolitanism in mid-20th-century literary criticism: “Said’s valuation of Joseph Conrad and many other cosmopolitan writers is rooted in what I call a Cold War cultural critique.” (Long, p. 245).
Links Cold War literary criticism to the marginalization of anti-colonial and Marxist perspectives in Western academia: “The anticommunism, elitism, and values of the Cold War cultural critique are finally a function – moralizing – of a moral purpose and cause.” (Long, p. 245).
4. Standpoint Theory (Feminist and Postcolonial Adaptation)
Argues that literary criticism must be informed by the perspectives of marginalized and colonized groups.
Advocates for reading texts “from the standpoint of its victims,” following Said’s approach in Zionism from the Standpoint of its Victims (Long, p. 246).
Demonstrates how Algerian and African voices—such as Daoud’s The Meursault Investigation and Achebe’s An Image of Africa—challenge Western literary interpretations: “Achebe is right; to the African reader the price of Conrad’s eloquent denunciation of colonization is the recycling of racist notions of the ‘dark’ continent and her people.” (Long, p. 247).
5. Canon Formation and Literary Pedagogy
Engages in the debate over whether racially problematic literary texts should remain in the literary canon.
Acknowledges the aesthetic complexity of texts like Heart of Darkness while questioning their continued prominence in education: “It is hard to imagine a classroom in the United States today where one might teach Heart of Darkness in the aesthetic terms – irony, detachment, existential, écriture blanche – in which it was championed for so many years.” (Long, p. 249).
Suggests that literary pedagogy should balance critique with historical contextualization, rather than moralizing rejection: “We can read – and teach in the appropriate context – contrapuntally even the most racist poems and novels, not as an affirmation of racism or sexism but rather as a critical analysis of how the questionable worldview, and hegemony, works in a given text.” (Long, p. 248).
Examples of Critiques Through “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long
Literary Work
Critique in Long’s Chapter
Key Theoretical Concerns
Heart of Darkness (Joseph Conrad, 1902)
– Chinua Achebe condemns the novella as a “thoroughgoing racist” text that dehumanizes Africans and perpetuates imperialist ideology (Long, p. 235). – Edward Said, while acknowledging its racial biases, argues that its narrative technique (irony and detachment) critiques imperialism rather than affirming it (Long, p. 241). – Scholars like Cedric Watts defend Conrad, claiming Heart of Darkness exposes, rather than endorses, colonialism (Long, p. 238).
– Postcolonial Criticism (Achebe’s critique of racism in literature). – Contrapuntal Reading (Said’s nuanced interpretation of Conrad’s work). – Canon Formation Debate (Should racist texts be taught in classrooms?)
The Stranger (L’Étranger) (Albert Camus, 1942)
– Long critiques Said’s reading of Camus, arguing that The Stranger reflects “liberal settler consciousness,” an insidious colonial worldview that erases native Algerian perspectives (Long, p. 236). – Conor Cruise O’Brien critiques Camus for reinforcing a Eurocentric, colonialist narrative, as the murdered “Arab” remains unnamed and dehumanized (Long, p. 243). – Said views Camus as “a moral man in an immoral situation,” highlighting the contradictions in his stance on colonial Algeria (Long, p. 243).
– Colonial Discourse (The erasure of indigenous Algerians). – Cold War Cultural Critique (Camus as an existentialist figure aligned with European humanism). – Contrapuntal Reading (Long argues for a more critical reassessment of Camus’ political implications).
The Meursault Investigation (Kamel Daoud, 2015)
– Presents a counter-narrative to The Stranger, giving the murdered Arab a name (Musa) and telling the story from his brother’s perspective (Long, p. 247). – Daoud critiques Camus’ colonial erasure, rewriting the narrative from the standpoint of an Algerian victim of colonial violence (Long, p. 247). – Highlights the failure of postcolonial states to adequately address colonial histories, challenging both French and Algerian nationalist narratives (Long, p. 248).
– Postcolonial Rewriting (Reframing colonial literature from the perspective of the oppressed). – Standpoint Theory (The importance of marginalized perspectives in literary critique). – Contrapuntal Reading (How colonial legacies persist in literature).
A Bend in the River (V. S. Naipaul, 1979)
– Said critiques Naipaul for adopting an anti-African, colonialist perspective, arguing that the novel echoes Heart of Darkness in its depiction of postcolonial Africa as chaotic and ungovernable (Long, p. 241). – Naipaul’s portrayal of African politics is rooted in Eurocentric pessimism, reinforcing Western stereotypes of post-independence African nations (Long, p. 242). – Long aligns Said’s criticism with a broader discussion of cosmopolitan writers who, while critical of empire, still adopt colonialist frameworks (Long, p. 241).
– Postcolonial Critique of Cosmopolitanism (Naipaul as a “cosmopolitan intellectual” detached from Third World struggles). – Eurocentrism in Postcolonial Literature (Depicting Africa through a Western lens). – Canon Formation and Pedagogy (Should Naipaul’s work be read as critique or reinforcement of imperialist ideology?).
Criticism Against “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long
Overemphasis on Said’s Intellectual Formation
Long attributes Said’s contradictions largely to Cold War cultural critique, particularly the influence of Lionel Trilling and Clement Greenberg, but underplays Said’s engagement with anti-colonial and Marxist thinkers like Frantz Fanon and Antonio Gramsci (Long, p. 236).
This reduces Said’s complex theoretical shifts to Cold War liberalism rather than acknowledging his later political radicalization.
Limited Engagement with Third-World Literature
Long critiques Said for favoring Western canonical writers over Third World authors (Long, p. 236), yet his own analysis remains focused on figures like Conrad, Camus, and Naipaul, engaging only briefly with writers like Ngũgĩ wa Thiong’o and Kamel Daoud.
His work could benefit from more discussion of non-Western literary traditions and their critiques of cosmopolitanism.
Contradictions in the Evaluation of Cosmopolitan Writers
While Long argues that cosmopolitanism often masks Eurocentrism, he still engages with texts by cosmopolitan writers (e.g., Conrad, Camus, Naipaul) without fully exploring alternative postcolonial or indigenous literary frameworks (Long, p. 248).
His critique does not fully address whether all cosmopolitan intellectuals are inevitably implicated in colonial discourse or if some transcend these limitations.
Insufficient Discussion on Teaching Racist Texts
Long raises the issue of whether texts like Heart of Darkness should still be taught but does not provide a clear pedagogical framework for how they should be approached in the classroom (Long, p. 238).
His argument remains ambiguous on whether the contrapuntal method alone is enough to justify their continued inclusion in literary curricula.
Binary Framing of Postcolonial Criticism
His analysis sometimes frames postcolonial criticism as either moralistic denunciation (Ahmad) or contrapuntal critique (Said) without considering other methodologies (Long, p. 249).
This neglects alternative postcolonial approaches, such as decoloniality, that might offer more radical critiques beyond contrapuntal reading.
Neglects the Role of Gender in Literary Criticism
While engaging with race, colonialism, and class, Long does not address the role of gender and how colonial discourse intersects with representations of women in cosmopolitan literature (Long, p. 237).
His discussion of Heart of Darkness and The Strangerdoes not critically examine the portrayal of women in these texts, despite their importance in colonial narratives.
Representative Quotations from “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long with Explanation
“Indeed, Said never fully answered Chinua Achebe’s denunciation of the novelist as a ‘thoroughgoing racist,’ and his reluctance, I argue, is rooted in his intellectual formation in Cold War literary and cultural criticism.” (p. 235)
Long critiques Said’s hesitance to engage with Achebe’s critique of Heart of Darkness, attributing this to Said’s academic background, which was shaped by Cold War intellectuals such as Lionel Trilling.
“The racism of Heart of Darkness is obvious, The Stranger is more difficult to read as a racist text, and it is only with Said’s reading practice … that we might understand how this vaunted novel of Western consciousness is in fact an insidious text of liberal settler consciousness.” (p. 235)
Long highlights how different canonical texts contain racial biases, suggesting that Said’s methods help expose their ideological underpinnings. He suggests that Camus’ The Stranger also embodies colonial racism, despite its surface neutrality.
“Ahmad also criticizes Said’s use of the work of Michel Foucault, as, while Said remains an avowed humanist, Foucault’s project was entirely opposed to the institutions of the Enlightenment and Western humanism.” (p. 236)
Aijaz Ahmad critiques Said for inconsistencies in his theoretical influences, noting a contradiction in his admiration for both Foucault and the humanist literary tradition.
“It is especially exasperating for Ahmad that Said champions Salman Rushdie, a writer long based in Britain. Without supporting the fatwa, Ahmad points out that Rushdie writes for an elite Anglophone audience, not his fellow working-class Britons of South Asian ancestry.” (p. 236)
Ahmad sees a contradiction in Said’s postcolonial critique, arguing that Said privileges cosmopolitan, elite writers over more grounded Third World voices.
“The strongest parts of his argument, however, concern the representation of Africans in Heart of Darkness and the racist language of the text.” (p. 237)
Long acknowledges Achebe’s critique of Conrad’s portrayal of Africans as dehumanized figures, reinforcing the argument that Heart of Darkness perpetuates racist imagery.
“Should the novella be taught at all, and, if so, in what sort of pedagogical context?” (p. 238)
Long raises the important question of how racist texts should be engaged in contemporary classrooms—whether they should be studied as historical artifacts or challenged through new critical frameworks.
“It is only in his well-known chapter of Culture and Imperialism ‘Two Visions in Heart of Darkness’ that Said finally discusses the colonial and racial references and textual features of this novella.” (p. 241)
Long points out that Said took a long time to directly address the racial aspects of Heart of Darkness, suggesting an initial reluctance to frame it as a racist text.
“For O’Brien, as Said observes, Camus was a ‘moral man in an immoral situation,’ a position which preserves his humanist reputation and resonates with Said’s comments on Conrad and his novella.” (p. 243)
Long connects critiques of Conrad and Camus, arguing that both are excused as humanists despite the colonialist and racist dimensions of their works.
“Simply put, Said’s valuation of Joseph Conrad and many other cosmopolitan writers is rooted in what I call a Cold War cultural critique, albeit with some aspects inverted.” (p. 244)
Long introduces the idea that Said’s literary criticism was shaped by Cold War-era aesthetic and political debates, which shaped his tendency to defend certain canonical figures.
“And yet, yes, we should not jettison these texts, at least according to Said’s valuation of literature in Orientalism and in Culture and Imperialism … even the most racist poems and novels, not as an affirmation of racism or sexism but rather as a critical analysis of how the questionable worldview, and hegemony, works in a given text.” (p. 248)
Long concludes that racist texts should not be discarded but rather critically analyzed using Said’s contrapuntal method, which exposes their underlying power structures.
Suggested Readings: “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?” by Andew C. Long
Long, Andrew C. “Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism?.” Orientalism and Literature.
Long AC. Can the Cosmopolitan Writer Be Absolved of Racism? In: Nash GP, ed. Orientalism and Literature. Cambridge Critical Concepts. Cambridge University Press; 2019:235-252.
“Christmas Eve” by Robert Browning first appeared in 1850 as part of his collection Christmas-Eve and Easter-Day.
Introduction: “Christmas Eve” by Robert Browning
“Christmas Eve” by Robert Browning first appeared in 1850 as part of his collection Christmas-Eve and Easter-Day. The poem is a dramatic monologue exploring themes of faith, doubt, religious experience, and the tension between institutionalized religion and personal spirituality. Browning presents a journey of religious introspection through the perspective of a skeptical yet searching narrator who attends different Christian services—first in a Nonconformist chapel, then at St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, and finally in a German university lecture hall. The poem’s popularity lies in its rich philosophical and theological engagement, as well as Browning’s ability to depict religious experiences with psychological depth. Through striking imagery and rhythmic variation, he contrasts the rigid dogmatism of different religious traditions with the intimate and mystical experience of divine revelation. The narrator’s ultimate realization that personal faith transcends doctrinal barriers is symbolized by his vision of Christ’s garment, reinforcing the idea that true spiritual connection is found beyond mere rituals and theological debates. The poem’s vivid descriptions—such as the stormy night setting of the chapel (“the rain kept driving” and “the crazy hinge”)—create a sensory experience that mirrors the narrator’s inner turmoil. Similarly, the grand spectacle of St. Peter’s Basilica, where “earth breaks up, time drops away,” heightens the contrast between ornate Catholic ritual and personal faith. Browning’s exploration of faith remains relevant because of its nuanced treatment of doubt and conviction, making Christmas Eve an enduring work in religious and philosophical poetry.
Text: “Christmas Eve” by Robert Browning
I. OUT of the little chapel I burst Into the fresh night air again. I had waited a good five minutes first In the doorway, to escape the rain That drove in gusts down the common’s centre, At the edge of which the chapel stands, Before I plucked up heart to enter: Heaven knows how many sorts of hands Reached past me, groping for the latch Of the inner door that hung on catch, More obstinate the more they fumbled, Till, giving way at last with a scold Of the crazy hinge, in squeezed or tumbled One sheep more to the rest in fold, And left me irresolute, standing sentry In the sheepfold’s lath-and-plaster entry, Four feet long by two feet wide, Partitioned off from the vast inside— I blocked up half of it at least. No remedy; the rain kept driving: They eyed me much as some wild beast, The congregation, still arriving, Some of them by the mainroad, white A long way past me into the night, Skirting the common, then diverging; Not a few suddenly emerging From the common’s self thro’ the paling-gaps,— —They house in the gravel-pits perhaps, Where the road stops short with its safeguard border Of lamps, as tired of such disorder;— But the most turned in yet more abruptly From a certain squalid knot of alleys, Where the town’s bad blood once slept corruptly, Which now the little chapel rallies And leads into day again,—its priestliness Lending itself to hide their beastliness So cleverly (thanks in part to the mason), And putting so cheery a whitewashed face on Those neophytes too much in lack of it, That, where you cross the common as I did, And meet the party thus presided, “Mount Zion,” with Love-lane at the back of it, They front you as little disconcerted, As, bound for the hills, her fate averted And her wicked people made to mind him, Lot might have marched with Gomorrah behind him.
II. Well, from the road, the lanes or the common, In came the flock: the fat weary woman, Panting and bewildered, down-clapping Her umbrella with a mighty report, Grounded it by me, wry and flapping, A wreck of whalebones; then, with a snort, Like a startled horse, at the interloper Who humbly knew himself improper, But could not shrink up small enough, Round to the door, and in,—the gruff Hinge’s invariable scold Making your very blood run cold. Prompt in the wake of her, up-pattered On broken clogs, the many-tattered Little old-faced, peaking sister-turned-mother Of the sickly babe she tried to smother Somehow up, with its spotted face, From the cold, on her breast, the one warm place; She too must stop, wring the poor suds dry Of a draggled shawl, and add thereby Her tribute to the door-mat, sopping Already from my own clothes’ dropping, Which yet she seemed to grudge I should stand on; Then stooping down to take off her pattens, She bore them defiantly, in each hand one, Planted together before her breast And its babe, as good as a lance in rest. Close on her heels, the dingy satins Of a female something, past me flitted, With lips as much too white, as a streak Lay far too red on each hollow cheek; And it seemed the very door-hinge pitied All that was left of a woman once, Holding at least its tongue for the nonce. Then a tall yellow man, like the Penitent Thief, With his jaw bound up in a handkerchief, And eyelids screwed together tight, Led himself in by some inner light. And, except from him, from each that entered, I had the same interrogation— “What, you, the alien, you have ventured “To take with us, elect, your station? “A carer for none of it, a Gallio?”— Thus, plain as print, I read the glance At a common prey, in each countenance, As of huntsman giving his hounds the tallyho: And, when the door’s cry drowned their wonder, The draught, it always sent in shutting, Made the flame of the single tallow candle In the cracked square lanthorn I stood under, Shoot its blue lip at me, rebutting, As it were, the luckless cause of scandal: I verily thought the zealous light (In the chapel’s secret, too!) for spite, Would shudder itself clean off the wick, With the airs of a St. John’s Candlestick. There was no standing it much longer. “Good folks,” said I, as resolve grew stronger, “This way you perform the Grand-Inquisitor, “When the weather sends you a chance visitor? “You are the men, and wisdom shall die with you, “And none of the old Seven Churches vie with you! “But still, despite the pretty perfection “To which you carry your trick of exclusiveness, “And, taking God’s word under wise protection, “Correct its tendency to diffusiveness, “Bidding one reach it over hot ploughshares,— “Still, as I say, though you’ve found salvation, “If I should choose to cry—as now—’Shares!’— “See if the best of you bars me my ration! “Because I prefer for my expounder “Of the laws of the feast, the feast’s own Founder: “Mine’s the same right with your poorest and sickliest, “Supposing I don the marriage-vestiment; “So, shut your mouth, and open your Testament, “And carve me my portion at your quickliest!” Accordingly, as a shoemaker’s lad With wizened face in want of soap, And wet apron wound round his waist like a rope, After stopping outside, for his cough was bad, To get the fit over, poor gentle creature, And so avoid disturbing the preacher, Passed in, I sent my elbow spikewise At the shutting door, and entered likewise,— Received the hinge’s accustomed greeting, Crossed the threshold’s magic pentacle, And found myself in full conventicle, —To wit, in Zion Chapel Meeting, On the Christmas-Eve of ‘Forty-nine, Which, calling its flock to their special clover, Found them assembled and one sheep over, Whose lot, as the weather pleased, was mine.
III. I very soon had enough of it. The hot smell and the human noises, And my neighbour’s coat, the greasy cuff of it, Were a pebble-stone that a child’s hand poises, Compared with the pig-of-lead-like pressure Of the preaching-man’s immense stupidity, As he poured his doctrine forth, full measure, To meet his audience’s avidity. You needed not the wit of the Sybil To guess the cause of it all, in a twinkling— No sooner had our friend an inkling Of treasure hid in the Holy Bible, (Whenever it was the thought first struck hin How Death, at unawares, might duck him Deeper than the grave, and quench The gin-shop’s light in Hell’s grim drench) Than he handled it so, in fine irreverence, As to hug the Book of books to pieces: And, a patchwork of chapters and texts in severance, Not improved by the private dog’s-ears and creases, Having clothed his own soul with, he’d fain see equipt yours,— So tossed you again your Holy Scriptures. And you picked them up, in a sense, no doubt: Nay, had but a single face of my neighbours Appeared to suspect that the preacher’s labours Were help which the world could be saved without, ‘Tis odds but I had borne in quiet A qualm or two at my spiritual diet; Or, who can tell? had even mustered Somewhat to urge in behalf of the sermon: But the flock sate on, divinely flustered, Sniffing, methought, its dew of Hermon With such content in every snuffle, As the devil inside us loves to ruffle. My old fat woman purred with pleasure, And thumb round thumb went twirling faster While she, to his periods keeping measure, Maternally devoured the pastor. The man with the handkerchief, untied it. Showed us a horrible wen inside it, Gave his eyelids yet another screwing. And rocked himself as the woman was doing. The shoemaker’s lad, discreetly choking, Kept down his cough. ‘Twas too provoking! My gorge rose at the nonsense and stuff of it, And saying, like Eve when she plucked the apple, “I wanted a taste, and now there’s enough of it,” I flung out of the little chapel.
IV. There was a lull in the rain, a lull In the wind too; the moon was risen, And would have shone out pure and full, But for the ramparted cloud-prison, Block on block built up in the west, For what purpose the wind knows best, Who changes his mind continually. And the empty other half of the sky Seemed in its silence as if it knew What, any moment, might look through A chance-gap in that fortress massy:— Through its fissures you got hints Of the flying moon, by the shifting tints, Now, a dull lion-colour, now, brassy Burning to yellow, and whitest yellow, Like furnace-smoke just ere the flames bellow, All a-simmer with intense strain To let her through,—then blank again, At the hope of her appearance failing. Just by the chapel, a break in the railing Shows a narrow path directly across; ‘Tis ever dry walking there, on the moss— Besides, you go gently all the way uphill: I stooped under and soon felt better: My head grew light, my limbs more supple, As I walked on, glad to have slipt the fetter; My mind was full of the scene I had left, That placid flock, that pastor vociferant, —How this outside was pure and different! The sermon, now—what a mingled weft Of good and ill! were either less, Its fellow had coloured the whole distinctly; But alas for the excellent earnestness, And the truths, quite true if stated succinctly, But as surely false, in their quaint presentment, However to pastor and flock’s contentment! Say rather, such truths looked false to your eyes, With his provings and parallels twisted and twined, Till how could you know them, grown double their size, In the natural fog of the good man’s mind? Like yonder spots of our roadside lamps, Haloed about with the common’s damps. Truth remains true, the fault’s in the prover; The zeal was good, and the aspiration; And yet, and yet, yet, fifty times over, Pharaoh received no demonstration By his Baker’s dream of Baskets Three, Of the doctrine of the Trinity,— Although, as our preacher thus embellished it, Apparently his hearers relished it With so unfeigned a gust—who knows if They did not prefer our friend to Joseph? But so it is everywhere, one way with all of them! These people have really felt, no doubt, A something, the motion they style the Call of them; And this is their method of bringing about, By a mechanism of words and tones, (So many texts in so many groans) A sort of reviving or reproducing, More or less perfectly, (who can tell?—) Of the mood itself, that strengthens by using; And how it happens, I understand well. A tune was born in my head last week, Out of the thump-thump and shriek-shriek Of the train, as I came by it, up from Manchester; And when, next week, I take it back again, My head will sing to the engine’s clack again, While it only makes my neighbour’s haunches stir, —Finding no dormant musical sprout In him, as in me, to be jolted out. ‘Tis the taught already that profit by teaching; He gets no more from the railway’s preaching, Than, from this preacher who does the rail’s office, I, Whom therefore the flock casts a jealous eye on. Still, why paint over their door “Mount Zion,” To which all flesh shall come, saith the prophecy?
V. But wherefore be harsh on a single case? After how many modes, this Christmas-Eve, Does the selfsame weary thing take place? The same endeavour to make you believe, And much with the same effect, no more: Each method abundantly convincing, As I say, to those convinced before, But scarce to he swallowed without wincing, By the not-as-yet-convinced. For me, I have my own church equally. And in this church my faith sprang first! (I said, as I reached the rising ground, And the wind began again, with a burst Of rain in my face, and a glad rebound From the heart beneath, as if, God speeding me, I entered His church-door, Nature leading me) —In youth I looked to these very skies, And probing their immensities, I found God there, His visible power; Yet felt in my heart, amid all its sense Of that power, an equal evidence That His love, there too, was the nobler dower. For the loving worm within its clod, Were diviner than a loveless god Amid his worlds, I will dare to say. You know what I mean: God’s all, man’s nought: But also, God, whose pleasure brought Man into being, stands away As it were, an handbreadth off, to give Room for the newly-made to live, And look at Him from a place apart, And use his gifts of brain and heart, Given, indeed, but to keep for ever. Who speaks of man, then, must not sever Man’s very elements from man, Saying, “But all is God’s”—whose plan Was to create man and then leave him Able, His own word saith, to grieve Him, But able to glorify Him too, As a mere machine could never do, That prayed or praised, all unaware Of its fitness for aught but praise and prayer, Made perfect as a thing of course. Man, therefore, stands on his own stock Of love and power as a pin-point rock, And, looking to God who ordained divorce Of the rock from His boundless continent, Sees in His Power made evident, Only excess by a million fold O’er the power God gave man in the mould. For, see: Man’s hand, first formed to carry A few pounds’ weight, when taught to marry Its strength with an engine’s, lifts a mountain, —Advancing in power by one degree; And why count steps through eternity? But Love is the ever springing fountain: Man may enlarge or narrow his bed For the water’s play, but the water head— How can he multiply or reduce it? As easy create it, as cause it to cease: He may profit by it, or abuse it; But ’tis not a thing to bear increase As power will: be love less or more In the heart of man, he keeps it shut Or opes it wide as he pleases, but Love’s sum remains what it was before. So, gazing up, in my youth, at love As seen through power, ever above All modes which make it manifest, My soul brought all to a single test— That He, the Eternal First and Last, Who, in His power, had so surpassed All man conceives of what is might,— Whose wisdom, too, showed infinite, —Would prove as infinitely good; Would never, my soul understood, With power to work all love desires, Bestow e’en less than man requires: That He who endlessly was teaching, Above my spirit’s utmost reaching, What love can do in the leaf or stone, (So that to master this alone, This done in the stone or leaf for me, I must go on learning endlessly) Would never need that I, in turn, Should point him out a defect unheeded, And show that God had yet to learn What the meanest human creature needed,— —Not life, to wit, for a few short years, Tracking His way through doubts and fears, While the stupid earth on which I stay Suffers no change, but passive adds Its myriad years to myriads, Though I, He gave it to, decay, Seeing death come and choose about me, And my dearest ones depart without me. No! love which, on earth, amid all the shows of it, Has ever been seen the sole good of life in it, The love, ever growing there, spite of the strife in it, Shall arise, made perfect, from death’s repose of it! And I shall behold Thee, face to face, O God, and in Thy light retrace How in all I loved here, still wast Thou! Whom pressing to, then, as I fain would now, I shall find as able to satiate The love, Thy gift, as my spirit’s wonder Thou art able to quicken and sublimate, Was this sky of Thine, that I now walk under, And glory in Thee as thus I gaze, —Thus, thus! oh, let men keep their ways Of seeking Thee in a narrow shrine— Be this my way! And this is mine!
VI. For lo, what think you? suddenly The rain and the wind ceased, and the sky Received at once the full fruition Of the moon’s consummate apparition. The black cloud-barricade was riven, Ruined beneath her feet, and driven Deep in the west; while, bare and breathless, North and south and east lay ready For a glorious Thing, that, dauntless, deathless, Sprang across them, and stood steady. ‘Twas a moon-rainbow, vast and perfect, From heaven to heaven extending, perfect As the mother-moon’s self, full in face. It rose, distinctly at the base With its seven proper colours chorded, Which still, in the rising, were compressed, Until at last they coalesced, And supreme the spectral creature lorded In a triumph of whitest white,— Above which intervened the night. But above night too, like the next, The second of a wondrous sequence, Reaching in rare and rarer frequence, Till the heaven of heavens be circumflext, Another rainbow rose, a mightier, Fainter, flushier, and flightier,— Rapture dying along its verge! Oh, whose foot shall I see emerge, WHOSE, from the straining topmost dark, On to the keystone of that arc?
VII. This sight was shown me, there and then,— Me, one out of a world of men, Singled forth, as the chance might hap To another, if in a thunderclap Where I heard noise, and you saw flame, Some one man knew God called his name. For me, I think I said, “Appear! “Good were it to be ever here. “If Thou wilt, let me build to Thee “Service-tabernacles Three, “Where, for ever in Thy presence, “In extatic acquiescence, “Far alike from thriftless learning “And ignorance’s undiscerning, ” I may worship and remain!” Thus, at the show above me, gazing With upturned eyes, I felt my brain Glutted with the glory, blazing Throughout its whole mass, over and under, Until at length it burst asunder, And out of it bodily there streamed The too-much glory, as it seemed, Passing from out me to the ground, Then palely serpentining round Into the dark with mazy error.
VIII. All at once I looked up with terror. He was there. He Himself with His human air, On the narrow pathway, just before: I saw the back of Him, no more— He had left the chapel, then, as I. I forgot all about the sky. No face: only the sight Of a sweepy Garment, vast and white, With a hem that I could recognise. I felt terror, no surprise: My mind filled with the cataract, At one bound, of the mighty fact. I remembered, He did say Doubtless, that, to this world’s end, Where two or three should meet and pray, He would be in the midst, their Friend: Certainly He was there with them. And my pulses leaped for joy Of the golden thought without alloy, That I saw His very Vesture’s hem. Then rushed the blood back, cold and clear With a fresh enhancing shiver of fear, And I hastened, cried out while I pressed To the salvation of the Vest, “But not so, Lord! It cannot be “That Thou, indeed, art leaving me— “Me, that have despised Thy friends. “Did my heart make no amends? “Thou art the Love of God—above “His Power, didst hear me place His Love, “And that was leaving the world for Thee! “Therefore Thou must not turn from me “As if I had chosen the other part. “Folly and pride o’ercame my heart. “Our best is bad, nor bears Thy test “Still it should be our very best. “I thought it best that Thou, the Spirit, “Be worshipped in spirit and in truth, “And in beauty, as even we require it— “Not in the forms burlesque, uncouth, “I left but now, as scarcely fitted “For Thee: I knew not what I pitied: “But, all I felt there, right or wrong, “What is it to Thee, who curest sinning? “Am I not weak as Thou art strong? “I have looked to Thee from the beginning, “Straight up to Thee through all the world “Which, like an idle scroll, lay furled “To nothingness on either side: “And since the time Thou wast descried, “Spite of the weak heart, so have I “Lived ever, and so fain would die, “Living and dying, Thee before! “But if Thou leavest me—”
IX. Less or more, I suppose that I spoke thus. When,—have mercy, Lord, on us! The whole Face turned upon me full. And I spread myself beneath it, As when the bleacher spreads, to seethe it In the cleansing sun, his wool,— Steeps in the flood of noontide whiteness Some defiled, discoloured web— So lay I, saturate with brightness. And when the flood appeared to ebb, Lo, I was walking, light and swift, With my senses settling fast and steadying, But my body caught up in the whirl and drift Of the Vesture’s amplitude, still eddying On, just before me, still to be followed, As it carried me after with its motion: What shall I say?—as a path were hollowed And a man went weltering through the ocean, Sucked along in the flying wake Of the luminous water-snake. Darkness and cold were cloven, as through I passed, upborne yet walking too. And I turned to myself at intervals,— “So He said, and so it befals. “God who registers the cup “Of mere cold water, for His sake “To a disciple rendered up, “Disdains not His own thirst to slake “At the poorest love was ever offered: “And because it was my heart I proffered, “With true love trembling at the brim, “He suffers me to follow Him “For ever, my own way,—dispensed “From seeking to be influenced “By all the less immediate ways “That earth, in worships manifold, “Adopts to reach, by prayer and praise, ‘The Garment’s hem, which, lo, I hold!”
X. And so we crossed the world and stopped. For where am I, in city or plain, Since I am ‘ware of the world again? And what is this that rises propped With pillars of prodigious girth? Is it really on the earth, This miraculous Dome of God? Has the angel’s measuring-rod Which numbered cubits, gem from gem, ‘Twixt the gates of the New Jerusalem, Meted it out,—and what he meted, Have the sons of men completed? —Binding, ever as he bade, Columns in this colonnade With arms wide open to embrace The entry of the human race To the breast of . . . what is it, yon building, Ablaze in front, all paint and gilding, With marble for brick, and stones of price For garniture of the edifice? Now I see: it is no dream: It stands there and it does not seem; For ever, in pictures, thus it looks, And thus I have read of it in books, Often in England, leagues away, And wondered how those fountains play, Growing up eternally Each to a musical water-tree, Whose blossoms drop, a glittering boon, Before my eyes, in the light of the moon, To the granite lavers underneath. Liar and dreamer in your teeth! I, the sinner that speak to you, Was in Rome this night, and stood, and knew Both this and more! For see, for see, The dark is rent, mine eye is free To pierce the crust of the outer wall, And I view inside, and all there, all, As the swarming hollow of a hive, The whole Basilica alive! Men in the chancel, body, and nave, Men on the pillars’ architrave, Men on the statues, men on the tombs With popes and kings in their porphyry wombs, All famishing in expectation Of the main-altar’s consummation. For see, for see, the rapturous moment Approaches, and earth’s best endowment Blends with heaven’s: the taper-fires Pant up, the winding brazen spires Heave loftier yet the baldachin: The incense-gaspings, long kept in, Suspire in clouds; the organ blatant Holds his breath and grovels latent, As if God’s hushing finger grazed him, (Like Behemoth when He praised him) At the silver bell’s shrill tinkling, Quick cold drops of terror sprinkling On the sudden pavement strewed With faces of the multitude. Earth breaks up, time drops away, In flows heaven, with its new day Of endless life, when He who trod, Very Man and very God, This earth in weakness, shame and pain, Dying the death whose signs remain Up yonder on the accursed tree,— Shall come again, no more to be Of captivity the thrall, But the one God, all in all, King of kings, and Lord of lords, As His servant John received the words, “I died, and live for evermore!”
XI. Yet I was left outside the door. Why sate I there on the threshold-stone, Left till He returns, alone Save for the Garment’s extreme fold Abandoned still to bless my hold?— My reason, to my doubt, replied, As if a book were opened wide, And at a certain page I traced Every record undefaced, Added by successive years,— The harvestings of truth’s stray ears Singly gleaned, and in one sheaf Bound together for belief. Yes, I said—that He will go And sit with these in turn, I know. Their faith’s heart beats, though her head swims Too giddily to guide her limbs, Disabled by their palsy-stroke From propping me. Though Rome’s gross yoke Drops off, no more to be endured, Her teaching is not so obscured By errors and perversities, That no truth shines athwart the lies: And He, whose eye detects a spark Even where, to man’s, the whole seems dark, May well see flame where each beholder Acknowledges the embers smoulder. But I, a mere man, fear to quit The clue God gave me as most fit To guide my footsteps through life’s maze, Because Himself discerns all ways Open to reach Him: I, a man He gave to mark where faith began To swerve aside, till from its summit Judgment drops her damning plummet, Pronouncing such a fatal space Departed from the Founder’s base: He will not bid me enter too, But rather sit, as now I do, Awaiting His return outside. —’Twas thus my reason straight replied, And joyously I turned, and pressed The Garment’s skirt upon my breast, Until, afresh its light suffusing me, My heart cried,—what has been abusing me That I should wait here lonely and coldly, Instead of rising, entering boldly, Baring truth’s face, and letting drift Her veils of lies as they choose to shift? Do these men praise Him? I will raise My voice up to their point of praise! I see the error; but above The scope of error, see the love.— Oh, love of those first Christian days! —Fanned so soon into a blaze, From the spark preserved by the trampled sect, That the antique sovereign Intellect Which then sate ruling in the world, Like a change in dreams, was hurled From the throne he reigned upon: —You looked up, and he was gone! Gone, his glory of the pen! —Love, with Greece and Rome in ken, Bade her scribes abhor the trick Of poetry and rhetoric, And exult, with hearts set free, In blessed imbecility Scrawled, perchance, on some torn sheet, Leaving Livy incomplete. Gone, his pride of sculptor, painter! —Love, while able to acquaint her With the thousand statues yet Fresh from chisel, pictures wet From brush, she saw on every side, Chose rather with an infant’s pride To frame those portents which impart Such unction to true Christian Art. Gone, Music too! The air was stirred By happy wings: Terpander’s bird (That, when the cold came, fled away) Would tarry not the wintry day,— As more-enduring sculpture must, Till a filthy saint rebuked the gust With which he chanced to get a sight Of some dear naked Aphrodite He glanced a thought above the toes of, By breaking zealously her nose off. Love, surely, from that music’s lingering, Might have filched her organ-fingering, Nor chose rather to set prayings To hog-grunts, praises to horse-neighings. Love was the startling thing, the new; Love was the all-sufficient too; And seeing that, you see the rest. As a babe can find its mother’s breast As well in darkness as in light, Love shut our eyes, and all seemed right. True, the world’s eyes are open now: —Less need for me to disallow Some few that keep Love’s zone unbuckled, Peevish as ever to be suckled, Lulled by the same old baby-prattle With intermixture of the rattle, When she would have them creep, stand steady Upon their feet, or walk already, Not to speak of trying to climb. I will be wise another time, And not desire a wall between us, When next I see a church-roof cover So many species of one genus, All with foreheads bearing Lover Written above the earnest eyes of them; All with breasts that beat for beauty, Whether sublimed, to the surprise of them, In noble daring, steadfast duty, The heroic in passion, or in action,— Or, lowered for the senses’ satisfaction, To the mere outside of human creatures, Mere perfect form and faultless features. What! with all Rome here, whence to levy Such contributions to their appetite, With women and men in a gorgeous bevy, They take, as it were, a padlock, and clap it tight On their southern eyes, restrained from feeding On the glories of their ancient reading, On the beauties of their modern singing, On the wonders of the builder’s bringing, On the majesties of Art around them,— And, all these loves, late struggling incessant, When faith has at last united and bound them, They offer up to God for a present! Why, I will, on the whole, be rather proud of it,— And, only taking the act in reference To the other recipients who might have allowed of it I will rejoice that God had the preference!
XII. So I summed up my new resolves: Too much love there can never be. And where the intellect devolves Its function on love exclusively, I, as one who possesses both, Will accept the provision, nothing loth, —Will feast my love, then depart elsewhere, That my intellect may find its share. And ponder, O soul, the while thou departest, And see thou applaud the great heart of the artist, Who, examining the capabilities Of the block of marble he has to fashion Into a type of thought or passion,— Not always, using obvious facilities, Shapes it, as any artist can, Into a perfect symmetrical man, Complete from head to foot of the life-size, Such as old Adam stood in his wife’s eyes,— But, now and then, bravely aspires to consummate A Colossus by no means so easy to come at, And uses the whole of his block for the bust, Leaving the minds of the public to finish it, Since cut it ruefully short he must: On the face alone he expends his devotion; He rather would mar than resolve to diminish it, —Saying, “Applaud me for this grand notion “Of what a face may be! As for completing it “In breast and body and limbs, do that, you!” All hail! I fancy how, happily meeting it, A trunk and legs would perfect the statue, Could man carve so as to answer volition. And how much nobler than petty cavils, A hope to find, in my spirit-travels, Some artist of another ambition, Who having a block to carve, no bigger, Has spent his power on the opposite quest, And believed to begin at the feet was best— For so may I see, ere I die, the whole figure!
XIII. No sooner said than out in the night! And still as we swept through storm and night, My heart beat lighter and more light: And lo, as before, I was walking swift, With my senses settling fast and steadying, But my body caught up in the whirl and drift Of the Vesture’s amplitude, still eddying On just before me, still to be followed, As it carried me after with its motion, —What shall I say?—as a path were hollowed, And a man went weltering through the ocean Sucked along in the flying wake Of the luminous water-snake.
XIV. Alone! I am left alone once more— (Save for the Garment’s extreme fold Abandoned still to bless my hold) Alone, beside the entrance-door Of a sort of temple,—perhaps a college, —Like nothing I ever saw before At home in England, to my knowledge. The tall, old, quaint, irregular town! It may be . . though which, I can’t affirm . . any Of the famous middle-age towns of Germany; And this flight of stairs where I sit down, Is it Halle, Weimar, Cassel, or Frankfort, Or Göttingen, that I have to thank for’t? It may be Göttingen,—most likely. Through the open door I catch obliquely Glimpses of a lecture-hall; And not a bad assembly neither— Ranged decent and symmetrical On benches, waiting what’s to see there; Which, holding still by the Vesture’s hem, I also resolve to see with them, Cautious this time how I suffer to slip The chance of joining in fellowship With any that call themselves His friends, As these folks do, I have a notion. But hist—a buzzing and emotion! All settle themselves, the while ascends By the creaking rail to the lecture-desk, Step by step, deliberate Because of his cranium’s over-freight, Three parts sublime to one grotesque, If I have proved an accurate guesser, The hawk-nosed, high-cheek-boned Professor. I felt at once as if there ran A shoot of love from my heart to the man— That sallow, virgin-minded, studious Martyr to mild enthusiasm, As he uttered a kind of cough-preludious That woke my sympathetic spasm, (Beside some spitting that made me sorry) And stood, surveying his auditory With a wan pure look, well nigh celestial,— —Those blue eyes had survived so much! While, under the foot they could not smutch, Lay all the fleshly and the bestial. Over he bowed, and arranged his notes, Till the auditory’s clearing of throats Was done with, died into silence; And, when each glance was upward sent, Each bearded mouth composed intent, And a pin might be heard drop half a mile hence,— He pushed back higher his spectacles, Let the eyes stream out like lamps from cells, And giving his head of hair—a hake Of undressed tow, for colour and quantity— One rapid and impatient shake, (As our own young England adjusts a jaunty tie When about to impart, on mature digestion, Some thrilling view of the surplice-question) —The Professor’s grave voice, sweet though hoarse, Broke into his Christmas-Eve’s discourse.
XV. And he began it by observing How reason dictated that men Should rectify the natural swerving, By a reversion, now and then, To the well-heads of knowledge, few And far away, whence rolling grew The life-stream wide whereat we drink, Commingled, as we needs must think, With waters alien to the source: To do which, aimed this Eve’s discourse. Since, where could be a fitter time For tracing backward to its prime, This Christianity, this lake, This reservoir, whereat we slake, From one or other bank, our thirst? So he proposed inquiring first Into the various sources whence This Myth of Christ is derivable; Demanding from the evidence, (Since plainly no such life was liveable) How these phenomena should class? Whether ’twere best opine Christ was, Or never was at all, or whether He was and was not, both together— It matters little for the name, So the Idea be left the same: Only, for practical purpose’ sake, ‘Twas obviously as well to take The popular story,—understanding How the ineptitude of the time, And the penman’s prejudice, expanding Fact into fable fit for the clime, Had, by slow and sure degrees, translated it Into this myth, this Individuum,— Which, when reason had strained and abated it Of foreign matter, gave, for residuum, A Man!—a right true man, however, Whose work was worthy a man’s endeavour! Work, that gave warrant almost sufficient To his disciples, for rather believing He was just omnipotent and omniscient, As it gives to us, for as frankly receiving His word, their tradition,—which, though it meant Something entirely different From all that those who only heard it, In their simplicity thought and averred it, Had yet a meaning quite as respectable: For, among other doctrines delectable, Was he not surely the first to insist on, The natural sovereignty of our race?— Here the lecturer came to a pausing-place. And while his cough, like a drouthy piston, Tried to dislodge the husk that grew to him, I seized the occasion of bidding adieu to him, The Vesture still within my hand.
XVI. I could interpret its command. This time He would not bid me enter The exhausted air-bell of the Critic. Truth’s atmosphere may grow mephitic When Papist struggles with Dissenter, Impregnating its pristine clarity, —One, by his daily fare’s vulgarity, Its gust of broken meat and garlic; —One, by his soul’s too-much presuming, To turn the frankincense’s fuming And vapours of the candle starlike Into the cloud her wings she buoys on: And each, that sets the pure air seething, Poisoning it for healthy breathing— But the Critic leaves no air to poison; Pumps out by a ruthless ingenuity Atom by atom, and leaves you—vacuity. Thus much of Christ, does he reject? And what retain? His intellect? What is it I must reverence duly? Poor intellect for worship, truly, Which tells me simply what was told (If mere morality, bereft Of the God in Christ, be all that’s left) Elsewhere by voices manifold; With this advantage, that the stater Made nowise the important stumble Of adding, he, the sage and humble, Was also one with the Creator. You urge Christ’s followers’ simplicity: But how does shifting blame, evade it? Have wisdom’s words no more felicity? The stumbling-block, His speech—who laid it? How comes it that for one found able, To sift the truth of it from fable, Millions believe it to the letter? Christ’s goodness, then—does that fare better? Strange goodness, which upon the score Of being goodness, the mere due Of man to fellow-man, much more To God,—should take another view Of its possessor’s privilege, And bid him rule his race! You pledge Your fealty to such rule? What, all— From Heavenly John and Attic Paul, And that brave weather-battered Peter Whose stout faith only stood completer For buffets, sinning to be pardoned, As the more his hands hauled nets, they hardened,— All, down to you, the man of men, Professing here at Göttingen, Compose Christ’s flock! So, you and I Are sheep of a good man! and why? The goodness,—how did he acquire it? Was it self-gained, did God inspire it? Choose which; then tell me, on what ground Should its possessor dare propound His claim to rise o’er us an inch? Were goodness all some man’s invention, Who arbitrarily made mention What we should follow, and where flinch,— What qualities might take the style Of right and wrong,—and had such guessing Met with as general acquiescing As graced the Alphabet erewhile, When A got leave an Ox to be, No Camel (quoth the Jews) like G,— For thus inventing thing and title Worship were that man’s fit requital. But if the common conscience must Be ultimately judge, adjust Its apt name to each quality Already known,—I would decree Worship for such mere demonstration And simple work of nomenclature, Only the day I praised, not Nature, But Harvey, for the circulation. I would praise such a Christ, with pride And joy, that he, as none beside, Had taught us how to keep the mind God gave him, as God gave his kind, Freer than they from fleshly taint! I would call such a Christ our Saint, As I declare our Poet, him Whose insight makes all others dim: A thousand poets pried at life, And only one amid the strife Rose to be Shakespeare! Each shall take His crown, I’d say, for the world’s sake— Though some objected—”Had we seen “The heart and head of each, what screen “Was broken there to give them light, “While in ourselves it shuts the sight, “We should no more admire, perchance, “That these found truth out at a glance, “Than marvel how the bat discerns “Some pitch-dark cavern’s fifty turns, “Led by a finer tact, a gift “He boasts, which other birds must shift “Without, and grope as best they can.” No, freely I would praise the man.— Nor one whit more, if he contended That gift of his, from God, descended. Ah, friend, what gift of man’s does not? No nearer Something, by a jot, Rise an infinity of Nothings Than one: take Euclid for your teacher: Distinguish kinds: do crownings, clothings, Make that Creator which was creature? Multiply gifts upon his head, And what, when all’s done, shall be said But . . . the more gifted he, I ween! That one’s made Christ, another, Pilate, And This might be all That has been,— So what is there to frown or smile at? What is left for us, save, in growth, Of soul, to rise up, far past both, From the gift looking to the Giver, And from the cistern to the River, And from the finite to Infinity, And from man’s dust to God’s divinity?
XVII. Take all in a word: the Truth in God’s breast Lies trace for trace upon ours impressed: Though He is so bright and we so dim, We are made in His image to witness Him; And were no eye in us to tell, Instructed by no inner sense. The light of Heaven from the dark of Hell, That light would want its evidence,— Though Justice, Good and Truth were still Divine, if by some demon’s will, Hatred and wrong had been proclaimed Law through the worlds, and Right misnamed. No mere exposition of morality Made or in part or in totality, Should win you to give it worship, therefore: And, if no better proof you will care for, —Whom do you count the worst man upon earth? Be sure, he knows, in his conscience, more Of what Right is, than arrives at birth In the best man’s acts that we bow before: This last knows better—true; but my fact is, ‘Tis one thing to know, and another to practise; And thence I conclude that the real God-function Is to furnish a motive and injunction For practising what we know already. And such an injunction and such a motive As the God in Christ, do you waive, and “heady High minded,” hang your tablet-votive Outside the fane on a finger-post? Morality to the uttermost, Supreme in Christ as we all confess, Why need we prove would avail no jot To make Him God, if God He were not? What is the point where Himself lays stress Does the precept run “Believe in Good, “In Justice, Truth, now understood “For the first time?”—or, “Believe in ME, “Who lived and died, yet essentially “Am Lord of Life?” Whoever can take The same to his heart and for mere love’s sake Conceive of the love,—that man obtains A new truth; no conviction gains Of an old one only, made intense By a fresh appeal to his faded sense.
XVIII. Can it be that He stays inside? Is the Vesture left me to commune with? Could my soul find aught to sing in tune with Even at this lecture, if she tried? Oh, let me at lowest sympathise With the lurking drop of blood that lies In the desiccated brain’s white roots Without a throb for Christ’s attributes, As the Lecturer makes his special boast! If love’s dead there, it has left a ghost. Admire we, how from heart to brain (Though to say so strike the doctors dum One instinct rises and falls again, Restoring the equilibrium. And how when the Critic had done his best, And the Pearl of Price, at reason’s test, Lay dust and ashes levigable On the Professor’s lecture-table; When we looked for the inference and monition That our faith, reduced to such a condition, Be swept forthwith to its natural dust-hole,— He bids us, when we least expect it, Take back our faith,—if it be not just whole, Yet a pearl indeed, as his tests affect it, Which fact pays the damage done rewardingly, So, prize we our dust and ashes accordingly! “Go home and venerate the Myth “I thus have experimented with— “This Man, continue to adore him “Rather than all who went before him, “And all who ever followed after!”— Surely for this I may praise you, my brother! Will you take the praise in tears or laughter? That’s one point gained: can I compass another? Unlearned love was safe from spurning— Can’t we respect your loveless learning? Let us at least give Learning honour! What laurels had we showered upon her, Girding her loins up to perturb Our theory of the Middle Verb; Or Turklike brandishing a scimetar O’er anapests in comic-trimeter; Or curing the halt and maimed Iketides, While we lounged on at our indebted ease: Instead of which, a tricksy demon Sets her at Titus or Philemon! When Ignorance wags his ears of leather And hates God’s word, ’tis altogether; Nor leaves he his congenial thistles To go and browze on Paul’s Epistles. —And you, the audience, who might ravage The world wide, enviably savage Nor heed the cry of the retriever, More than Herr Heine (before his fever),— I do not tell a lie so arrant As say my passion’s wings are furled up, And, without the plainest Heavenly warrant, I were ready and glad to give this world up— But still, when you rub the brow meticulous, And ponder the profit of turning holy If not for God’s, for your own sake solely, —God forbid I should find you ridiculous! Deduce from this lecture all that eases you, Nay, call yourselves, if the calling pleases you, “Christians,”—abhor the Deist’s pravity,— Go on, you shall no more move my gravity, Than, when I see boys ride a-cockhorse I find it in my heart to embarrass them By hinting that their stick’s a mock horse, And they really carry what they say carries them.
XIX. So sate I talking with my mind. I did not long to leave the door And find a new church, as before, But rather was quiet and inclined To prolong and enjoy the gentle resting From further tracking and trying and testing. This tolerance is a genial mood! (Said I, and a little pause ensued). One trims the bark ‘twixt shoal and shelf, And sees, each side, the good effects of it, A value for religion’s self, A carelessness about the sects of it. Let me enjoy my own conviction, Not watch my neighbour’s faith with fretfulness, Still spying there some dereliction Of truth, perversity, forgetfulness! Better a mild indifferentism, To teach that all our faiths (though duller His shines through a dull spirit’s prism) Originally had one colour— Sending me on a pilgrimage Through ancient and through modern times To many peoples, various climes, Where I may see Saint, Savage, Sage Fuse their respective creeds in one Before the general Father’s throne!
XX. . . . ‘T was the horrible storm began afresh! The black night caught me in his mesh Whirled me up, and flung me prone. I was left on the college-step alone. I looked, and far there, ever fleeting Far, far away, the receding gesture, And looming of the lessening Vesture, Swept forward from my stupid hand, While I watched my foolish heart expand In the lazy glow of benevolence, O’er the various modes of man’s belief. I sprang up with fear’s vehemence. —Needs must there be one way, our chief Best way of worship: let me strive To find it, and when found, contrive My fellows also take their share. This constitutes my earthly care: God’s is above it and distinct! For I, a man, with men am linked, And not a brute with brutes; no gain That I experience, must remain Unshared: but should my best endeavour To share it, fail—subsisteth ever God’s care above, and I exult That God, by God’s own ways occult, May—doth, I will believe—bring back All wanderers to a single track! Meantime, I can but testify God’s care for me—no more, can I— It is but for myself I know. The world rolls witnessing around me Only to leave me as it found me; Men cry there, but my ear is slow. Their races flourish or decay —What boots it, while yon lucid way Loaded with stars, divides the vault? How soon my soul repairs its fault When, sharpening senses’ hebetude, She turns on my own life! So viewed, No mere mote’s-breadth but teems immense With witnessings of providence: And woe to me if when I look Upon that record, the sole book Unsealed to me, I take no heed Of any warning that I read! Have I been sure, this Christmas-Eve; God’s own hand did the rainbow weave, Whereby the truth from heaven slid Into my soul?—I cannot bid The world admit He stooped to heal My soul, as if in a thunder-peal Where one heard noise, and one saw flame, I only knew He named my name. And what is the world to me, for sorrow Or joy in its censures, when to-morrow It drops the remark, with just-turned head Then, on again—That man is dead? Yes,—but for me—my name called,—drawn As a conscript’s lot from the lap’s black yawn, He has dipt into on a battle-dawn: Bid out of life by a nod, a glance,— Stumbling, mute-mazed, at nature’s chance,— With a rapid finger circled round, Fixed to the first poor inch of ground, To light from, where his foot was found; Whose ear but a minute since lay free To the wide camp’s buzz and gossipry— Summoned, a solitary man, To end his life where his life began, From the safe glad rear, to the dreadful van! Soul of mine, hadst thou caught and held By the hem of the Vesture . . .
XXI. And I caught At the flying Robe, and unrepelled Was lapped again in its folds full-fraught With warmth and wonder and delight, God’s mercy being infinite. And scarce had the words escaped my tongue, When, at a passionate bound, I sprung Out of the wandering world of rain, Into the little chapel again.
XXII. How else was I found there, bolt upright On my bench, as if I had never left it? —Never flung out on the common at night Nor met the storm and wedge-like cleft it, Seen the raree-show of Peter’s successor, Or the laboratory of the Professor! For the Vision, that was true, I wist, True as that heaven and earth exist. There sate my friend, the yellow and tall, With his neck and its wen in the selfsame place; Yet my nearest neighbour’s cheek showed gall, She had slid away a contemptuous space: And the old fat woman, late so placable, Eyed me with symptoms, hardly mistakeable, Of her milk of kindness turning rancid: In short a spectator might have fancied That I had nodded betrayed by a slumber, Yet kept my seat, a warning ghastly, Through the heads of the sermon, nine in number, To wake up now at the tenth and lastly. But again, could such a disgrace have happened? Each friend at my elbow had surely nudged it; And, as for the sermon, where did my nap end? Unless I heard it, could I have judged it? Could I report as I do at the close, First, the preacher speaks through his nose: Second, his gesture is too emphatic: Thirdly, to waive what’s pedagogic, The subject-matter itself lacks logic: Fourthly, the English is ungrammatic. Great news! the preacher is found no Pascal, Whom, if I pleased, I might to the task call Of making square to a finite eye The circle of infinity, And find so all-but-just-succeeding! Great news! the sermon proves no reading Where bee-like in the flowers I may bury me, Like Taylor’s, the immortal Jeremy! And now that I know the very worst of him, What was it I thought to obtain at first of him? Ha! Is God mocked, as He asks? Shall I take on me to change His tasks, And dare, despatched to a river-head For a simple draught of the element, Neglect the thing for which He sent, And return with another thing instead?— Saying . . . “Because the water found “Welling up from underground, “Is mingled with the taints of earth, “While Thou, I know, dost laugh at dearth, “And couldest, at a word, convulse “The world with the leap of its river-pulse,— “Therefore I turned from the oozings muddy, “And bring thee a chalice I found, instead: “See the brave veins in the breccia ruddy! “One would suppose that the marble bled. “What matters the water? A hope I have nursed, “That the waterless cup will quench my thirst.” —Better have knelt at the poorest stream That trickles in pain from the straitest rift! For the less or the more is all God’s gift, Who blocks up or breaks wide the granite-seam. And here, is there water or not, to drink? I, then, in ignorance and weakness, Taking God’s help, have attained to think My heart does best to receive in meekness This mode of worship, as most to His mind, Where earthly aids being cast behind, His All in All appears serene, With the thinnest human veil between, Letting the mystic Lamps, the Seven, The many motions of His spirit, Pass, as they list, to earth from Heaven. For the preacher’s merit or demerit, It were to be wished the flaws were fewer In the earthen vessel, holding treasure, Which lies as safe in a golden ewer; But the main thing is, does it hold good measure? Heaven soon sets right all other matters!— Ask, else, these ruins of humanity, This flesh worn out to rags and tatters, This soul at struggle with insanity, Who thence take comfort, can I doubt, Which an empire gained, were a loss without. May it be mine! And let us hope That no worse blessing befal the Pope, Turn’d sick at last of the day’s buffoonery, Of his posturings and his petticoatings, Beside the Bourbon bully’s gloatings In the bloody orgies of drunk poltroonery! Nor may the Professor forego its peace At Göttingen, presently, when, in the dusk Of his life, if his cough, as I fear, should increase, Prophesied of by that horrible husk; And when, thicker and thicker, the darkness fills The world through his misty spectacles, And he gropes for something more substantial Than a fable, myth, or personification, May Christ do for him, what no mere man shall, And stand confessed as the God of salvation! Meantime, in the still recurring fear Lest myself, at unawares, be found, While attacking the choice of my neighbours round, Without my own made—I choose here! The giving out of the hymn reclaims me; I have done!—And if any blames me, Thinking that merely to touch in brevity The topics I dwell on, were unlawful,— Or, worse, that I trench, with undue levity, On the bounds of the Holy and the awful, I praise the heart, and pity the head of him, And refer myself to THEE, instead of him; Who head and heart alike discernest, Looking below light speech we utter, When the frothy spume and frequent sputter Prove that the soul’s depths boil in earnest! May the truth shine out, stand ever before us! I put up pencil and join chorus To Hepzibah Tune, without further apology, The last five verses of the third section Of the seventeenth hymn in Whitfield’s Collection, To conclude with the doxology.
The narrator leaves a Nonconformist chapel, describing the bleak weather and the poor congregation entering. He feels reluctant and out of place.
II
The congregation members arrive from various social backgrounds. The narrator senses judgment from them and critiques their exclusivity.
III
The preacher delivers an uninspiring sermon filled with clichés. The narrator grows frustrated with the blind acceptance of the congregation and leaves.
IV
Outside, he reflects on the contrast between institutionalized religion and the purity of nature. He criticizes preachers who distort truth.
V
The narrator embraces personal spirituality over religious dogma. He believes God’s love is evident in nature rather than rigid doctrines.
VI
A celestial vision appears—a moon-rainbow breaking through the sky—symbolizing divine revelation and the transcendence of rituals.
VII
The narrator experiences a mystical moment, feeling chosen by God. He wishes to remain in this divine presence forever.
VIII
He sees Christ in a vision but only recognizes His garment, symbolizing divine mystery and the limits of human understanding.
IX
Overwhelmed, he acknowledges Christ’s presence and seeks forgiveness. The brightness represents purification and enlightenment.
X
He suddenly finds himself in St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome, experiencing the grandeur of Catholic worship, which starkly contrasts with his earlier experiences.
XI
Despite the impressive ceremony, he feels like an outsider. He contemplates how all Christian traditions contain truth but also human flaws.
XII
He resolves that love, rather than doctrine, should be the foundation of faith. He compares religious truth to an unfinished statue needing completion.
XIII
He is swept away again in his spiritual journey, signifying the continuity of divine revelation beyond organized religion.
XIV
He arrives at a German university and encounters a rationalist professor who lectures on Christ as a myth, contrasting faith with intellectual skepticism.
XV
The professor argues that Christianity is a legend, reducing it to mere philosophy. The narrator rejects this purely intellectual view of faith.
XVI
He critiques the idea of Christ as only a moral teacher, insisting that faith requires divine recognition, not just rational understanding.
XVII
He reflects on human conscience as innate evidence of divine truth and emphasizes that true faith transcends moral teachings.
XVIII
He acknowledges the role of intellect in faith but asserts that spirituality goes beyond logic alone. Love must guide belief.
XIX
He momentarily appreciates religious diversity but soon feels the urgency of finding a singular truth rather than passive tolerance.
XX
A storm interrupts his thoughts, symbolizing divine intervention. He realizes faith must be actively pursued and shared.
XXI
He is drawn back to the chapel, embracing divine mercy. This moment signifies spiritual renewal and the reaffirmation of his faith.
XXII
He finds himself back in his seat, as if he never left. Whether his journey was real or a vision, he affirms the need for sincere worship over superficial rituals.
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Christmas Eve” by Robert Browning
“The Vesture’s amplitude, still eddying / On just before me”
The flowing garment of Christ symbolizes divine guidance and spiritual transformation.
Themes: “Christmas Eve” by Robert Browning
1. Religious Hypocrisy and Critique of Dogmatism: One of the central themes of “Christmas Eve” is Browning’s critique of religious exclusivism and hypocrisy within institutionalized Christianity. The speaker, initially an observer at a dissenting chapel, is disillusioned by the congregation’s judgmental attitude and the preacher’s narrow, rigid sermon. He describes the scene with irony and disdain, noting how the worshippers “eyed me much as some wild beast” (I), implying their exclusionary mindset. The speaker also mocks their self-righteousness: “You are the men, and wisdom shall die with you!” (II), parodying their belief in their own theological superiority. The preacher’s sermon, which he describes as a “pig-of-lead-like pressure” (III), suggests that religious fervor has been reduced to meaningless dogma rather than true spiritual enlightenment. Browning critiques those who claim to have found salvation but show little charity or inclusivity. The theme ultimately questions whether rigid, doctrinal religion aligns with Christ’s message of love and universality.
2. Spiritual Transformation and Divine Revelation: The poem explores the speaker’s personal spiritual journey, which evolves from skepticism and disillusionment into profound revelation. Initially, he is critical of organized worship, but as the poem progresses, he experiences a transformative vision. He describes his mystical encounter with Christ’s presence: “All at once I looked up with terror. / He was there.” (VIII). The divine moment is reinforced by the imagery of light and movement, as he follows “the flying Robe” (IX), which symbolizes his journey toward spiritual awakening. This theme highlights Browning’s belief in a personal and mystical connection with the divine, transcending institutional religion. The experience renews his faith, and he embraces a more inclusive understanding of worship, concluding: “Let men keep their ways of seeking Thee in a narrow shrine—Be this my way! And this is mine!” (V). This theme suggests that divine truth is not confined to any one denomination or doctrine but is accessible to the sincere seeker in multiple forms.
3. The Contrast Between Institutional and Personal Religion: Browning contrasts institutionalized religion, characterized by rituals and exclusivity, with personal faith, which is intimate and direct. The speaker moves from a rigid chapel setting to the vast natural world, where he feels a deeper spiritual connection. He reflects, “In youth I looked to these very skies, / And probing their immensities, / I found God there” (V), suggesting that nature offers a purer form of divine presence than the dogmatic sermon he previously endured. Later, he visits a grand Catholic church in Rome and a rationalist lecture hall, further reinforcing the theme. In both cases, he sees how human institutions have distorted the essence of faith—whether through excessive ritualism or excessive intellectualism. The concluding lines suggest that true religion lies in a personal relationship with God rather than adherence to a particular creed. This theme encourages readers to reflect on the balance between communal worship and individual spirituality.
4. The Universality of Faith and Religious Tolerance: A major conclusion of the poem is the idea that God can be worshiped in many different ways, and no single tradition holds a monopoly on truth. The speaker initially scorns different religious expressions—whether the evangelical fervor of the chapel, the grandeur of Catholicism, or the rationalism of academia—but ultimately recognizes value in each. He acknowledges, “Do these men praise Him? I will raise / My voice up to their point of praise!” (XI), demonstrating his shift toward religious tolerance. The vision of Christ in the poem reinforces the idea that divine love transcends human divisions. The recurring imagery of the “Vesture’s amplitude” (IX, XIII) symbolizes God’s encompassing grace, which covers all seekers of truth regardless of their denominational differences. By the end, the speaker is no longer concerned with choosing the “right” way to worship but embraces the diversity of religious expression, concluding that all sincere faith leads to the same divine truth.
Literary Theories and “Christmas Eve” by Robert Browning
This theory focuses on the poem’s formal elements, structure, and use of literary devices. The poem’s rich imagery, such as the symbolic “Vesture’s amplitude” (IX) representing divine grace, can be analyzed in terms of metaphor and symbolism. The contrasts between darkness and light also reinforce thematic tensions, independent of historical context.
This theory considers how different readers interpret the poem based on their backgrounds. A religious reader may see the poem as a spiritual revelation, while a skeptic might interpret the narrator’s journey as an ironic critique of organized religion. The varied reactions to the chapel’s worshippers (‘What, you, the alien?’ II) highlight the subjective nature of religious experience.
Poststructuralism deconstructs the binaries within the poem, such as faith versus doubt and institutional religion versus personal belief. The speaker oscillates between rejecting and embracing faith, questioning the meaning of divine truth. The line “Truth remains true, the fault’s in the prover” (IV) exemplifies the instability of meaning and interpretation in religious discourse.
Religious and Theological Criticism
This approach examines the theological messages within the poem, particularly Browning’s critique of religious exclusivity and his exploration of divine grace. The speaker’s mystical vision of Christ (“He was there” VIII) aligns with Christian mysticism, suggesting an intimate experience of God that surpasses institutionalized dogma. The poem debates the nature of worship and the accessibility of salvation.
Critical Questions about “Christmas Eve” by Robert Browning
1. How does Browning critique organized religion in “Christmas Eve”?
Browning presents a nuanced critique of organized religion, highlighting its exclusivity, hypocrisy, and limitations in truly understanding divine grace. The speaker’s experience in the chapel reveals a sense of alienation, as he is viewed with suspicion by the congregation: “What, you, the alien, you have ventured / To take with us, elect, your station?” (II). This moment emphasizes the speaker’s struggle with religious institutions that claim to be inclusive yet judge outsiders harshly. Additionally, the sermon’s lack of intellectual depth frustrates the narrator, who mocks its artificial fervor: “The pig-of-lead-like pressure / Of the preaching-man’s immense stupidity.” (III). The poem further critiques the rigid structures of religious dogma by contrasting them with the narrator’s personal and mystical experience of God outside of the chapel. This suggests that true spirituality might be better found beyond the confines of formalized worship.
2. What role does personal revelation play in the speaker’s spiritual journey?
The poem emphasizes the importance of personal revelation over institutionalized faith. After leaving the chapel, the speaker experiences a mystical vision of Christ, reinforcing the idea that spiritual truth is not confined to formal religious practice. The turning point occurs when the narrator exclaims: “All at once I looked up with terror. / He was there.” (VIII). This direct encounter with Christ contrasts sharply with the artificiality of the church service, reinforcing the theme that divine truth is found through personal experience rather than blind adherence to doctrine. The narrator also reflects on the limitations of human understanding: “Truth remains true, the fault’s in the prover.” (IV). This suggests that religious institutions often distort divine truth, whereas personal revelation provides a purer, more direct connection to God.
3. How does Browning use imagery to contrast different types of faith?
Browning employs vivid imagery to differentiate between institutional faith and personal spirituality. The chapel is depicted in restrictive and uninspiring terms: a “lath-and-plaster entry” (I) and a dimly lit space filled with uninspired worshippers. In contrast, the speaker’s journey outside is described with natural and celestial imagery, emphasizing a more profound, transcendent spirituality. When he looks up, he sees: “The black cloud-barricade was riven, / Ruined beneath her feet, and driven / Deep in the west.” (VI). This moment of revelation is depicted as a breaking open of divine truth, whereas the sermon inside the church is described as suffocating and intellectually barren. Browning’s contrast between dull, confined religious spaces and the grandeur of the natural world suggests that true faith flourishes in openness rather than in rigid institutions.
4. What is the significance of the poem’s ending, and how does it reflect the speaker’s resolution?
The ending of “Christmas Eve” presents a reconciliation between the speaker’s skepticism of organized religion and his recognition of divine grace. After experiencing his vision of Christ, he finds himself back in the chapel as if nothing had happened. This cyclical structure suggests that while the institutional church is flawed, it still plays a role in people’s spiritual lives. The speaker ultimately chooses to remain part of religious tradition, albeit with a newfound perspective: “For the less or the more is all God’s gift, / Who blocks up or breaks wide the granite-seam.” (XXII). This suggests an acceptance of religious imperfections, recognizing that divine truth exists within and beyond the institution. The poem ends with the speaker joining in the hymn, implying that while he remains critical, he also embraces the communal aspect of faith.
Literary Works Similar to “Christmas Eve” by Robert Browning
“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot – Like “Christmas Eve”, this poem explores themes of spiritual desolation and the search for divine truth, using fragmented narrative and vivid imagery to depict religious and existential struggles.
“The Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by Samuel Taylor Coleridge – Both poems incorporate mystical and supernatural elements, presenting spiritual revelation through a transformative journey that alters the protagonist’s perception of faith and redemption.
“The Divine Comedy” (Inferno, Purgatorio, Paradiso) by Dante Alighieri – Browning’s poem, like Dante’s epic, follows a personal journey that contrasts religious dogma with direct divine encounters, questioning human interpretations of faith.
“The Church” (Collection) by George Herbert – Herbert’s devotional poetry, particularly “The Collar”, mirrors Browning’s theme of religious doubt and reconciliation, illustrating an individual’s personal struggle between rebellion and submission to faith.
“Hymn to God, My God, in My Sickness” by John Donne – This poem, like “Christmas Eve”, reflects on mortality, religious devotion, and the tension between doctrinal belief and personal spiritual experience.
Representative Quotations of “Christmas Eve” by Robert Browning
Raymond, William O. “Browning’s Casuists.” Studies in Philology, vol. 37, no. 4, 1940, pp. 641–66. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4172507. Accessed 11 Mar. 2025.
Tracy, C. R. “Browning’s Heresies.” Studies in Philology, vol. 33, no. 4, 1936, pp. 610–25. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4172341. Accessed 11 Mar. 2025.
Palmer, George Herbert. “The Monologue of Browning.” The Harvard Theological Review, vol. 11, no. 2, 1918, pp. 121–44. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1507117. Accessed 11 Mar. 2025.
“A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson first appeared in the early 17th century and was included in his collection of religious poetry, reflecting his later turn toward spiritual themes.
Introduction: “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson
“A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson first appeared in the early 17th century and was included in his collection of religious poetry, reflecting his later turn toward spiritual themes. The poem celebrates the miraculous birth of Christ, emphasizing his divine and redemptive nature. Through vivid imagery and lyrical reverence, Jonson portrays Christ as both the “author of life and light” and a humble infant laid in a manger, a paradox that underscores the mystery of the Incarnation. The poem’s central themes include divine wisdom, obedience, salvation, and the ultimate sacrifice of Christ. Jonson’s use of rhythmic, hymn-like structure and simple yet profound diction enhances its devotional quality, making it a popular piece for religious reflection. The poem’s enduring appeal lies in its heartfelt meditation on Christ’s role as the “price of sin,” whose birth brings “comfort” and hope to humanity. The rhetorical question in the closing lines—”Can man forget the story?”—reinforces its central message: the Nativity is not just an event but a transformative story of salvation that should never be forgotten.
Text: “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson
I sing the birth was born to-night The author both of life and light; The angels so did sound it. And like the ravished shepherds said, Who saw the light, and were afraid, Yet searched, and true they found it.
The Son of God, th’ eternal king, That did us all salvation bring, And freed the soul from danger; He whom the whole world could not take, The Word, which heaven and earth did make, Was now laid in a manger.
The Father’s wisdom willed it so, The Son’s obedience knew no No, Both wills were in one stature; And as that wisdom had decreed. The Word was now made flesh indeed. And took on him our nature.
What comfort by him do we win. Who made himself the price of sin. To make us heirs of glory! To see this babe all innocence; A martyr born in our defence: Can man forget the story?
Annotations: “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson
Christ taking human form symbolizes divine love and the doctrine of Incarnation.
Tone (Reverent & Worshipful)
“What comfort by him do we win, / Who made himself the price of sin.”
The tone conveys deep admiration and gratitude for Christ’s sacrifice.
Themes: “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson
The Incarnation and Divine Paradox: In “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson, the theme of the Incarnation is central, emphasizing the paradox of Christ’s divinity and humanity. The poem reflects on the mystery of how “He whom the whole world could not take, / The Word, which heaven and earth did make, / Was now laid in a manger.” This stark contrast highlights the humility of Christ’s birth despite his divine nature. Jonson marvels at how the infinite and omnipotent Creator chose to take on human form, submitting to the limitations of mortality. The paradox of an eternal King being born as a helpless infant underscores the Christian belief in God’s profound love and sacrifice. The poet portrays this divine act as the fulfillment of God’s wisdom (“The Father’s wisdom willed it so”) and Christ’s obedience (“The Son’s obedience knew no No”), reinforcing the theological foundation of the Incarnation—God becoming flesh to dwell among humanity.
Salvation and Redemption: In “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson, the theme of salvation and redemption is woven throughout, emphasizing Christ’s birth as the beginning of humanity’s deliverance from sin. The poem declares, “The Son of God, th’ eternal king, / That did us all salvation bring, / And freed the soul from danger.” Here, Jonson presents Christ not just as a newborn but as the Savior who has come to rescue humanity from spiritual peril. The reference to “the price of sin” implies the doctrine of atonement—Jesus was born to suffer and die in place of humankind. The final rhetorical question, “Can man forget the story?”, serves as a direct appeal to the reader, urging them to remember and appreciate the significance of Christ’s birth as an act of divine grace. This theme ties into the larger Christian narrative of redemption, where Jesus’ birth, life, and ultimate sacrifice are seen as God’s gift to mankind.
Divine Will and Obedience: In “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson, the theme of divine will and obedience is explored through the interplay between God the Father and God the Son. The poet highlights how Christ’s coming into the world was not by accident but was a deliberate fulfillment of divine wisdom: “The Father’s wisdom willed it so, / The Son’s obedience knew no No.” This conveys the idea that Christ willingly accepted his mission to save humanity, aligning his will perfectly with that of God. The phrase “Both wills were in one stature” emphasizes the unity between the Father and the Son, reinforcing theological doctrines of divine purpose and Christ’s voluntary submission to God’s plan. Through this theme, Jonson presents Christ as an ideal model of obedience and self-sacrifice, fulfilling the prophecy that “the Word was now made flesh indeed, / And took on him our nature.” This theme not only highlights Christ’s humility but also serves as an implicit call for believers to align their own will with God’s.
Light as a Symbol of Divine Truth: In “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson, light serves as a symbol of divine truth and revelation, playing a crucial role in conveying the significance of Christ’s birth. The poet writes, “I sing the birth was born to-night, / The author both of life and light.” Here, Christ is depicted as the source of both physical and spiritual enlightenment, reinforcing biblical themes where light represents purity, truth, and salvation. The shepherds’ experience further illustrates this symbolism: “Who saw the light, and were afraid, / Yet searched, and true they found it.” Their initial fear of the divine light gives way to understanding, symbolizing humanity’s journey from ignorance to faith. The imagery of light throughout the poem emphasizes Christ as the ultimate truth-bringer, illuminating the path to salvation. By contrasting light and darkness, Jonson aligns with traditional Christian themes where Christ dispels spiritual blindness and guides believers toward eternal glory.
Literary Theories and “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson
1. Formalist Theory (New Criticism)
Literary Theory
Application to the Poem
References from the Poem
Formalist (New Criticism)
This approach focuses on the structure, language, and literary devices within the poem rather than historical or external influences. It examines the poem’s form, rhyme scheme, and imagery.
Jonson employs rhymed couplets, creating a hymn-like structure. The poem’s balanced meter and repetition reinforce its meditative and solemn tone. The use of paradox, such as “He whom the whole world could not take, / Was now laid in a manger,” highlights Christ’s dual nature—both divine and human.
Imagery & Symbolism
The poem uses light imagery to symbolize divine truth and revelation. The contrast between the grandeur of Christ and his humble birth reflects the theological mystery of the Incarnation.
“I sing the birth was born to-night, / The author both of life and light.” The symbol of light here represents Christ as a guiding spiritual force.
Sound & Rhythm
The poem’s musicality and hymn-like repetition enhance its devotional quality.
“Can man forget the story?” The rhetorical question and repetition engage the reader emotionally and intellectually.
2. Historical-Biographical Theory
Literary Theory
Application to the Poem
References from the Poem
Historical-Biographical
This theory considers how Jonson’s personal life, religious beliefs, and the socio-religious context of 17th-century England influenced the poem.
Jonson converted to Catholicism in 1610 but later returned to Anglicanism. His religious transformation likely shaped the poem’s intense devotion to Christ’s birth.
Religious Climate
During Jonson’s time, England was divided between Protestantism and Catholicism. The poem’s universal Christian themes reflect the era’s deep theological concerns.
“The Father’s wisdom willed it so, / The Son’s obedience knew no No.” This reflects the doctrine of divine sovereignty, a theme heavily debated during Jonson’s time.
Jonson’s Personal Struggles
Jonson faced hardships, including imprisonment and financial instability. His later works, including this poem, reflect his search for spiritual solace and redemption.
“What comfort by him do we win, / Who made himself the price of sin.” This suggests personal reflection on salvation and suffering.
3. Theological (Christian Literary Criticism)
Literary Theory
Application to the Poem
References from the Poem
Theological (Christian Literary Criticism)
This approach interprets the poem through the lens of Christian doctrine, particularly the significance of Christ’s birth, obedience, and sacrifice.
The poem emphasizes the Incarnation, presenting Christ as both eternal king and humble infant.
Doctrine of the Incarnation
Jonson highlights Christ’s divine nature and human vulnerability, reinforcing Christian theology.
“The Word was now made flesh indeed, / And took on him our nature.” This directly references John 1:14, a core biblical verse on the Incarnation.
Salvation and Atonement
The poem presents Christ’s birth as the first step toward salvation, foreshadowing his sacrifice.
“A martyr born in our defence.” This suggests Christ was born to die for humanity’s sins, aligning with Christian beliefs on atonement.
This theory focuses on how readers interpret the poem based on their own beliefs, emotions, and experiences. Different readers may respond to the themes of redemption, light, and sacrifice in unique ways.
A devout Christian reader might see the poem as a reaffirmation of faith, while a secular reader might appreciate its poetic beauty and reflection on human humility.
Emotional Appeal
The poem directly engages readers with rhetorical questions and calls to remembrance.
“Can man forget the story?” This line forces the reader to actively reflect on the significance of Christ’s birth.
Universality vs. Personal Connection
While the poem follows Christian doctrine, its themes of sacrifice, humility, and light can resonate with broader audiences beyond Christianity.
The contrast between fear and faith (“Who saw the light, and were afraid, / Yet searched, and true they found it.”) speaks to the universal human journey of doubt and discovery.
Critical Questions about “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson
How does “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson use paradox to emphasize the mystery of the Incarnation?
In “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson, paradox is used to highlight the mystery of the Incarnation, presenting Christ as both divine and human. The poet captures this contradiction by stating, “He whom the whole world could not take, / The Word, which heaven and earth did make, / Was now laid in a manger.” This paradox emphasizes that the infinite and all-powerful Creator has taken the form of a helpless infant, making his humility and grandeur exist simultaneously. Another striking paradox appears in the line, “A martyr born in our defence,” implying that Christ’s birth was already tied to his sacrificial death. These juxtapositions force the reader to reflect on the theological mystery of the Incarnation—how God, beyond human limitations, chose to enter the world as a vulnerable child. By using paradox, Jonson deepens the reader’s sense of awe and faith, compelling them to contemplate the divine mystery that cannot be easily understood. This literary technique makes the message of the poem both profound and thought-provoking, inviting readers to grapple with the significance of Christ’s birth in a way that transcends mere celebration.
In what ways does “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson reflect the idea of divine will and human obedience?
In “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson, the theme of divine will and obedience is central, emphasizing Christ’s submission to God’s plan. The poet highlights this in the lines, “The Father’s wisdom willed it so, / The Son’s obedience knew no No, / Both wills were in one stature.” Here, Jonson portrays Christ as fully accepting his mission, aligning his will with that of the Father. This theological idea reflects the belief that Jesus did not resist his role in humanity’s salvation but embraced it out of divine love. The poem presents obedience not as passive submission but as an active fulfillment of God’s wisdom. Jonson’s depiction suggests that obedience to divine will is not just an expectation for Christ but also a model for humanity, encouraging believers to align themselves with God’s greater plan. By framing Christ’s birth as a fulfillment of divine intent, the poem reinforces the theological doctrine of providence and the belief that salvation history unfolds according to God’s perfect wisdom.
How does “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson use imagery to enhance its themes of light, truth, and revelation?
In “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson, imagery plays a crucial role in reinforcing the themes of light, truth, and revelation. The poet repeatedly associates Christ with light, as seen in the lines, “I sing the birth was born to-night, / The author both of life and light.” This imagery aligns with the biblical description of Christ as the “Light of the World,” symbolizing divine truth and spiritual awakening. The poem also depicts the shepherds witnessing this divine revelation: “Who saw the light, and were afraid, / Yet searched, and true they found it.” This moment reflects the universal experience of encountering a profound truth—initial fear followed by understanding. The contrast between darkness (ignorance) and light (spiritual knowledge) illustrates Christ’s role in guiding humanity toward salvation. By emphasizing light imagery, Jonson enhances the reader’s perception of Christ’s birth as a moment of divine illumination, revealing the path to truth and redemption. The poem’s use of vivid imagery not only deepens its theological message but also makes the Nativity feel immediate and visually powerful for the reader.
What role does memory and tradition play in “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson?
In “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson, memory and tradition play a vital role in preserving the significance of Christ’s birth. The poem’s final line, “Can man forget the story?”, directly challenges the reader, emphasizing the importance of remembrance. This rhetorical question suggests that the Nativity is not just a historical event but a foundational moment that must be continually recalled and honored. Jonson’s poem itself serves as an act of remembrance, written in the style of a hymn—a form traditionally used to retell sacred stories in Christian worship. The repetition of theological themes, such as salvation and divine obedience, reinforces the idea that Christ’s birth is a moment meant to be revisited in faith and devotion. By urging believers to remember the Nativity, Jonson highlights how religious traditions function as a means of keeping divine truths alive across generations. The poem thus acts as both a personal meditation and a communal call to ensure that Christ’s birth remains central to Christian faith and worship.
Literary Works Similar to “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson
“On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity” – John Milton Similar in its exaltation of Christ’s birth, Milton’s poem also blends theological reflection with rich imagery, emphasizing the Incarnation and divine glory.
“A Christmas Carol” – Christina Rossetti Like Jonson’s poem, Rossetti’s work meditates on the humility of Christ’s birth and the spiritual significance of the Nativity, using simple yet profound religious devotion.
“Hymn for Christmas Day” – Charles Wesley Wesley’s hymn shares Jonson’s focus on Christ’s role as Savior, using structured, hymn-like verses to celebrate the divine purpose of Jesus’ birth.
“In the Bleak Midwinter” – Christina Rossetti Though more introspective, this poem echoes Jonson’s theme of Christ’s humble birth and the paradox of divinity entering the world in poverty.
“Nativity” – John Donne Donne, like Jonson, employs paradox and theological depth to explore the mystery of Christ’s birth, portraying the Incarnation as both miraculous and sacrificial.
Representative Quotations of “A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” by Ben Jonson
PRITCHARD, WILLIAM H. “Ben Jonson: Poet.” The Hudson Review, vol. 65, no. 1, 2012, pp. 43–54. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23241316. Accessed 12 Mar. 2025.
Fraser, Russell. “Ben Jonson’s Poetry.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 101, no. 4, 1993, pp. 489–507. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27546765. Accessed 12 Mar. 2025.
CLARK, IRA. “Ben Jonson’s Imitation.” Criticism, vol. 20, no. 2, 1978, pp. 107–27. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23102646. Accessed 12 Mar. 2025.
