March 2025 - Page 7 of 12 - English Studies

“Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson: Summary and Critique

“Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson first appeared in Literature Compass in 2006.

Introduction: “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson

“Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson first appeared in Literature Compass in 2006. This article examines the evolution of race studies in early modern English literature, emphasizing its shift from a marginal subject to a crucial field in literary analysis. Floyd-Wilson highlights how earlier scholarship, such as Winthrop Jordan’s White Over Black (1968) and G.K. Hunter’s Othello and Colour Prejudice (1967), framed Renaissance racial discourse through typological interpretations, viewing blackness primarily as a symbol of sin and moral depravity. However, she critiques these perspectives for their oversimplified assumptions about Elizabethan xenophobia and the supposed instinctual aversion to blackness. The article also discusses how feminist scholarship in the late 1980s, particularly works by Karen Newman and Ania Loomba, integrated race and gender, revealing how the construction of racial identity in early modern England was deeply intertwined with class and patriarchy. Moreover, Floyd-Wilson underscores the necessity of examining race through interdisciplinary lenses, including religion, geography, and trade relations. She references scholars like Kim F. Hall, who demonstrated how the language of Renaissance literature played a crucial role in formulating racial and national identities, and Nabil Matar, whose studies on early English encounters with Islam challenge Eurocentric narratives of racial difference. Floyd-Wilson’s retrospective thus positions race studies as an indispensable framework for understanding English Renaissance literature, moving beyond simplistic racial binaries to explore the complexities of identity formation in the period.

Summary of “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson

Development of Race Studies in Early Modern Literature
- Over the last thirty years, race studies in Renaissance literature have evolved from a marginalized field to a central topic of scholarly inquiry (Floyd-Wilson 1044).
- Early studies largely employed typological interpretations of blackness, viewing black figures in literature as symbolic representations of sin and moral degradation (1044).
- The field has expanded beyond narrow frameworks to include perspectives from disciplines like science, geography, religion, and trade relations (1044).
The Curse of Ham and Typological Interpretations of Blackness
- The late 1960s marked an important period with foundational texts such as Winthrop D. Jordan’s White Over Black (1968) and G.K. Hunter’s Othello and Colour Prejudice (1967) (1044).
- Hunter argued that Othello’s blackness was primarily a theatrical and typological device rather than an accurate reflection of Elizabethan encounters with Moors (1044).
- Jordan posited that English racial attitudes predated the Atlantic slave trade, reinforcing a notion that white reactions to blackness were instinctive (1045).
- Scholars such as Alden and Virginia Mason Vaughan have since critiqued Jordan’s claims, pointing out that English racial perceptions were shaped by sudden exposure to blackness rather than an inherent aversion (1045).
Intersection of Race, Gender, and Class
- Feminist scholarship in the late 1980s transformed Renaissance racial studies, examining racial identity alongside gender and class (1046).
- Karen Newman argued that Desdemona and Othello were constructed through discourses on femininity and blackness that reinforced early modern ideas of racial and gendered difference (1046).
- Ania Loomba’s Gender, Race, Renaissance Drama (1989) highlighted the interconnectedness of racial and gendered othering within white patriarchal society (1046).
- Lynda Boose’s work demonstrated that black women were largely unrepresentable in English Renaissance literature, as their existence challenged dominant patriarchal narratives (1046).

Religious Identity and the Concept of Race
- Race in early modern England was often understood through religious frameworks, with blackness associated with non-Christian identities (1047).
- James Shapiro’s Shakespeare and the Jews (1997) demonstrated how English identity formation was shaped by anxieties about religious difference (1047).
- Daniel Vitkus’s work on Othello emphasized that English fears of conversion and conquest by Islamic forces influenced racial portrayals of Moors (1047).
- Nabil Matar’s Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (1999) provided archival evidence that English interactions with Muslim cultures were more extensive than previously thought, complicating simplistic racial binaries (1047).
Geography, Science, and Racial Construction
- Recent scholarship has turned to pre-colonial concepts of race and geography to challenge teleological readings of race and imperialism (1048).
- Emily Bartels argued that Europeans constructed Africa as both a space of exoticism and familiarity, rather than simply an “Other” (1048).
- Valerie Traub suggested that early modern maps and geographical treatises contributed to racial and cultural differentiation (1048).
- Floyd-Wilson’s own work in English Ethnicity and Race in Early Modern Drama (2003) explores how geohumoral theories shaped English perceptions of blackness and whiteness (1048).
Conclusion and Future Directions
- The study of race in Renaissance literature has moved from a minor subtopic to a major interdisciplinary field (1049).
- Future research is expected to further explore the intersections of race and religion, race and science, and transatlantic racial economies (1049).
- Floyd-Wilson emphasizes that historicizing race requires both archival rigor and critical engagement with inherited myths (1049).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference from the Article
Typological Interpretations of Blackness	The belief that blackness in Renaissance literature functioned symbolically rather than reflecting real interactions with Black people.	“Othello is purposively black for theatrical and typological ends” (1044).
The Curse of Ham	A biblical justification for racial inferiority, arguing that blackness was a divine curse.	“Jordan attributes the ‘extraordinary persistence’ of the Curse of Ham legend to the probable ‘feeling’ among Europeans that ‘blackness could scarcely be anything but a curse'” (1045).
Phenotypical Differences	Physical racial characteristics and their cultural interpretations.	“Scholars aim to discover how early modern responses to phenotypical differences relate to the eventual construction of race” (1044).
Racial Performativity	The ways race was performed on stage and interpreted by audiences in early modern England.	“Othello was a white man’—a fact that underscores the ‘exclusionary privilege’ of whiteness in all early modern English stagings of blackness” (1045).
Ethnocentricity of English Petrarchism	The preference for fair-skinned beauty ideals in Renaissance poetry and art.	“Jordan also suggestively identifies the ethnocentricity of English Petrarchism” (1045).
Origins Debate	The discussion on whether racism led to slavery or slavery produced racism.	“Engaged in the ‘origins debate’ of American scholarship, which queried whether racism begat slavery, or slavery produced racism” (1045).
Intersectionality	The analysis of race in relation to other identity markers like gender and class.	“Renaissance racial studies changed significantly with the entrance of feminism in the late 80s” (1046).
Exclusionary Privilege of Whiteness	The systemic centering of whiteness in literary and cultural representation.	“Othello was a white man’—a fact that underscores the ‘exclusionary privilege’ of whiteness” (1045).
Religious Othering	The racialization of religious identity, particularly regarding Islam and Judaism.	“English identity, religion, and emergent racial categories were intertwined” (1047).
Geohumoralism	The belief that climate and geography influenced racial and ethnic characteristics.	“Humoralism, I argue, functioned as ethnology for the English” (1048).
Racial Teleology	The tendency to project modern racial categories backward onto early modern texts.	“Most scholarship continues to view early modern racialism through a narrative of conquest” (1048).
Cultural Taxonomy	The classification of people based on perceived racial, religious, or geographic differences.	“The complexity of tracing what’s familiar and what’s peculiar about premodern taxonomies” (1044).
Transatlantic Racial Economies	The study of how race was constructed within early economic and colonial exchanges.	“More exciting work soon, particularly on the interrelations between race and religion, race and science, and on race within a transatlantic economy” (1049).

Contribution of “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Floyd-Wilson explores how race is a social construct rather than a biological reality, aligning with the fundamental premise of CRT that race is historically contingent and shaped by power structures.
She challenges earlier scholarship that assumed Elizabethan racial attitudes were natural or instinctual, instead emphasizing how race was produced through discourse (1044-1045).
Example: She critiques Winthrop Jordan’s claim that “white responses to blackness may be instinctual or atavistic,” arguing that this assumption essentializes racial prejudice and ignores historical complexity (1045).

2. Postcolonial Theory

The article examines early English constructions of racial and cultural difference before the rise of colonialism, reinforcing postcolonial scholars’ interest in how race was formed in pre-imperial contexts.
Floyd-Wilson highlights how early modern racial discourse was shaped by religion, geography, and trade, rather than colonial conquest alone (1047-1048).

Example: She draws on Nabil Matar’s research, which reveals that English portrayals of Moors were influenced by their encounters with Muslims and Native Americans, complicating Eurocentric narratives of race (1047).
She also critiques Emily Bartels’ argument that early racial representations should not always be read through a colonial lens, emphasizing the fluidity of pre-colonial racial categories (1048).

3. Feminist Theory & Intersectionality

The article contributes to feminist literary criticism by demonstrating how race and gender were mutually constructed in early modern England (1046).
Example: She references Karen Newman’s reading of Othello to argue that “Desdemona and Othello, woman and black man, are represented by discourses about femininity and blackness which managed and produced difference” (1046).
Floyd-Wilson also acknowledges Ania Loomba’s work, which was among the first to analyze how gender, race, and class intersected in Renaissance drama, reinforcing an intersectional approach (1046).

4. Performance and Cultural Studies

The article engages with Performance Theory by analyzing how race was performed on the Renaissance stage, rather than being an intrinsic identity.
Example: Floyd-Wilson highlights Dympna Callaghan’s argument that Othello was played by a white actor in blackface, reinforcing the exclusionary privilege of whiteness in early modern theater (1045).

She also references Virginia Mason Vaughan’s work on Performing Blackness, which investigates how white audiences “read” racialized characters on stage (1045).

5. Historicism & New Historicism

Floyd-Wilson situates racial discourse within historical and archival contexts, emphasizing that race in Renaissance literature cannot be understood outside its cultural, religious, and economic background.

Example: She argues that scholars must avoid imposing “an American history of race relations onto pre-slavery English origins” (1046), advocating for a historically specific reading of race.
Her engagement with New Historicism is evident in her focus on primary texts, archival sources, and cultural artifacts, such as travel narratives and religious writings (1047-1048).

6. Geohumoralism and Environmental Determinism

The article contributes to early modern ethnology by revisiting the role of geohumoralism (the belief that climate shaped racial and ethnic traits).
Example: Floyd-Wilson notes that Renaissance English texts often described blackness as associated with wisdom and spirituality, while whiteness was linked to barbarism and mutability (1048).
This analysis challenges modern assumptions about racial hierarchy by retrieving pre-Enlightenment models of difference (1048).

7. Religious Studies and Race

Floyd-Wilson highlights how racial identity in early modern England was deeply tied to religious affiliation, contributing to the study of theology and race in literature.
Example: She discusses Daniel Vitkus’s argument that early English fears of Moors were framed within anxieties about Islam and Christian conversion, rather than purely racial concerns (1047).

Similarly, she cites Ania Loomba, who argues that skin color and religious identity were intertwined in early English debates about community and belonging (1047).

8. Economic Criticism and Transatlantic Studies

The article anticipates further scholarship on how race was shaped by early transatlantic trade and economic networks.

Example: She suggests that “future work should examine race within a transatlantic economy” (1049), signaling a shift toward economic and materialist interpretations of race.

Examples of Critiques Through “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson

Literary Work	Critique Through Floyd-Wilson’s Analysis	Reference from the Article
Othello (William Shakespeare)	– Floyd-Wilson critiques early interpretations of Othello’s blackness as merely a typological symbol of sin and death. – She engages with Karen Newman’s feminist reading, which argues that Desdemona and Othello are represented through discourses of femininity and blackness that reinforce racial and gender hierarchies (1046). – She also references Dympna Callaghan’s argument that Othello was historically played by a white man in blackface, highlighting how race was performed rather than embodied (1045). – Daniel Vitkus’s work on “Turning Turk” suggests that Othello’s racial identity is linked to religious conversion anxieties, rather than just skin color (1047).	– “Othello is purposively black for theatrical and typological ends” (1044). – “Desdemona and Othello, woman and black man, are represented by discourses about femininity and blackness” (1046). – “Othello was a white man” (1045). – “The play’s portrait of the Moor is framed by the widespread European fear of being conquered and captured by Turks” (1047).
Titus Andronicus (William Shakespeare)	– Floyd-Wilson argues that early modern English literature associated blackness with negative traits such as cruelty, barbarism, and lasciviousness, as seen in Aaron the Moor’s portrayal in Titus Andronicus (1044-1045). – She highlights Winthrop Jordan’s claim that early English audiences instinctively responded negatively to blackness, though this view has been critiqued as overly deterministic (1045). – The play demonstrates how race was framed not only through skin color but also through religious and cultural associations, a theme that aligns with her discussion on racial typologies and geohumoralism (1048).	– “Anyone who reads Othello or Titus Andronicus will recognize that early modern English culture identified black skin with a set of negative qualities” (1044). – “Blackness seemed to produce a powerful and instinctively negative response in white observers” (1045). – “Geohumoral conceptual frameworks associated blackness with wisdom, spirituality, and resolution, and whiteness with barbarism, mutability, and slow-wittedness” (1048).
The Merchant of Venice (William Shakespeare)	– Floyd-Wilson connects The Merchant of Venice to James Shapiro’s Shakespeare and the Jews, arguing that racial identity in the play is tied to religious othering rather than skin color alone (1047). – She references Ania Loomba’s work on Shakespeare, Race, and Colonialism, which suggests that racial anxieties in early modern England were closely linked to fears of conversion and assimilation (1047). – Elizabeth Spiller’s essay suggests that race and romance intersect in Shakespeare’s work, where Shylock’s Jewish identity is framed through cultural and economic exclusion (1048).	– “Religious concepts of community were challenged most powerfully by differences in skin colour, sparking off intense debates about religious identity as well as blackness” (1047). – “Shapiro’s Shakespeare and the Jews provides an important methodological model for thinking about the complex ways in which English identity, religion, and emergent racial categories were intertwined” (1047). – “Elizabeth Spiller’s essay… provocatively outlines how race and romance intersect in The Merchant of Venice” (1048).
Tamburlaine (Christopher Marlowe)	– Floyd-Wilson applies geohumoralism to Tamburlaine, arguing that early modern English audiences understood race through climate-based theories rather than rigid racial categories (1048). – She critiques earlier scholarship that saw Tamburlaine as either a racialized “Other” or a heroic conqueror, arguing that his portrayal is shaped by both cultural admiration and racial anxiety (1048). – She also highlights how early modern English drama often associated “Moorishness” with both religious and geographical alterity, rather than simply skin color (1047).	– “The English geographic imagination located England on the margins of the classical world – a marginalization that affected their conception of physiological and emotional differences” (1048). – “Moorish identities could confusingly be understood through religious, cultural, and racial categories that sometimes clashed” (1047). – “Humoralism functioned as ethnology for the English” (1048).

Criticism Against “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson

1. Overemphasis on Shakespearean Studies

The article centers Shakespearean drama, particularly Othello, Titus Andronicus, and The Merchant of Venice, at the core of race studies while neglecting other Renaissance literary forms.

Critics might argue that her focus reinforces the canonization of Shakespeare, overlooking important non-dramatic texts, such as early modern poetry, pamphlets, and travel narratives.
She briefly acknowledges “the wonderful scholarship on the New Atlantic World, the matter of Britain, and Spanish imperialism” but does not explore these areas in depth (1049).

2. Lack of Engagement with Non-European Perspectives

Floyd-Wilson primarily analyzes how English writers constructed racial identity but does not significantly engage with African, Middle Eastern, or indigenous perspectives on racial identity.
Some critics argue that race studies should incorporate decolonial approaches by focusing on how Moors, Africans, and Muslims represented themselves, rather than how they were framed by European texts.
Scholars like Nabil Matar have worked to recover Muslim voices in early modern encounters, but Floyd-Wilson does not fully integrate these alternative viewpoints into her analysis (1047).

3. Limited Critique of Early Race Theories

While Floyd-Wilson critiques Winthrop Jordan’s White Over Black (1968) for assuming that white reactions to blackness were instinctual, she does not fully deconstruct the methodological flaws in early racial scholarship (1045).
Critics might argue that she relies on summaries rather than offering a deep theoretical engagement with early race theorists.

For example, while she acknowledges Benjamin Braude’s critique of Jordan’s work as “anachronistic” (1045), she does not expand on how modern race studies have moved beyond Jordan’s framework.

4. Insufficient Attention to Economic and Colonial Frameworks

The article mentions transatlantic racial economies only briefly in its conclusion, despite the significant role of trade, colonialism, and capitalism in shaping early racial ideologies (1049).

Scholars working in materialist and economic criticism (such as Kim F. Hall’s Things of Darkness) have argued that racial identity in early modern England was deeply tied to emerging capitalist structures, but Floyd-Wilson does not focus on this aspect.
She acknowledges the importance of “race within a transatlantic economy” as a future area of study but does not explore the economic dimensions of race in detail (1049).

5. Theoretical Overlap Without Original Contribution

Some critics might argue that Floyd-Wilson’s article is more of a survey of existing race studies rather than offering a groundbreaking theoretical intervention.
While she synthesizes major scholars like Ania Loomba, Karen Newman, and Nabil Matar, she does not propose a new theoretical framework or methodology for race studies in Renaissance literature.
The retrospective approach is valuable, but some might see it as reiterating established debates rather than advancing new arguments.

6. Limited Discussion of Performance Studies Beyond Blackface

While Floyd-Wilson references Virginia Mason Vaughan’s work on blackface performance, she does not fully engage with broader issues of racial performativity in early modern theater (1045).
Scholars such as Ian Smith have explored the racialization of stage movements, speech patterns, and costuming, which Floyd-Wilson does not analyze in depth.

Her discussion of “Othello as a white man in blackface” (1045) is useful, but her argument could be extended by considering how performance reinforced or disrupted racial hierarchies.

Representative Quotations from “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“In thirty years the study of race in early modern literature has moved from the margins of scholarship to occupy its now central role in the analysis of English Renaissance culture.” (1044)	Floyd-Wilson highlights the academic shift in literary studies, where race has become a central focus rather than a peripheral topic. This reflects the broader impact of critical race theory and postcolonial studies on early modern literature.
*“Anyone who reads Othello* or Titus Andronicus will recognize that early modern English culture identified black skin with a set of negative qualities.” (1044)**	This statement underscores how racial stereotypes were embedded in Renaissance literature, portraying blackness as synonymous with moral and social inferiority. It aligns with typological interpretations of race.
“Race, as it surfaces in Shakespeare’s and other early modern texts, reveals itself to be a multiplicity of loci, of axes of determinism, as well as of metaphorical systems to aid and abet its deployment across a variety of boundaries in the making.” (1044)	Quoting Margo Hendricks, Floyd-Wilson suggests that race in early modern texts is fluid and constructed through multiple intersecting factors, including gender, religion, and geography. This aligns with intersectionality theory in literary studies.
“Winthrop Jordan also maintained that the interaction between the English and Africans had been limited.” (1045)	Floyd-Wilson critiques Jordan’s argument that racial prejudice in early modern England was instinctual rather than socially constructed. She emphasizes the need for historical specificity rather than assuming universal racial attitudes.
“Scholars began to consider race as a category of difference analogous to class, nationality, but most especially gender.” (1046)	This reflects the influence of feminist and intersectional theory, which considers how race operates alongside gender and class in shaping identity and exclusion in Renaissance texts.
“Religious concepts of community were challenged most powerfully by differences in skin colour, sparking off intense debates about religious identity as well as blackness.” (1047)	Floyd-Wilson discusses how race was linked to religious othering, particularly in early modern England’s encounters with Islam and Judaism. This ties into the study of race and religion in early modern texts.
“The English geographic imagination located England on the margins of the classical world – a marginalization that affected their conception of physiological and emotional differences.” (1048)	This statement highlights geohumoralism, the early modern belief that climate and geography shaped racial and ethnic traits. It shows how England saw itself in relation to Mediterranean and African identities.
“The complexity of tracing what’s familiar and what’s peculiar about premodern taxonomies and their cultural functions has intrigued critics for several generations.” (1044)	Floyd-Wilson acknowledges the challenges of historicizing race, emphasizing that racial categories in the Renaissance were different from modern racial ideologies.
“Othello was a white man” – a fact that underscores the ‘exclusionary privilege’ of whiteness in all early modern English stagings of blackness.” (1045)	This quotation from Dympna Callaghan highlights racial performativity in early modern theater, where white actors in blackface reinforced dominant racial hierarchies.
“Historicizing race depends, of course, on solid archival research, but as astute readers of fiction and culture, literary scholars have interpreted and dismantled inherited myths.” (1049)	Floyd-Wilson affirms that race studies must combine historical research with literary interpretation, dismantling racial myths and assumptions in Renaissance literature.

“Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn: Summary and Critique

“Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn, first appeared in the Anthropology Newsletter in October 1997, critiques the use of racial and ethnic classifications in anthropological discourse, arguing that such terminology often reinforces divisive and outdated notions of identity.

Introduction: “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn

“Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn, first appeared in the Anthropology Newsletter in October 1997, critiques the use of racial and ethnic classifications in anthropological discourse, arguing that such terminology often reinforces divisive and outdated notions of identity. He challenges terms such as “Euro-American” and “People of Color,” questioning their coherence in a global and linguistic sense, and warning that such categorizations risk reviving dangerous racial essentialism. Drawing from historical examples, he highlights how labeling individuals based on race or ethnicity has often preceded acts of discrimination and violence, from Nazi Germany to ethnic conflicts in the 20th century. Cohn’s essay is significant in literary theory and anthropology as it engages with the politics of language, emphasizing how words shape social perceptions and reinforce hierarchies. His critique aligns with broader debates in linguistic anthropology regarding the construction of identity and the power of language in social classification. By invoking both historical atrocities and contemporary academic discourse, Cohn urges anthropologists to be mindful of the implications of racialized terminology, warning that uncritical usage can undermine the very principles of anthropology—understanding human cultures in their fluid, interconnected, and evolving contexts.

Summary of “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn

Critique of Racial and Ethnic Terminology in Anthropology
- Cohn argues that certain terms used by anthropologists, such as Euro-American, People of Color, and Third World Intellectual, reinforce racial essentialism and are reminiscent of divisive racial classifications from the past (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
- He criticizes the lack of clarity in defining “Euro-American,” questioning whether it includes Finns, Magyars, or Muslims from the Balkans (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Historical and Political Implications of Racial Labels
- Cohn highlights that the term People of Color was historically used in contexts of oppression, including the era of slavery in the U.S. and Apartheid in South Africa (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
- He points out the ambiguity of racial labels, asking whether an American-born child of an Indonesian is considered a person of color and whether the Inuit of Alaska are colorless (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Dangers of Group-Based Classification
- He warns that the misuse of ethnic and quasi-national terminology has historically led to violence, such as ethnic cleansing in Burundi, Bosnia, and the Sudetenland (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
- Cohn asserts that reducing individuals to group identities undermines anthropology’s goal of understanding human cultural diversity (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Jewish Identity and Misuse of Ethnic Labels
- He draws from his own work with Jewish communities, noting that labels like Ashkenazi, Sephardi, German Jew, or Eastern Jew often imply cultural superiority and overlook historical intermarriage and migration (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
- He expresses personal discomfort with racial classification, having experienced being categorized as a Jew under Nazi Germany (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Skepticism Toward “Third World Intellectual”
- Cohn criticizes the term Third World Intellectual, suggesting it is problematic and reinforces a hierarchical view of global academia (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).

Conclusion: The Need for Precision and Ethical Responsibility in Anthropological Language
- He argues that anthropology should avoid rigid racial and ethnic classifications and instead focus on cultural fluidity and historical complexity (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
- Cohn warns that failing to do so risks repeating past mistakes of scientific racism, drawing a parallel to Nazi racial research (Rassenforschung) (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Application in Cohn’s Argument
Linguistic Racism	The use of language to categorize and hierarchize racial and ethnic groups, reinforcing discrimination.	Cohn argues that terms like Euro-American and People of Color perpetuate outdated racial categorizations and can be misused to essentialize identity (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Essentialism	The belief that social groups have fixed, inherent characteristics that define them.	Cohn critiques how racial terms assume uniformity within groups, ignoring historical migration, intermarriage, and cultural exchange (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Ethnic Classification	The process of categorizing individuals based on ethnicity, culture, or nationality.	Cohn warns that classifying people into rigid ethnic categories can lead to exclusion and historical inaccuracies, such as defining all Europeans as “Euro-Americans” (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Historical Linguistics and Identity	The study of how language shapes and reflects identity over time.	Cohn points out that linguistic ancestry (e.g., Finns and Magyars with roots in Central Asia) complicates racial classifications (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Race as a Social Construct	The idea that race is not a biological fact but a social and political categorization.	Cohn argues that racial labels do not correspond to biological realities and are often politically motivated (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Scientific Racism	The historical misuse of science to justify racial hierarchies and discrimination.	He warns that anthropologists risk reviving pseudo-scientific racial classifications reminiscent of Rassenforschung in Nazi Germany (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Cultural Relativism	The principle that cultural practices and beliefs should be understood in their own context rather than judged by external standards.	Cohn emphasizes that group identity is fluid, and imposing rigid racial or ethnic categories ignores cultural variation (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Postcolonial Critique	The examination of how colonial histories shape modern discourse and classifications.	Cohn critiques terms like Third World Intellectual, suggesting they reinforce hierarchical, colonial-era distinctions (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Social Categorization Theory	A psychological theory explaining how individuals classify themselves and others into social groups.	Cohn criticizes how identity labels create artificial boundaries, leading to exclusion and social division (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Ethnolinguistic Identity	The connection between language and group identity.	He argues that linguistic labels often fail to capture the complexities of individual and group identities, such as Jewish communities with diverse backgrounds (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).

Contribution of “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn to Literary Theory/Theories

Critical Race Theory (CRT)
- Cohn challenges the reification of racial categories in anthropological discourse, aligning with CRT’s argument that race is a social construct rather than a biological reality (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
- He critiques how terms like People of Color and Euro-American impose rigid racial classifications, which CRT scholars argue perpetuate systemic discrimination (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
- His discussion of linguistic categorization reflects CRT’s concern with how language reinforces power hierarchies and racial biases.
Postcolonial Theory
- Cohn critiques the term Third World Intellectual, arguing that it implies a colonial hierarchy in knowledge production (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
- His work aligns with postcolonial theorists like Edward Said, who argue that Western discourse often “others” non-Western identities through language (Said, Orientalism, 1978).
- Cohn highlights how colonial-era racial terminologies persist in modern academic and political discourse, mirroring the postcolonial critique of neocolonial structures in language (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Linguistic Anthropology and Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
- His argument that racial categories shape social perception aligns with the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, which suggests that language structures thought (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
- He critiques the assumed fixed meanings of ethnic and racial terms, reflecting the linguistic anthropology perspective that language is dynamic and socially constructed (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Structuralism and Semiotics (Saussurean Linguistics)
- Cohn’s critique of racial terminology resonates with Ferdinand de Saussure’s view that meaning is relational and arbitrary (Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, 1916).
- He challenges the fixed meaning of terms like Euro-American, arguing that linguistic signs should be understood within shifting historical and social contexts (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Discourse Analysis (Michel Foucault)
- Cohn’s argument reflects Foucault’s view that language is a tool of power and social control (The Archaeology of Knowledge, 1969).
- He warns that racial classifications in anthropology function as discursive practices that reinforce social hierarchies, similar to how Foucault describes knowledge-power dynamics (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
Identity and Representation in Cultural Studies
- His critique of Jewish identity labels (Ashkenazi, Sephardi, German Jew, etc.) aligns with Stuart Hall’s theory that identity is fluid and constructed through discourse (Cultural Identity and Diaspora, 1990).
- He argues that essentialist labels ignore cultural hybridity and historical migration, a key theme in contemporary identity politics (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).

Examples of Critiques Through “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn

Literary Work	Critique Through “Linguistic Racism”	Key Themes from Cohn’s Argument
*Joseph Conrad – Heart of Darkness* (1899)**	The novel reinforces racial binaries by depicting Africans as the Other through dehumanizing language, reducing them to racial stereotypes rather than individual identities. Conrad’s language constructs rigid racial hierarchies that mirror colonial discourses (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).	Aligns with Cohn’s critique of racial essentialism, where language is used to define entire populations in simplistic, hierarchical terms (People of Color, Third World Intellectuals).
*Harper Lee – To Kill a Mockingbird* (1960)**	While the novel critiques racism, it also reinforces problematic linguistic hierarchies, particularly in how Black characters like Tom Robinson and Calpurnia are depicted. The term “boy” used for African American men reflects linguistic subordination (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).	Connects to Cohn’s analysis of racial terminology, where language constructs racial identities in ways that uphold social power dynamics.
*Toni Morrison – Beloved* (1987)**	Morrison exposes how linguistic classification under slavery dehumanized Black individuals (e.g., referring to them as property). This aligns with Cohn’s argument that racial terms historically used in oppression (such as People of Color) carry harmful legacies (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).	Reflects Cohn’s critique of the historical misuse of racial categories, showing how language has been central to racial discrimination.
*Chinua Achebe – Things Fall Apart* (1958)**	Achebe critiques colonial linguistic frameworks that define African identity from a Eurocentric perspective. The British use of terms like primitive and savage mirrors Cohn’s concerns about imposed linguistic classifications (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).	Supports Cohn’s argument that rigid ethnic and racial labels erase cultural fluidity and reduce people to essentialized categories (Euro-American as a broad and inaccurate label).

Criticism Against “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn

Overgeneralization of Racial Terminology Issues
- Cohn argues that terms like People of Color and Euro-American are either meaningless or pejorative, but critics may contend that these terms serve important sociopolitical functions, particularly in identity politics and anti-racist movements (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
- The use of racial terminology is often strategic and self-affirming, helping marginalized groups assert agency rather than reinforcing oppression.
Lack of Nuance in Addressing Identity Politics
- While Cohn criticizes racial labels for being imprecise, he does not fully engage with the ways marginalized communities reclaim and redefine these terms for empowerment.
- Scholars in critical race theory argue that terms like African American serve as political identifiers that challenge exclusion rather than reinforce racial essentialism (Kimberlé Crenshaw, 1991).
Comparison to Nazi Racial Science is Overstated
- Cohn likens the use of racial classifications in anthropology to Rassenforschung (racial science) in Nazi Germany (Cohn, 1997, p. 4), which some critics may find an extreme and inappropriate comparison.
- Modern racial terminology is not used to justify genocide but rather to acknowledge historical injustices and promote inclusivity.
Fails to Address Structural Racism in Language
- Cohn focuses on the dangers of racial categorization but does not sufficiently explore how language also perpetuates systemic racism.
- Scholars like Marcyliena Morgan (1997) argue that linguistic hierarchies uphold power structures, and eliminating racial labels does not necessarily eliminate racial discrimination.
Dismissal of Postcolonial Perspectives
- His critique of Third World Intellectual as a problematic term ignores the ways in which postcolonial scholars use it to reclaim intellectual space for non-Western thinkers (Cohn, 1997, p. 4).
- Postcolonial theorists like Edward Said and Homi Bhabha emphasize that language is a site of resistance as much as oppression.
Ignores the Role of Self-Identification
- While Cohn critiques racial labels imposed by others, he does not adequately address how individuals and communities choose to identify themselves.
- Terms like Latinx, Black, and Indigenous have evolved through community discourse, reflecting self-determined identities rather than externally imposed classifications.

Representative Quotations from “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Judging by some of the recent Anthropology Newsletters some anthropologists are now using ethnic and racial terms in ways that would be fully acceptable in Adolf Hitler’s Third Reich.” (Cohn, 1997, p. 4)	Cohn makes a strong comparison between contemporary racial terminology and the racial science (Rassenforschung) of Nazi Germany. He argues that uncritical usage of racial classifications risks legitimizing harmful essentialist ideas about identity.
“Geographically, the term ‘Euro’ may have some coherence, but linguistically, culturally, and even genetically it certainly does not.” (Cohn, 1997, p. 4)	This critique highlights the imprecision of the term Euro-American. Cohn argues that such racial classifications ignore the diversity of European cultures and languages, reinforcing artificial boundaries.
“The term ‘people of color’ was common usage among slave dealers prior to 1860 and was also used in the Apartheid period in South Africa.” (Cohn, 1997, p. 4)	By tracing the historical roots of the term People of Color, Cohn suggests that its contemporary use carries problematic connotations, potentially reducing individuals to racial categories with oppressive histories.
“Is the American-born child of an Indonesian a ‘person of color,’ and are the Inuit of Alaska ‘colorless’?” (Cohn, 1997, p. 4)	Here, Cohn points out the ambiguity and contradictions inherent in racial terminology. He questions whether such classifications have any objective meaning or are merely subjective social constructs.
“The misuse of ethnic or quasi-national terminology is dangerous, as we have learned to our sorrow in the 20th century.” (Cohn, 1997, p. 4)	This statement underscores his broader concern: that language has historically been used to justify exclusion, violence, and genocide. He warns that careless application of racial terms can contribute to similar patterns of division.
“If we anthropologists act as if all groups have unique experiences and exist in concrete borders, that all individuals share in these cultural and biological characteristics, then we deny all anthropological experience and the function of anthropology itself.” (Cohn, 1997, p. 4)	Cohn critiques essentialist views of culture and race, arguing that anthropology should recognize cultural fluidity rather than reinforcing rigid group identities.
“As a Jew who left Germany after Hitler’s rise to power I have no desire to repeat the experience of being classified by ‘race,’ ‘ethnic identity’ or even gender.” (Cohn, 1997, p. 4)	This personal statement emphasizes his concern with racial labeling, drawing on his own experience of persecution under Nazi Germany to highlight the dangers of racial classification.
“The term ‘Third World Intellectual’ is equally suspect. It seems to imply that academics from these regions are inherently different from those in the West.” (Cohn, 1997, p. 4)	Cohn critiques the term Third World Intellectual, suggesting that it reinforces a colonial hierarchy in knowledge production, positioning scholars from non-Western nations as fundamentally separate from their Western counterparts.
“Hindu scientists from Bombay have more in common with a scientist from Bogota, Colombia, than with a Hindu scientist born in London.” (Cohn, 1997, p. 4)	He uses this example to challenge the assumption that race or ethnicity determines shared experiences. Instead, he emphasizes commonalities based on profession, education, and intellectual background rather than race or national identity.
“That way lies scientific disaster and Hitler’s ‘Rassenforschung.'” (Cohn, 1997, p. 4)	By referencing Rassenforschung (Nazi racial science), Cohn warns that classifying people into rigid racial and ethnic categories can lead to dangerous and pseudoscientific conclusions, undermining both ethical and academic integrity.

“Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson: Summary and Critique

“Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson first appeared in 2007 in the Journal of Gerontological Social Work and was later published online by Routledge on September 25, 2008.

Introduction: “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

“Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson first appeared in 2007 in the Journal of Gerontological Social Work and was later published online by Routledge on September 25, 2008. The article investigates skepticism and resistance toward ethnic minority care workers among elderly care recipients in Sweden. Through interviews with caregiver organization representatives and minority care workers, Jönson reveals a disconnect between official anti-racist policies and the pragmatic and pathologizing approaches adopted by care providers. While officials often downplay racism, framing it as language barriers or fear of the unknown, ethnic minority caregivers report frequent discrimination, particularly in first-time encounters. The study contributes to literature and literary theory by exposing how ideological frameworks, including anti-racism and patient rights, shape discourse on discrimination. Jönson’s work is significant in highlighting how structural inequalities and power dynamics influence caregiving relationships, challenging simplistic narratives of racism and advocating for a nuanced understanding of care, vulnerability, and systemic bias.

Summary of “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

Investigating Resistance Toward Ethnic Minority Care Workers

The study examines skepticism and resistance toward ethnic minority caregivers among elderly recipients in Sweden.

Care provider representatives downplay resistance, often attributing it to:
- Language barriers
- Temporary adjustment difficulties
- Fear of the unknown (Jönson, 2007, p. 80).
Minority care workers report more severe and frequent racism, especially in first-time encounters (Jönson, 2007, p. 83).

Changing Demographics in Swedish Elder Care

Sweden has shifted from a monocultural to a multicultural society with:
- 10% of the population foreign-born.
- 20% of newly employed elder care workers from outside Sweden (Jönson, 2007, p. 80).

While many appreciate minority care workers, some elderly recipients display skepticism or outright rejection.

Language as a Pretext for Racism

Many elderly recipients cite language difficulties as a reason for rejecting minority care workers.

Some complaints are legitimate, particularly when miscommunication affects care quality.
Others use language as a socially acceptable excuse to refuse non-Swedish staff (Jönson, 2007, p. 86).
A manager noted: “If we complain about somebody’s headcloth, we would be labeled as racists. So, we’ll attack the language” (Jönson, 2007, p. 88).

Pragmatic and Pathologizing Responses to Racism

Care institutions avoid addressing racism directly by reframing it as:
- A symptom of dementia, dependency, or aging (Jönson, 2007, p. 89).
- A temporary issue that disappears with familiarity.
Pragmatic solutions dominate:
- Many comply with racist requests to prevent conflicts (Jönson, 2007, p. 90).
- Supervisors often replace minority workers rather than confront discrimination.

Care Recipient Rights vs. Anti-Discrimination Laws

A core conflict exists between:
- Care recipients’ rights to choose caregivers.
- Anti-discrimination laws protecting employees.
Some managers justify compliance by comparing care recipients to customers who can choose their services (Jönson, 2007, p. 88).

Others argue that forcing care recipients to accept certain workers may cause distress (Jönson, 2007, p. 91).

Need for Clearer Anti-Racism Policies

Care organizations lack clear policies on handling racism from care recipients.

An overly ideological anti-racist approach may:
- Create tensions among staff.
- Alienate elderly care recipients who fear repercussions for complaints (Jönson, 2007, p. 94).

Jönson recommends localized anti-racist policies that balance:
- Pragmatism (practical service delivery).
- Ethical caregiving (ensuring fair treatment).
- Protection of employees from discrimination (Jönson, 2007, p. 92).

Conclusion: Addressing Conflicting Interests

Elder care providers and policymakers must acknowledge the complex dynamics of race, care, and aging.

Ignoring racism by labeling it as pathology or pragmatism leaves minority care workers vulnerable.
A balanced approach should:
- Educate staff and recipients on anti-racist practices.
- Implement fair but flexible workplace policies.
- Recognize that both caregivers and care recipients deserve respect and protection (Jönson, 2007, p. 96).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

Term/Concept	Definition	Application in the Article
Racism	Prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism directed against individuals based on ethnicity, race, skin color, or religion (Jönson, 2007, p. 80).	Explored through skepticism and resistance toward ethnic minority caregivers by elderly care recipients.
Ethnic Discrimination	Unfair treatment of individuals based on ethnicity, race, religion, or descent, often in legal and workplace settings (Westin, 2000).	Examined in the conflict between care recipients’ preferences and anti-discrimination laws protecting minority caregivers.
Pathologizing Approach	Framing discriminatory behavior as a result of illness, dementia, dependency, or cognitive decline rather than deliberate racism (Jönson, 2007, p. 89).	Used by care providers to excuse racism among elderly care recipients, avoiding direct confrontation.
Pragmatic Approach	Emphasizing practical solutions over ideological or ethical considerations (Jönson, 2007, p. 90).	Care providers comply with racist requests to avoid conflicts rather than challenge discrimination.
Fear of the Unknown	Psychological resistance to unfamiliar individuals or cultural differences, often leading to prejudice (Jönson, 2007, p. 80).	Used as a justification for initial skepticism and rejection of minority care workers.
Social Construction of Race	The idea that racial and ethnic categories are shaped by social and cultural perceptions rather than biological differences (Berger & Luckmann, 1966).	Care recipients’ negative perceptions of minority workers are influenced by societal narratives about race and immigration.
Customer-Service Model	A perspective in which care recipients are treated as consumers who have the right to choose services (Jönson, 2007, p. 88).	Used by some managers to justify complying with racist preferences by equating care to a commercial service.
Techniques of Neutralization	Strategies used to justify or excuse morally questionable actions, such as denying responsibility or minimizing harm (Sykes & Matza, 1957).	Care providers justify replacing minority workers by framing it as a practical necessity rather than discrimination.
Power Relations in Care Work	The dynamic between caregivers and care recipients, shaped by race, gender, and social status (Szebehely, 1995).	While care workers typically hold authority, racialized power structures reverse this dynamic, making minority workers more vulnerable to discrimination.
Elderly Vulnerability vs. Caregiver Protection	The ethical dilemma of balancing elderly recipients’ emotional well-being with the rights of care workers (Jönson, 2007, p. 91).	Care providers hesitate to challenge racist behavior to avoid distressing elderly individuals, often at the cost of minority staff.
Institutional Anti-Racism vs. Everyday Practices	The gap between official anti-racist policies and real-world workplace decisions (Jönson, 2007, p. 92).	While institutions uphold anti-racist policies, pragmatic decisions often reinforce racial bias in practice.
Workplace Discrimination	Unequal treatment of employees based on ethnicity, race, or religion, often embedded in organizational culture (Jönson, 2007, p. 95).	Care workers of foreign origin experience frequent resistance, microaggressions, and exclusion.
Moral Balancing in Policy Implementation	The need to balance competing moral and ethical concerns in workplace policies (Jönson, 2007, p. 94).	Calls for localized policies that balance pragmatism, fairness, and anti-discrimination laws in elder care.

Contribution of “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory

Explores racialized power structures in caregiving, where ethnic minority workers are subjected to discrimination despite their vital role (Jönson, 2007, p. 80).
Links resistance to historical colonial narratives, where non-European individuals are framed as “the other” (Jönson, 2007, p. 83).
Examines how language barriers serve as a disguised form of racial exclusion, reflecting colonial legacies of linguistic hierarchy (Jönson, 2007, p. 86).

2. Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Highlights systemic racism in Swedish elder care, showing how policies and institutional practices reinforce discrimination (Jönson, 2007, p. 92).
Demonstrates “colorblind racism”—where care providers avoid addressing racism directly by reframing it as practical concerns (Jönson, 2007, p. 89).

Challenges “white normativity”, as elder care is structured around the expectations of white Swedish care recipients (Jönson, 2007, p. 90).

3. Structuralism and the Social Construction of Race

Applies Berger and Luckmann’s (1966) concept of the social construction of reality, arguing that race is socially constructed through discourse and everyday interactions (Jönson, 2007, p. 84).

Shows how racist attitudes toward care workers are culturally produced rather than biologically determined (Jönson, 2007, p. 85).
Demonstrates how “fear of the unknown” operates as a socially learned response rather than an innate reaction (Jönson, 2007, p. 80).

4. Discourse Analysis (Foucaultian Theory)

Investigates how racism is rationalized through institutional discourse, enabling care providers to comply with racist preferences while maintaining an anti-racist stance (Jönson, 2007, p. 90).
Examines how managerial language (“customer service model”) legitimizes discrimination by reframing racism as a service preference (Jönson, 2007, p. 88).
Connects elderly care policies to broader national discourses on multiculturalism and migration in Sweden (Jönson, 2007, p. 94).

5. Feminist Theory and Intersectionality

Highlights gendered and racialized labor divisions, showing how immigrant women are disproportionately placed in caregiving roles (Jönson, 2007, p. 81).
Analyzes the intersection of race, gender, and labor precarity, as minority care workers face both racial and gender-based discrimination (Jönson, 2007, p. 85).

Demonstrates how power dynamics in caregiving are shaped by both ethnicity and social status, reinforcing double marginalization of minority women in elder care (Jönson, 2007, p. 91).

6. Reader-Response Theory

Discusses the role of perception and interpretation in shaping racist attitudes among elderly care recipients (Jönson, 2007, p. 86).

Suggests that resistance toward minority care workers is influenced by personal experiences, social conditioning, and media representation (Jönson, 2007, p. 87).
Illustrates how care recipients “read” racialized bodies and respond to them based on pre-existing biases rather than actual interactions (Jönson, 2007, p. 88).

7. Ideology and Hegemony (Gramscian Theory)

Examines how hegemonic ideologies shape both individual and institutional responses to racism in elder care (Jönson, 2007, p. 90).
Shows how care providers are complicit in maintaining racial hierarchy by prioritizing the preferences of Swedish care recipients over the rights of minority workers (Jönson, 2007, p. 91).
Discusses how pragmatic approaches to racism are shaped by dominant ideologies that normalize workplace discrimination (Jönson, 2007, p. 92).

8. Human Rights and Ethics in Literary Theory

Addresses conflicts between human rights frameworks and real-world caregiving ethics (Jönson, 2007, p. 93).
Questions whether elderly individuals should be granted the “right” to refuse minority caregivers, even when such refusals are rooted in racism (Jönson, 2007, p. 94).

Advocates for policy solutions that balance anti-racism with ethical caregiving, ensuring both caregivers and recipients are treated fairly (Jönson, 2007, p. 96).

Examples of Critiques Through “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

Literary Work	Themes in the Work	Critique Through Jönson’s Framework
Joseph Conrad – Heart of Darkness	– Colonialism and racial hierarchy – “Othering” of non-Europeans – White European superiority complex	– Jönson’s study critiques how colonial narratives continue to influence racial perceptions, particularly in elder care, where minority care workers are viewed as the “other” (Jönson, 2007, p. 80). – Similar to Heart of Darkness, Swedish elder care reproduces racialized power structures, where non-Swedish workers are treated as outsiders (Jönson, 2007, p. 83). – Language barriers in Jönson’s study parallel Conrad’s depictions of “unintelligible natives,” reinforcing how communication differences become a pretext for exclusion (Jönson, 2007, p. 86).
Toni Morrison – Beloved	– Legacy of slavery and racial trauma – Dehumanization of Black bodies – Psychological impact of racism	– Jönson’s findings align with Morrison’s exploration of racial trauma, showing how care workers of foreign origin internalize racist abuse as part of their job (Jönson, 2007, p. 85). – In Beloved, characters struggle against systemic racism, much like minority care workers in Sweden who face discrimination but lack institutional support (Jönson, 2007, p. 92). – The pathologizing approach in Jönson’s study (“It’s just dementia, not racism”) mirrors the rationalizations of white violence in Beloved, where oppressors excuse or justify their actions through social norms (Jönson, 2007, p. 89).
Jean Rhys – Wide Sargasso Sea	– Postcolonial displacement – Racial and cultural marginalization – Identity crisis of Creole characters	– The resistance toward ethnic minority care workers in Jönson’s study mirrors the alienation of Antoinette (Bertha) in Wide Sargasso Sea, where she is “too white for the Caribbean, too foreign for England” (Jönson, 2007, p. 81). – Fear of the unknown (Jönson, 2007, p. 80) plays a key role in both texts—elderly Swedes reject minority caregivers just as Rochester rejects Antoinette based on racial and cultural stereotypes. – The discourse of “civilized” vs. “uncivilized” in Rhys’s novel parallels Jönson’s critique of Sweden’s care system, where minority workers must “prove” their competence to skeptical Swedish recipients (Jönson, 2007, p. 88).
Ralph Ellison – Invisible Man	– Racial invisibility and identity – Power structures and systemic oppression – Survival under racism	– Like Ellison’s narrator, ethnic minority care workers in Sweden become “invisible”—their presence is tolerated but not fully accepted (Jönson, 2007, p. 83). – The customer-service model in Jönson’s study (“the patient gets to choose”) reflects how racialized workers are dehumanized and reduced to economic functions (Jönson, 2007, p. 88). – Both Invisible Man and Jönson’s study highlight how institutions adopt a rhetoric of anti-racism while maintaining discriminatory practices (Jönson, 2007, p. 92).

Criticism Against “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

1. Limited Scope and Sample Size

The study relies on a small sample size of 12 representatives and 3 ethnic minority care workers, making it difficult to generalize the findings (Jönson, 2007, p. 82).

The research focuses on a single Swedish municipality, which may not represent broader trends in Sweden or other multicultural societies.
A larger, more diverse sample could provide deeper insights into racism in elder care across different regions and care institutions.

2. Overemphasis on Pragmatism and Pathologization

The study argues that care providers frame racism as “fear of the unknown” or dementia, rather than actively confronting it (Jönson, 2007, p. 89).
Critics may argue that this framing oversimplifies the complexity of prejudice among elderly care recipients.
By emphasizing pathologization, the study risks excusing racist behavior instead of advocating for stronger institutional interventions.

3. Lack of Direct Ethnographic Engagement with Care Recipients

The study primarily relies on interviews with care providers and minority staff, rather than directly interviewing elderly care recipients about their perceptions.
Without firsthand accounts from care recipients, the study risks misinterpreting their motives, potentially exaggerating or downplaying the role of racism.

Ethnographic fieldwork or observational research could provide a more nuanced understanding of recipient-caregiver interactions.

4. Insufficient Policy Recommendations

While Jönson highlights the gap between anti-racist policies and real-world practices, his recommendations remain vague (Jönson, 2007, p. 92).

The study does not offer concrete solutions for care institutions, such as training programs, institutional reforms, or legal enforcement strategies.
A stronger policy-driven conclusion could have enhanced the study’s impact on workplace reforms.

5. Failure to Address the Role of Care Workers’ Agency

The study focuses on care workers as victims of racism, but does not deeply explore how they resist, navigate, or reshape power dynamics in care institutions.
Some scholars argue that migrant care workers develop coping strategies, solidarity networks, and active resistance, which Jönson does not fully examine.
Including examples of agency among minority care workers could have provided a more balanced portrayal of power relations in elder care.

6. Potential Bias in Framing Institutional Racism

The study presents elder care institutions as largely complicit in maintaining racial discrimination (Jönson, 2007, p. 90).
However, it does not explore cases where institutions have successfully challenged racism or where care recipients have changed their attitudes over time.

A more balanced discussion of institutional responses—both failures and successes—could have strengthened the study’s credibility.

7. Oversimplification of Cultural Conflicts

The study frames resistance to minority care workers as largely a racial issue, but does not sufficiently consider cultural misunderstandings or generational differences in social norms.

Some care recipients may struggle with linguistic differences, unfamiliar caregiving styles, or religious customs, which the study overlooks as non-racialized concerns (Jönson, 2007, p. 86).
Addressing how cultural adjustment plays a role in care work would have made the analysis more nuanced.

Representative Quotations from “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation & Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Fear of the unknown among older people who had previously met few people of foreign origin.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 80)	Jönson explains how elderly care recipients often react with skepticism toward ethnic minority caregivers due to limited exposure to multicultural environments. Care providers justify this reaction as a natural response rather than active racism.	Social Construction of Race & Othering – Aligns with postcolonial theory and structuralism, where race and difference are socially constructed rather than inherent.
“We are trained to provide service and the customer pays for that service… It is a form of service and then we’ll have to ignore that other issue [playing along with racism].” (Jönson, 2007, p. 86)	This statement reflects a pragmatic approach used by care providers to justify compliance with discriminatory requests from care recipients. It highlights market-based reasoning in elder care.	Neoliberalism & Market Logic in Social Work – Demonstrates how commodification of care shifts ethical decisions into consumer-driven services.
“No, I haven’t really reflected on this and sometimes I wonder if it is not really the regular Swedish staff who make up this problem.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 87)	A care provider shifts the focus from care recipients’ racism to potential bias within staff interactions. This deflects accountability from institutions and elder care policies.	Structural Racism & Institutional Bias – Shows how racism is often downplayed or redirected within bureaucratic settings.
“It’s her home, and she has the right to decide who to let in.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 88)	This justification prioritizes the autonomy of care recipients over ethical concerns about racial discrimination. It frames private homes as exempt from anti-discrimination policies.	Liberal Individualism vs. Anti-Discrimination – Highlights tension between personal choice and societal responsibility in multicultural care settings.
“Some do know and think that these are not people who… I mean these are sick people, old people, helpless people—and they [staff] are pretty able to see the circumstances.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 90)	This statement pathologizes racism among elderly care recipients, dismissing it as a symptom of aging rather than a social issue. It reflects the normalization of elder racism in caregiving.	Medicalization of Prejudice – Frames racist attitudes as a side effect of illness rather than an ethical problem requiring intervention.
“We are not here to educate the pensioners.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 89)	This statement highlights a pragmatic refusal to challenge racist attitudes among older people. Care providers prioritize avoiding conflict over promoting social change.	Political Correctness vs. Moral Responsibility – Engages with debates on whether social workers should challenge discrimination or accommodate it.
“Adding to this, populist claims makers with nationalist/racist agendas have referred to the growing interest in the special needs of elderly immigrants when arguing for similar needs among ethnic Swedes.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 83)	Right-wing groups use discourses of cultural needs to justify exclusionary policies that prioritize ethnic Swedes over minority groups in elder care.	Cultural Nationalism & Identity Politics – Shows how care policies can be co-opted by xenophobic narratives.
“Organizations perceived to comply with racism will be subject to public criticism.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 91)	Institutions must balance public accountability and practical caregiving decisions, leading to compromised anti-racism policies.	Corporate Image & Ethical Responsibility – Examines how social institutions navigate public perception in ethical dilemmas.
“There is a need to develop research and policy perspectives that take the complexity of care work into account and acknowledge the occurrence of mixed and shifting power relations.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 94)	Jönson argues that power dynamics in elder care are fluid, involving both vulnerable caregivers and care recipients.	Intersectionality & Power Relations – Demonstrates how racism interacts with aging, labor conditions, and social vulnerabilities.
“A strong anti-racist policy may result in oppression of care recipients, who fear labeling and sanctions.” (Jönson, 2007, p. 93)	Jönson warns that overly rigid anti-racism policies might discourage elderly people from voicing valid concerns about care quality.	Critical Race Theory & Free Speech Debate – Explores the tension between anti-racism enforcement and individual expression.

“Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan: Summary and Critique

“Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan first appeared in the 2018 collection Lacan and Race, published by Cambridge University Press.

Introduction: “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

“Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan first appeared in the 2018 collection Lacan and Race, published by Cambridge University Press. This chapter critically engages with Lacanian psychoanalysis to explore the relationship between race and segregation, arguing that racism should be understood within the broader context of social formations dictated by the master’s discourse. A central claim is that race, rather than being a purely biological or visual marker, is structured through discourse, which organizes social bonds and segregative mechanisms. Khan builds on Jacques-Alain Miller’s concept of extimacy—the idea that what is most intimate to a subject is also radically foreign—to explain how racism functions through the rejection of the jouissance of the Other. The essay also situates Lacan’s comments on colonialism, capitalism, and the decline of the Name-of-the-Father within the historical processes of segregation and racial differentiation. By engaging with Freud, Lacan, and contemporary scholars like Eric Laurent and Kalpana Sheshadri-Crooks, Khan’s work underscores the necessity of psychoanalytic inquiry in critical race studies. This perspective challenges universalist humanist discourses that seek to erase difference while simultaneously exacerbating racial exclusion. In literary and theoretical discourse, Lacan and Race contributes to the ongoing critique of the ways in which power, knowledge, and subjectivity are interwoven with racialized structures, offering an alternative framework for understanding race beyond biological essentialism.

Summary of “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

Race as a Construct of Discourse
- Race is not an inherent biological or physical reality but is structured through discourse.
- Lacan states that “[a race] is constituted according to the mode in which symbolic places are transmitted by the order of a discourse” (Khan, 148).
- Racial identities are shaped by language and ideology rather than natural differences.
The Master’s Discourse and Colonialism
- The master’s discourse, particularly in its colonial form, imposes a Eurocentric framework upon colonized subjects.
- Lacan observed that “the unconscious that had been sold to them along with the laws of colonization” (Khan, 149) demonstrates how colonial rule reshapes subjectivity.
- Colonialism replaces indigenous knowledge with Western concepts, influencing the unconscious itself.

Science, Capitalism, and Segregation
- The modern discourses of science and capitalism have fractured the symbolic order, intensifying segregation rather than promoting universalization.
- Jacques-Alain Miller asserts, “Our future as common markets will be balanced by an increasingly hard-line extension of the process of segregation” (Khan, 150).
- Globalization claims to unite, but instead reinforces racial and social barriers.
The Role of Jouissance in Racism
- Racism is not just about visible differences but about resentment toward the jouissance (excessive enjoyment) of the Other.
- Miller explains that racism “aims at the real in the Other” and involves “the hatred of the jouissance of the Other” (Khan, 157).
- This concept highlights how racial hatred is driven by the belief that the Other enjoys in an unacceptable or excessive way.
Freud and the Psychology of Racial Group Formation
- Freud’s Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego (1921) suggests that social cohesion relies on shared exclusion of a particular group.
- “Closely related races keep one another at arm’s length” (Khan, 152), illustrating how identification and exclusion reinforce racial antagonism.
- Freud’s idea of the “narcissism of minor differences” explains how even minor distinctions can lead to intense hostility.

The Universalizing Drive of Science and Capitalism
- Science and capitalism attempt to create a universal human subject, yet they intensify segregation rather than dissolve it.
- Lacan states, “The factor at stake here is the most burning issue of our times…segregation” (Khan, 155).
- Scientific discourse aims at universality but inadvertently deepens racial divides.
The “Melting Pot” and the Persistence of Racism
- The “melting pot” ideology assumes that cultural and racial differences can be seamlessly integrated, but Lacan challenges this assumption.
- He argues that true coexistence requires “not imposing our own [jouissance] on him” (Khan, 156).
- Attempts to force assimilation often result in further alienation and rejection.
Extimacy and the Internalized Other
- Racism is rooted in a deeper struggle with one’s own jouissance, leading to the rejection of the Other.
- Miller states, “The root of racism is the hatred of one’s own jouissance… it is also hatred of myself” (Khan, 159).
- This suggests that racial hatred is not purely external but also reflects an internal conflict within the subject.

The Psychoanalytic Response to Racism
- Psychoanalysis provides a unique approach to racism by examining its unconscious mechanisms.
- Miller observes, “The universal mode—which is the mode under which science elaborates the real—seems to have no limit, when in fact it does” (Khan, 160).
- Unlike universalist approaches, psychoanalysis acknowledges the singularity of each subject’s jouissance.
Anti-Racism as a Perpetual Invention
- Racism evolves with shifting social structures, requiring continuous reinterpretation and resistance.
- Laurent emphasizes, “Antiracism always has to be reinvented in keeping with each new form of the object of racism” (Khan, 161).
- Anti-racism must be a dynamic and historically responsive process rather than a fixed ideological stance.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Explanation from Lacan and Race
Master’s Discourse	A dominant discourse that structures social and ideological relations.	The colonial discourse functions as a master’s discourse, shaping the unconscious of colonized subjects by imposing Eurocentric ideals (Khan, 149).
Symbolic Order	The system of language and laws that structures human subjectivity.	The decline of the Name-of-the-Father in modernity has fractured the symbolic order, intensifying racial segregation (Khan, 150).
Segregation	The social process of separation based on constructed differences.	Lacan argues that modern civilization, despite its claim to universalism, enforces “a complex, reinforced and constantly overlapping form of segregation” (Khan, 148).
Jouissance	A form of excessive enjoyment that resists full integration into the symbolic order.	Racism is fueled by resentment toward the jouissance of the Other, which is perceived as excessive or unassimilable (Khan, 157).
Extimacy	The paradox of something being both external and intimate to the subject.	Racism is based on “the hatred of the jouissance of the Other,” which is actually a rejection of one’s own internalized Other (Khan, 159).
Narcissism of Minor Differences	Freud’s concept that small perceived differences between groups lead to hostility.	“Closely related races keep one another at arm’s length,” demonstrating how minor distinctions become sources of conflict (Khan, 152).
Universalization	The attempt to create an all-encompassing framework that applies to all subjects.	Science and capitalism promote universality, but this paradoxically intensifies racial divisions (Khan, 155).
The Melting Pot	The idea that different cultures can be assimilated into a homogeneous society.	Lacan critiques this as a false ideal, stating that the jouissance of the Other cannot simply be erased or integrated (Khan, 156).
The Real	A dimension of experience beyond symbolic representation, often linked to trauma or excess.	Miller suggests that modernity has led to “the real without law,” severing the connection between nature and social reality (Khan, 150).
The Name-of-the-Father	The function that structures the symbolic order and subjectivity.	The decline of this function in modernity contributes to racial segregation and disorder (Khan, 155).
Primitive Accumulation	The process of wealth extraction that underpins capitalism.	The history of capitalism cannot be understood without considering its racialized foundations in “primitive accumulation” (Khan, 149).
Scientific Racism	The use of science to justify racial hierarchies.	The human sciences have historically framed racialized bodies as objects of “segregative reason” (Khan, 149).
Psychoanalytic Anti-Racism	A response to racism that examines its unconscious mechanisms rather than just social structures.	Miller states that “anti-racism always has to be reinvented in keeping with each new form of the object of racism” (Khan, 161).

Contribution of “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Contribution to Psychoanalytic Literary Theory

Examines race through the lens of Lacanian psychoanalysis
- Khan explores how race is a discursive construct shaped by the unconscious rather than a biological reality.
- Race is an effect of discourse, as Lacan states, “[a race] is constituted according to the mode in which symbolic places are transmitted by the order of a discourse” (Khan, 148).
- This insight expands psychoanalytic readings of racial identity beyond traditional Freudian notions of repression.
Connects the concept of jouissance to racial hatred
- Khan builds on Miller’s idea that racism is driven by an intolerance of the Other’s jouissance rather than mere visual difference.
- “Racism calls into play a hatred which goes precisely toward what grounds the Other’s alterity, in other words its jouissance” (Khan, 157).
- This provides a psychoanalytic explanation for racialized violence and exclusion in literature.
Applies the concept of extimacy to racial identity
- Extimacy (external intimacy) explains how racism reflects an internal rejection of aspects of the self projected onto the Other.
- “The root of racism is the hatred of one’s own jouissance… it is also hatred of myself” (Khan, 159).
- This contributes to psychoanalytic readings of literature by showing how race functions as a psychological structure in narratives.

2. Contribution to Postcolonial Literary Theory

Analyzes how colonial discourse shapes subjectivity
- Khan highlights how the master’s discourse, particularly in colonialism, alters the unconscious of colonized subjects.
- “The unconscious that had been sold to them along with the laws of colonization” (Khan, 149).
- This supports postcolonial critiques of Western literary canons and their racialized structures of power.
Critiques the “melting pot” as a colonial fantasy
- Lacan’s critique of assimilationist ideologies aligns with postcolonial theorists like Homi Bhabha’s concept of hybridity.
- “Leaving this Other to his own mode of jouissance, that would only be possible by not imposing our own on him” (Khan, 156).
- This challenges narratives of integration in colonial and diasporic literature.

Interrogates the colonial legacy of scientific racism in literature
- The text examines how scientific discourse historically justified racial hierarchies, shaping literary representation.
- “The human sciences take both madmen and racialized bodies as an object of segregative reason” (Khan, 149).
- This contributes to postcolonial critiques of literary representations of race in Western texts.

3. Contribution to Critical Race Theory in Literary Studies

Frames racism as a structural and unconscious phenomenon
- Critical Race Theory (CRT) argues that racism is embedded in systems rather than individual prejudice.
- Khan extends this by showing that racism is structured through the master’s discourse and the symbolic order (Khan, 150).
- This helps deconstruct racial ideologies in literature by focusing on underlying linguistic and psychoanalytic structures.

Challenges humanist universalism in literary representation
- Khan critiques the universalizing claims of science and capitalism, which reinforce segregation rather than eliminating it.
- “The universal mode—which is the mode under which science elaborates the real—seems to have no limit, when in fact it does” (Khan, 160).
- This insight contributes to CRT’s critique of universalism in literary theory, showing how “colorblind” narratives still reinforce racial divisions.
Expands CRT’s understanding of racial subjectivity through Lacanian theory
- CRT often focuses on material and legal structures; Khan adds a psychoanalytic dimension, showing how racial difference is internalized at the unconscious level.
- “The hatred of the jouissance of the Other is the structuring logic of racism” (Khan, 157).
- This enriches literary analyses of racial identity and trauma.

4. Contribution to Structuralism and Poststructuralism in Literary Theory

Race as a signifier within the symbolic order
- Khan applies Lacan’s structuralist approach by arguing that race is a signifier produced within discourse, not a biological reality.
- “Race is constituted according to the mode in which symbolic places are transmitted by the order of a discourse” (Khan, 148).
- This aligns with poststructuralist critiques of essentialism in literary theory.
Challenges essentialist representations of race in literature
- By framing race as a discursive effect, Khan supports Derrida’s deconstruction of racial binaries.
- This undermines fixed racial categories in literary analysis, promoting an understanding of identity as fluid and constructed.
Questions the stability of racial identity in literary texts
- Khan’s discussion of jouissance and extimacy suggests that racial identity is inherently unstable.
- This aligns with poststructuralist readings of identity as fractured and shifting.

Examples of Critiques Through “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

Literary Work	Lacanian Concept from Lacan and Race	Critique Through Azeen Khan’s Analysis
*Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness* (1899)**	Master’s Discourse & Colonial Unconscious	– The novel exemplifies how colonial discourse imposes a master’s ideology that shapes the unconscious of both colonizer and colonized. – Kurtz’s descent into madness reflects the destabilization of the symbolic order, as he moves beyond European rationality into the “primitive” (Khan, 149). – The racialized portrayal of Africans as “savage” aligns with scientific racism in literature, reinforcing colonial power structures (Khan, 149).
*Toni Morrison’s Beloved* (1987)**	Jouissance & Extimacy	– The novel illustrates how Black trauma and historical violence are linked to the unassimilable jouissance of the racialized Other. – Sethe’s actions (killing her child) demonstrate how slavery produces a fractured subjectivity, tied to the rejection of her own jouissance (Khan, 159). – The ghost of Beloved embodies the return of the repressed, mirroring how the historical unconscious continues to shape Black identity in America.
*Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apart* (1958)**	Segregation & The Decline of the Name-of-the-Father	– The novel critiques colonial disruption of Igbo society, where traditional authority (symbolized by Okonkwo and the elders) collapses under Western rule. – The colonial master’s discourse erases indigenous structures, replacing them with a European symbolic order (Khan, 148). – Okonkwo’s downfall can be read as the collapse of the Name-of-the-Father, leading to segregation within his own people as they become divided by colonial influence (Khan, 155).
*Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis* (1915)**	The Racialized Subject & The Real	– Gregor Samsa’s transformation into an insect reflects the dehumanization of the Other, akin to racialized bodies being marked as “vermin” or subhuman (Khan, 157). – His family’s rejection of him mirrors society’s segregation of the racialized subject, as the master’s discourse determines social worth. – Gregor’s existence outside human recognition echoes the Real without Law, where his jouissance is seen as excessive and intolerable (Khan, 150).

Criticism Against “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

1. Overemphasis on Psychoanalysis Over Material Conditions

The book primarily analyzes race through Lacanian psychoanalysis, but critics argue that this overlooks material and socio-political factors in racial oppression.

Critique: Race and racism are deeply tied to economic, legal, and historical structures (e.g., capitalism, colonialism, systemic racism), yet Lacan and Race focuses more on unconscious structures.
Example: Critics from Critical Race Theory (CRT) and Marxist literary studies argue that psychoanalysis alone cannot explain racialized economic exploitation.

2. The Abstract Nature of Lacanian Concepts

Lacanian psychoanalysis is highly abstract, making it difficult to apply to concrete racial realities.
Critique: Terms like jouissance, extimacy, and the Real may provide insight into the unconscious dynamics of race, but they lack tangible explanatory power for real-world racial struggles.
Example: Some scholars argue that postcolonial theorists like Fanon and Said offer clearer frameworks for analyzing race and power compared to Lacan’s dense theoretical language.

3. Limited Engagement with Postcolonial and Intersectional Theories

The book engages Lacan, Freud, and Miller, but less so with postcolonial theorists like Fanon, Spivak, or Bhabha.
Critique: While Khan examines race through the unconscious and discourse, she does not fully integrate intersectionality, feminist critiques, or decolonial perspectives.

Example: Hortense Spillers and Saidiya Hartman’s work on Black identity and racial trauma could have expanded the discussion beyond Lacanian categories.

4. Neglect of Non-Western Psychoanalytic Traditions

Critique: The book focuses on European psychoanalysis (Lacan, Freud, Miller) without acknowledging how psychoanalytic ideas have been adapted in non-Western contexts.

Example: Scholars of African, Asian, and Indigenous psychology might challenge whether Lacanian theory is the best tool for understanding racial subjectivity outside Europe.

5. Questionable Applicability to Literary Analysis

Critique: Some scholars argue that literary analysis based on Lacan is often forced, as it may impose psychoanalytic structures onto texts that do not explicitly engage with psychoanalysis.

Example: Applying Lacan and Race to texts like Achebe’s Things Fall Apart or Morrison’s Beloved may ignore these novels’ cultural, historical, and political specificities in favor of a purely theoretical framework.

6. The Risk of Universalizing Racial Experience

Critique: The book’s focus on psychoanalysis and discourse risks universalizing the experience of race, treating racial identity as a structural effect rather than a lived reality.

Example: By framing race as an effect of the master’s discourse, it may downplay how race is experienced differently across history, geography, and social context.

Representative Quotations from “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“I believe that in our day and age, we could classify the mark, the scar, left by the father’s disappearance under the heading and general notion of segregation.”	Lacan suggests that the decline of paternal authority (Name-of-the-Father) has led to a more fragmented society, where segregation becomes a primary organizing force rather than universalism.
“Capitalism and science have combined to make nature disappear. And what is left by the vanishing of nature is what we call the real, that is, a remainder, by structure, disordered.”	Jacques-Alain Miller argues that modernity has fractured the symbolic order, causing a disordered “Real” where nature is no longer an organizing principle, leaving humans in an unstructured, chaotic state.
“The unconscious that had been sold to them along with the laws of colonization, this exotic regressive form of the master’s discourse, in the face of the capitalism called imperialism.”	Lacan critiques how colonialism imposed a European unconscious on colonized subjects, erasing their indigenous psychological structures and replacing them with the dominant master’s discourse.
“A race is constituted according to the mode in which symbolic places are transmitted by the order of a discourse.”	This suggests that race is not merely biological but constructed through discourse, meaning racism is tied to how societies symbolically organize differences rather than inherent traits.
“On the one hand, there is the universalizing orientation of science (for all); on the other, the accentuation of segregation (not for all).”	Lacan highlights the paradox of modernity: science and capitalism claim to be universal but simultaneously create new forms of exclusion and segregation.
“Racism effectively switches its objects as the social forms undergo modification. From Lacan’s perspective, however, there is always, in any human community, a rejection of an unassimilable jouissance.”	Racism is not static but adapts to shifting social conditions. Lacan argues that at its core, racism is about rejecting the “jouissance” (excess pleasure) of the Other, which cannot be assimilated into dominant society.
“Without our jouissance going off the track, only the Other is able to mark its position, but only insofar as we are separated from this Other.”	Lacan explains that identity is formed through separation—the Other is only recognizable when set apart from the dominant subject. This reinforces segregation and racial divisions.
“Racism is founded on what one imagines about the Other’s jouissance; it is hatred of the particular way, of the Other’s own way of experiencing jouissance.”	Racism is not just about physical differences but about perceived differences in pleasure and behavior—it is the fear that the Other enjoys differently or excessively.
“The Other is unfairly subtracting from you a part of your jouissance. That is the constant. The root of racism is the hatred of one’s own jouissance.”	Lacan suggests that racism is rooted in a projection—people externalize their own anxieties and frustrations onto racial Others, blaming them for their own lost pleasure.
“The universal of the ‘for all’ generates the segregations it pretends to destroy.”	The attempt to universalize identity and culture paradoxically creates more exclusion, as universalism erases particularities, leading to resistance and new forms of division.

“A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti: A Critical Analysis

“A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti first appeared in 1872 and was later included in her posthumous collection Poetic Works (1904).

Introduction: “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

“A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti first appeared in 1872 and was later included in her posthumous collection Poetic Works (1904). The poem, commonly known as In the Bleak Midwinter, is celebrated for its evocative imagery and profound spiritual depth. It contrasts the harsh, desolate winter landscape—”Earth stood hard as iron, / Water like a stone”—with the warmth and humility of Christ’s birth in a simple manger. Rossetti explores themes of divine majesty and human devotion, emphasizing that even though heaven and earth cannot contain God, a humble stable suffices for His arrival. The final stanza, in which the speaker offers their heart to Christ, encapsulates the poem’s central message: faith and love are the greatest gifts one can offer. The poem’s enduring popularity stems from its lyrical beauty and its simple yet profound meditation on the meaning of Christ’s birth, making it a staple in both literary and musical traditions, most notably as a cherished Christmas carol set to music by Gustav Holst and Harold Darke.

Text: “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

In the bleak mid-winter

Frosty wind made moan,

Earth stood hard as iron,

Water like a stone;

Snow had fallen, snow on snow,

Snow on snow,

In the bleak mid-winter

Long ago.

Our God, Heaven cannot hold Him

Nor earth sustain;

Heaven and earth shall flee away

When He comes to reign:

In the bleak midwinter

A stable-place sufficed

The Lord God Almighty

Jesus Christ.

Enough for Him, whom cherubim

Worship night and day,

A breastful of milk

And a mangerful of hay;

Enough for Him, whom angels

Fall down before,

The ox and ass and camel

Which adore.

Angels and archangels

May have gathered there,

Cherubim and seraphim

Thronged the air;

But only His mother

In her maiden bliss

Worshipped the Beloved

With a kiss.

What can I give Him,

Poor as I am?

If I were a shepherd

I would bring a lamb,

If I were a Wise Man

I would do my part,—

Yet what I can I give Him,

Give my heart.

Annotations: “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Line	Annotation	Literary Devices
In the bleak mid-winter	Establishes the setting as cold and bleak, symbolizing hardship.	Imagery, Symbolism
Frosty wind made moan,	The personification of the wind conveys a sense of sorrow and desolation.	Personification, Alliteration (“frosty” and “moan”)
Earth stood hard as iron,	Simile compares the earth’s hardness to iron, emphasizing its harshness.	Simile (“hard as iron”)
Water like a stone;	Simile comparing water to stone, indicating extreme cold.	Simile (“like a stone”)
Snow had fallen, snow on snow,	Repetition of “snow on snow” emphasizes the severity of winter.	Repetition, Imagery
Snow on snow,	Continuation of the repetition for emphasis.	Repetition
In the bleak mid-winter	Repetition of the opening line reinforces the bleak setting.	Repetition, Symbolism
Long ago.	Indicates the event happened long ago, adding a nostalgic tone.	Allusion (to the past)
Our God, Heaven cannot hold Him	Suggests that God is beyond the physical limitations of heaven and earth.	Hyperbole, Paradox
Nor earth sustain;	Emphasizes that even the earth is insufficient to contain His presence.	Hyperbole
Heaven and earth shall flee away	Apocalyptic imagery suggests the transience of the physical world.	Imagery, Biblical Allusion
When He comes to reign:	Implies the Second Coming of Christ.	Biblical Allusion, Prophecy
In the bleak midwinter	Repetition of “bleak midwinter” ties back to the theme of humility.	Repetition, Symbolism
A stable-place sufficed	The stable as a humble but sufficient place for Christ’s birth.	Contrast, Symbolism
The Lord God Almighty	Emphasizes the divine nature of Christ.	Epithets, Religious Symbolism
Jesus Christ.	A simple yet powerful statement affirming the identity of Christ.	Religious Symbolism
Enough for Him, whom cherubim	Highlights the reverence of celestial beings for Christ.	Imagery, Symbolism
Worship night and day,	Reinforces the eternal worship of Christ by heavenly beings.	Repetition, Parallelism
A breastful of milk	Contrasts the grandeur of celestial worship with the simplicity of earthly offerings.	Contrast, Symbolism
And a mangerful of hay;	Symbolizes Christ’s humility and acceptance of simple gifts.	Symbolism
Enough for Him, whom angels	Angels are described as bowing in adoration, showing divine reverence.	Imagery, Personification
Fall down before,	Emphasizes the humility of Christ’s setting.	Contrast
The ox and ass and camel	Common stable animals are depicted as part of Christ’s nativity.	Symbolism, Imagery
Which adore.	Even animals are shown as adoring Christ, reinforcing the universal worship.	Personification
Angels and archangels	Lists celestial beings to emphasize divine presence.	Enumeration, Religious Imagery
May have gathered there,	Indicates that even celestial beings may have been present.	Imagery
Cherubim and seraphim	Continues the listing of divine beings.	Enumeration
Thronged the air;	Depicts an overwhelming spiritual presence.	Imagery, Hyperbole
But only His mother	Contrasts celestial beings with the human simplicity of Mary.	Contrast, Symbolism
In her maiden bliss	Highlights Mary’s unique and tender connection with Christ.	Imagery, Symbolism
Worshipped the Beloved	Mary’s act of worship is personal and intimate.	Symbolism, Contrast
With a kiss.	Her worship is expressed through a simple but profound act of love.	Symbolism
What can I give Him,	Rhetorical question indicating self-reflection.	Rhetorical Question
Poor as I am?	Emphasizes humility and lack of material wealth.	Contrast, Symbolism
If I were a shepherd	Hypothetical statement imagining a different offering.	Hypothetical Statement
I would bring a lamb,	References traditional gifts brought by shepherds.	Allusion (Shepherds)
If I were a Wise Man	Another hypothetical scenario referencing the Wise Men.	Allusion (Wise Men)
I would do my part,—	Acknowledges the limited material offerings available.	Contrast, Symbolism
Yet what I can I give Him,	Repetition of “give Him” emphasizes personal devotion.	Repetition
Give my heart.	The final line resolves the question—offering one’s heart as the ultimate gift.	Symbolism, Resolution

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Literary Device	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	“Frosty wind made moan”	The repetition of the “m” sound enhances the melancholic tone.
Allusion	“If I were a Wise Man”	Refers to the biblical Magi (Wise Men) who visited Jesus, adding religious significance.
Anaphora	“If I were a shepherd / If I were a Wise Man”	Repetition of “If I were” emphasizes different roles in Christ’s nativity.
Assonance	“Snow had fallen, snow on snow”	The repeated “o” sound creates a rhythmic, chant-like effect.
Biblical Imagery	“The Lord God Almighty, Jesus Christ”	Directly refers to religious figures, reinforcing the sacred theme.
Contrast	“Heaven cannot hold Him / Nor earth sustain”	Contrasts the vastness of divinity with the smallness of earthly existence.
Enumeration	“The ox and ass and camel”	A listing technique to emphasize the inclusivity of Christ’s worshippers.
Epithets	“The Lord God Almighty”	A title reinforcing Christ’s divine power and reverence.
Hyperbole	“Heaven cannot hold Him”	An exaggeration to emphasize the boundless nature of God.
Imagery	“Earth stood hard as iron, water like a stone”	Creates a vivid picture of the harsh winter setting.
Irony	“A stable-place sufficed / The Lord God Almighty”	The contrast between Christ’s divine status and his humble birth is ironic.
Metaphor	“Give my heart”	The heart symbolizes love and devotion rather than a physical gift.
Parallelism	“If I were a shepherd / If I were a Wise Man”	Repeating grammatical structures to create rhythm and emphasis.
Paradox	“Heaven cannot hold Him / Nor earth sustain”	A seeming contradiction that highlights Christ’s omnipresence.
Personification	“Frosty wind made moan”	The wind is given human characteristics, making the scene more vivid.
Refrain	“In the bleak mid-winter”	The phrase is repeated, reinforcing the theme and setting.
Repetition	“Snow on snow, snow on snow”	Repeating “snow” intensifies the feeling of the cold, bleak winter.
Rhetorical Question	“What can I give Him?”	Invites reflection on personal devotion to Christ.
Simile	“Earth stood hard as iron, water like a stone”	Compares the ground and water to iron and stone, emphasizing the extreme cold.
Symbolism	“A breastful of milk and a mangerful of hay”	Represents Christ’s humility and acceptance of the simplest offerings.

Themes: “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

The Contrast Between Divine Majesty and Humble Beginnings

One of the central themes in “A Christmas Carol” is the contrast between Christ’s divine majesty and his humble birth. Rossetti highlights the paradox of God’s omnipotence with the simplicity of his earthly arrival. She writes, “Our God, Heaven cannot hold Him / Nor earth sustain”, emphasizing that even the vastness of heaven and earth is insufficient to contain Christ’s divine presence. Yet, she juxtaposes this grandeur with the humblest of settings: “In the bleak midwinter / A stable-place sufficed / The Lord God Almighty / Jesus Christ.” The stable, a place of poverty and simplicity, is paradoxically sufficient for the birth of the divine. This contrast underscores the Christian belief in humility as a virtue and reminds believers that spiritual greatness is not defined by material wealth but by grace and love.
The Harshness of the World vs. the Warmth of Faith
Rossetti paints a bleak, desolate winter landscape to symbolize the harshness of the world before the arrival of Christ. The opening lines—“In the bleak midwinter, / Frosty wind made moan, / Earth stood hard as iron, / Water like a stone”—depict a world that is lifeless, cold, and unyielding. The repetition of “snow on snow” further emphasizes the overwhelming desolation. This wintry imagery serves as a metaphor for the spiritual barrenness of the world before the birth of Christ. However, in contrast to this harsh setting, the poem introduces the warmth of faith and divine love. The stable, though simple, becomes a place of hope and salvation. The presence of “Angels and archangels” and “Cherubim and seraphim” signifies the transformative power of Christ’s arrival, turning the bleakness of the world into something sacred and filled with divine presence.

The Universality of Worship and Devotion
Throughout the poem, Rossetti emphasizes that all creation, from the highest celestial beings to the simplest creatures, recognizes and worships Christ. She writes, “Enough for Him, whom cherubim / Worship night and day”, illustrating how even the highest-ranking angels honor Him. Yet, the poem also highlights simpler forms of adoration: “The ox and ass and camel / Which adore.” This inclusion of both celestial beings and stable animals reinforces the idea that Christ’s arrival is for everyone—both the mighty and the lowly. The mother of Jesus, Mary, is also presented as a devoted worshipper: “But only His mother / In her maiden bliss / Worshipped the Beloved / With a kiss.” This universal recognition of Christ’s divinity, regardless of status, aligns with Christian teachings that salvation and grace are available to all who believe.
Personal Sacrifice and the Gift of the Heart

The final stanza of the poem shifts from grand imagery to personal reflection, emphasizing the theme of individual devotion. Rossetti poses the question, “What can I give Him, / Poor as I am?” This rhetorical question highlights the speaker’s recognition of their material poverty, but more importantly, it suggests that material wealth is not the most valuable offering. The stanza concludes with the profound resolution: “Yet what I can I give Him, / Give my heart.” Here, the poet suggests that faith and love are the most meaningful gifts one can offer to Christ. This theme aligns with Christian teachings on selflessness and personal devotion, reminding readers that true worship is not about grand gestures but about sincerity, faith, and the willingness to give oneself entirely to God.

Literary Theories and “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Literary Theory	Application to “A Christmas Carol”	References from the Poem
Formalism	Focuses on the poem’s structure, language, and literary devices, analyzing how they contribute to meaning. The repetition, imagery, and symbolism enhance the poem’s theme of humility and devotion.	“Snow had fallen, snow on snow, / Snow on snow,” (Repetition emphasizes the harshness of winter); “Earth stood hard as iron, / Water like a stone;” (Imagery and simile create a vivid setting).
Biblical/Religious Criticism	Examines how the poem reflects Christian beliefs, biblical allusions, and theological themes such as Christ’s divinity, humility, and universal worship.	“Our God, Heaven cannot hold Him / Nor earth sustain;” (The omnipotence of Christ); “If I were a Wise Man / I would do my part,” (Reference to the biblical Magi).
Feminist Criticism	Explores the role of Mary as the only human figure highlighted in the poem, emphasizing maternal devotion and the significance of women in religious narratives.	“But only His mother / In her maiden bliss / Worshipped the Beloved / With a kiss.” (Mary’s role is portrayed as uniquely intimate and reverent).
Marxist Criticism	Analyzes the poem’s focus on class, humility, and the value of non-material gifts, suggesting that love and faith outweigh wealth.	“What can I give Him, / Poor as I am?” (Recognizes personal poverty but highlights the importance of spiritual offering over material wealth).

Critical Questions about “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

1. How does Christina Rossetti use winter imagery to reflect spiritual themes in “A Christmas Carol”?

Rossetti employs vivid winter imagery to create a setting that reflects both physical and spiritual conditions. The opening stanza, “In the bleak midwinter, / Frosty wind made moan, / Earth stood hard as iron, / Water like a stone”, establishes a scene of desolation, emphasizing the harshness of the world before the birth of Christ. The repetition of “snow on snow” further reinforces the overwhelming nature of the cold, symbolizing spiritual barrenness or the absence of divine warmth. However, this cold and lifeless setting contrasts with the warmth of Christ’s arrival. The transition from the stark environment to the intimate scene of the stable, “A stable-place sufficed / The Lord God Almighty, / Jesus Christ,” suggests that faith and humility can bring warmth and meaning even in the bleakest conditions. The harsh winter serves as a metaphor for the human soul in need of salvation, reinforcing the transformative power of Christ’s birth.

2. What role does the theme of humility play in “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti?

Humility is a key theme in “A Christmas Carol”, reflected both in Christ’s birth and in the speaker’s final offering. Rossetti emphasizes the paradox of Christ’s divinity and his humble earthly existence: “Our God, Heaven cannot hold Him / Nor earth sustain: / In the bleak midwinter / A stable-place sufficed.” The stable, a place of poverty and simplicity, becomes the birthplace of the Almighty, reinforcing the Christian belief that greatness is found in humility. Similarly, the poem contrasts the grandeur of heavenly worship with the simple yet profound devotion of Mary: “But only His mother / In her maiden bliss / Worshipped the Beloved / With a kiss.” This line highlights how a simple human gesture of love is just as meaningful as the adoration of celestial beings. The final stanza further reinforces this theme, as the speaker acknowledges their own poverty but realizes that the greatest gift they can give is “Give my heart.” This conclusion suggests that faith and sincerity hold more value than material wealth, aligning with Christian teachings on humility and devotion.

3. How does Christina Rossetti emphasize the universal nature of Christ’s worship in “A Christmas Carol”?

Rossetti presents Christ as a figure who is worshipped by all, regardless of status, emphasizing the universality of devotion. The poem describes a wide range of worshippers, from heavenly beings to simple animals: “Enough for Him, whom cherubim / Worship night and day, / A breastful of milk / And a mangerful of hay.” The contrast between the celestial worship of cherubim and the simple provisions of a manger suggests that Christ accepts love and devotion in all forms. The mention of “The ox and ass and camel / Which adore” reinforces this idea, showing that even the humblest creatures recognize Christ’s divinity. Additionally, Rossetti includes human worshippers, referencing the Wise Men, “If I were a Wise Man / I would do my part.” This line suggests that different individuals, from scholars to the poor, all have a place in Christ’s story. By presenting a range of worshippers, Rossetti conveys the idea that Christ’s message and salvation are for everyone, regardless of social or spiritual standing.

4. What is the significance of the final stanza in “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti?

The final stanza of “A Christmas Carol” shifts the focus from grand imagery to personal reflection, reinforcing the poem’s message of individual devotion. The speaker contemplates what they can offer Christ, recognizing their material poverty: “What can I give Him, / Poor as I am?” This rhetorical question acknowledges the speaker’s limitations, suggesting that they have no grand gifts like the Wise Men. However, the stanza reaches a profound resolution: “Yet what I can I give Him, / Give my heart.” This line encapsulates the poem’s central message—true worship is not about wealth or extravagant offerings but about sincerity and faith. The heart symbolizes love and personal devotion, emphasizing the Christian belief that one’s internal commitment to Christ is the greatest offering. This conclusion ties together the themes of humility, faith, and worship, leaving the reader with a deeply personal and reflective ending that highlights the simplicity and purity of true devotion.

Literary Works Similar to “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

“In the Bleak Midwinter” – Christina Rossetti
- This poem is actually an alternative title for “A Christmas Carol”, often set to music as a Christmas hymn, emphasizing Christ’s humble birth and divine presence in a cold, desolate world.
“On the Morning of Christ’s Nativity” – John Milton
- Like Rossetti’s poem, Milton’s work celebrates the birth of Christ, contrasting the celestial majesty of Jesus with the simplicity of his entrance into the world.
“The Nativity” – Henry Vaughan
- This poem shares themes of divine humility and the contrast between Christ’s grandeur and his modest birth, similar to how Rossetti portrays the stable’s sufficiency for the Lord.

“A Hymn on the Nativity of My Saviour” – Ben Jonson
- Jonson, like Rossetti, reflects on the significance of Christ’s birth, emphasizing devotion and the power of faith over material wealth.
“Christmas” – George Herbert
- Herbert’s poem, much like “A Christmas Carol”, explores the theme of spiritual rebirth through Christ’s nativity, focusing on faith and personal reflection.

Representative Quotations of “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“In the bleak midwinter, / Frosty wind made moan”	Opening line setting the scene of harsh winter, symbolizing a world in need of salvation.	Formalism – Uses imagery and personification to establish mood.
“Earth stood hard as iron, / Water like a stone”	Emphasizes the severity of winter, possibly symbolizing human spiritual barrenness.	Biblical/Religious Criticism – Metaphorically represents a world before Christ.
“Our God, Heaven cannot hold Him / Nor earth sustain”	Highlights the paradox of Christ’s divine majesty and his humble birth.	Theological Criticism – Reflects Christian doctrine of God’s omnipotence.
“In the bleak midwinter / A stable-place sufficed”	Contrasts divine grandeur with human humility, showing Christ’s acceptance of a simple birth.	Marxist Criticism – Highlights themes of humility and material simplicity.
“Enough for Him, whom cherubim / Worship night and day”	Describes how celestial beings worship Christ, reinforcing his divine status.	Religious Symbolism – Angels symbolize the eternal praise of Christ.
“The ox and ass and camel / Which adore”	Even animals recognize and worship Christ, reinforcing universal adoration.	Ecocriticism – Suggests harmony between nature and spirituality.
“But only His mother / In her maiden bliss / Worshipped the Beloved / With a kiss.”	Emphasizes Mary’s intimate, human connection to Christ.	Feminist Criticism – Highlights the maternal role and spiritual agency of Mary.
“What can I give Him, / Poor as I am?”	The speaker reflects on their own limitations in giving to Christ.	Existentialist Criticism – Examines personal responsibility and self-worth in faith.
“If I were a Wise Man / I would do my part”	Recognizes the roles of biblical figures but shifts focus to individual devotion.	Historical Criticism – References biblical traditions of offering gifts to Christ.
“Yet what I can I give Him, / Give my heart.”	The poem’s concluding realization that love and devotion are the greatest gifts.	Ethical Criticism – Suggests moral and spiritual sincerity as the highest value.

“Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce: Summary and Critique

“Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum and Christine Pierce, first appeared in Analysis in 1976, examines how defenses of sexist practices in contemporary philosophy often rely on principles that are implicitly racist.

Introduction: “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce

“Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum and Christine Pierce, first appeared in Analysis in 1976, examines how defenses of sexist practices in contemporary philosophy often rely on principles that are implicitly racist. The authors argue that justifications for institutionalized sexism—such as those based on tradition (the conservative defense), statistical differences (the pseudo-liberal defense), and individual choice (the libertarian defense)—can also be applied to uphold racial discrimination. They demonstrate how philosophers like J.R. Lucas, W.T. Blackstone, and W.E. Cooper use arguments that, if taken to their logical conclusion, could justify racial prejudice in hiring, institutional policies, and social roles. By drawing parallels between sexism and racism, the article exposes the flawed logic in these philosophical positions and challenges the notion that sexist discrimination can be justified while racial discrimination cannot. This work is significant in literary theory and feminist philosophy as it critiques the intersection of gender, race, and institutional bias, highlighting how implicit biases operate under seemingly neutral principles. It contributes to critical race theory and feminist critique by demonstrating how oppression is often justified through appeals to cultural norms and pseudo-scientific reasoning.

Summary of “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce

1. Implicit Racism in Defenses of Sexism

The article argues that many justifications for sexism are implicitly racist because they rely on principles that could also be used to justify racial discrimination (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 91).

The authors examine three common defenses of sexist practices:
- The Conservative Defense
- The Pseudo-Liberal Defense
- The Libertarian Defense

2. The Conservative Defense: Tradition as Justification for Discrimination

This argument claims that established prejudices should be preserved in law and policy.

J.R. Lucas argues that sexist employment policies are justified because people “recognise that a person’s sex can reasonably be regarded as relevant to his or her suitability for particular posts” (Lucas, 1973, pp. 166-168, cited in Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 92).
The authors point out that this reasoning could also justify racial discrimination, as some people historically saw “boss-servant roles in racial terms” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93).

3. The Pseudo-Liberal Defense: Using Statistical Differences to Justify Discrimination

Some philosophers argue that equal opportunity should depend on further investigation into gender differences.
W.T. Blackstone suggests that gender equality “would be correct only if all relevant facts, characteristics, or circumstances… were independent of gender” (Blackstone, 1975, p. 247, cited in Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93).
J.R. Lucas extends this reasoning by saying that “the more integrally and the more invariably a difference is connected with a person’s sex, the more we are entitled to insist that the mere fact of being male or female can constitute a conclusive reason against being allowed to do something” (Lucas, 1973, p. 167, cited in Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93).

Ketchum and Pierce argue that this logic can be applied to race, justifying discriminatory hiring practices if statistical differences exist between racial groups, leading to racial bias in employment (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 94).

4. The Libertarian Defense: Defending Discrimination as a Matter of Choice

W.E. Cooper defends sexist institutions by appealing to individual freedom, arguing that people should be free to choose traditional gender roles (Cooper, 1975, p. 256, cited in Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 94).

The authors criticize this argument by showing that the same logic could be used to justify racial oppression, arguing that if Black individuals “choose” lower-status positions, this could be seen as legitimizing racial discrimination (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95).
They note that no one argues for the right of Black people to be treated as slaves, yet Cooper uses similar reasoning to defend sexism (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95).

5. Critique of These Defenses

The authors argue that these defenses of sexism fail to recognize how discrimination is institutional and systemic, rather than a matter of personal choice.
They point out that all three defenses imply that societal change should only happen if sexist or racist attitudes disappear naturally, rather than being challenged through policy and law (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 96).

6. Conclusion: Challenging Implicit Bias in Justifications of Inequality

The authors conclude that justifications for sexism often rely on principles that could be applied to racism, exposing the hidden racial biases in these philosophical defenses (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 96).
They argue for a more critical approach to discrimination, one that does not rely on cultural traditions, statistical differences, or individual choices as justifications for inequality (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 97).

Key Takeaways

Sexist defenses often rest on arguments that could justify racial discrimination.
Conservative, pseudo-liberal, and libertarian defenses of sexism reinforce implicit racism.
Discrimination should be challenged systematically, not passively accepted as tradition or personal preference.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference from the Article
Implicit Racism	The idea that arguments defending sexism often rely on principles that can also be used to justify racial discrimination, even if not explicitly stated.	“Several articles which defend sexist practices are implicitly racist… principles that apply to the areas where sexism and racism are similar” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 91).
The Conservative Defense	A justification for discrimination based on tradition and cultural norms, arguing that established social structures should not be altered.	“If attitudes and habits of discrimination are sufficiently integral to the culture, discriminatory policies and laws are justified” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 92).
The Pseudo-Liberal Defense	A justification that argues equality must wait for further evidence about gender differences, often relying on statistical correlations to justify discrimination.	“The more integrally and the more invariably a difference is connected with a person’s sex, the more we are entitled to insist that the mere fact of being male or female can constitute a conclusive reason against being allowed to do something” (Lucas, 1973, cited in Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93).
The Libertarian Defense	An argument that claims individual freedom justifies sexist practices, suggesting that discrimination is acceptable if it results from free choices.	“The inequalities Jaggar deplores may arise because of the way that free men and women choose to lead their lives” (Cooper, 1975, cited in Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 94).
Institutional Discrimination	The idea that discrimination is not just a matter of individual prejudice but is built into legal, social, and economic structures, reinforcing inequality.	“One person cannot be discriminated against as a woman without there being some practice or policy of discrimination which would affect other women who might not so choose” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95).
Comparative Oppression	The concept that arguments used to justify one form of oppression (sexism) can also be applied to another (racism), revealing inconsistencies in justifications for discrimination.	“A racist who thinks of servility and deference as essential characteristics of negritude will have as much difficulty taking orders from a Black boss as will a sexist who thinks of a woman boss as inappropriate” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93).
Social Constructivism	The idea that gender and race roles are not biologically determined but are created and reinforced by societal norms and institutions.	“Neither Blackstone nor Lucas explains why he thinks that hiring people on the basis of sex—and, within the favored sex, on qualifications—would be so much easier and more beneficial than hiring on the basis of individual qualifications” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 94).
Moral Relativism in Discrimination	The flawed argument that if a group accepts their own discrimination, then it is morally permissible.	“One could produce a racially just society by convincing Blacks that they are better off as slaves, servants, and manual laborers” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95).
False Equivalence in Discrimination	The claim that discriminating against an individual based on group statistics is justifiable, comparing it to generalized policies like speed limits.	“Lucas argues for institutionalizing sexist discrimination in such cases on the analogy of the speed limit” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 94).
Systemic Oppression	The recognition that oppression is not just about individual choices but is maintained through social, economic, and legal systems.	“Such institutions regulate and affect people other than those who choose them” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95).

Contribution of “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Revealing the Overlap Between Sexism and Racism:
- The article argues that philosophical justifications for sexism often rely on principles that could also justify racism, thus exposing the implicit racism within arguments defending gender inequality.
- “Several articles which defend sexist practices are implicitly racist… principles that apply to the areas where sexism and racism are similar” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 91).
Exposing Institutional Racism Through Gender Analysis:
- The study shows how institutional discrimination is defended using logic that maintains both racial and gender hierarchies.
- “A racist who thinks of servility and deference as essential characteristics of negritude will have as much difficulty taking orders from a Black boss as will a sexist who thinks of a woman boss as inappropriate” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93).

2. Feminist Theory

Intersectionality of Gender and Race:
- The article precedes and informs later feminist theories of intersectionality, showing how sexist oppression often mirrors racial oppression.
- “The conservative argument policies directed against racism or sexism can be justified only if the society is not racist or sexist” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93).
Critique of Gender-Based Essentialism:
- Challenges the pseudo-liberal argument that women’s roles should be determined by biology or statistical differences, a concept later addressed by feminist theorists like Judith Butler.
- “The more integrally and the more invariably a difference is connected with a person’s sex, the more we are entitled to insist that the mere fact of being male or female can constitute a conclusive reason against being allowed to do something” (Lucas, 1973, cited in Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93).

3. Postcolonial Theory

Colonial Logic in Justifications of Oppression:
- The article highlights how the same arguments used to justify sexism were used historically to uphold colonialism and racial hierarchy.
- “If a widespread association between the role of priest or the role of soldier and maleness justifies excluding women from professions related to those roles, similar associations would justify excluding Blacks” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 92).

Cultural Norms as Justifications for Discrimination:
- The conservative defense of discrimination as “tradition” parallels colonial arguments for maintaining racial hierarchies in occupied territories.
- “If attitudes and habits of discrimination are sufficiently integral to the culture, discriminatory policies and laws are justified” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 92).

4. Social Constructivism

Critique of Biological Determinism:
- The authors challenge the idea that social roles are dictated by biological sex or race, instead arguing that they are social constructs reinforced by power structures.
- “Neither Blackstone nor Lucas explains why he thinks that hiring people on the basis of sex—and, within the favored sex, on qualifications—would be so much easier and more beneficial than hiring on the basis of individual qualifications” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 94).
Discrimination as a Socially Maintained System:
- The article supports later social constructivist theories by demonstrating that discrimination persists not due to natural differences but due to constructed social norms.
- “One person cannot be discriminated against as a woman without there being some practice or policy of discrimination which would affect other women who might not so choose” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95).

5. Legal and Political Philosophy

Critique of Libertarian Defenses of Discrimination:
- The authors challenge libertarian arguments that discrimination should be a matter of free choice, pointing out that discrimination is systemic and affects all individuals within an oppressed group.
- “Such institutions regulate and affect people other than those who choose them” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95).
Opposing the “Consent” Argument for Inequality:
- They argue that just because individuals “choose” to accept lower status does not mean the discrimination is justifiable—a key critique of laissez-faire approaches to social justice.
- “One could produce a racially just society by convincing Blacks that they are better off as slaves, servants, and manual laborers” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95).

6. Moral and Ethical Philosophy

Moral Critique of Discrimination Justifications:
- The article challenges the idea that discrimination is morally acceptable if it is statistically or culturally justified.
- “Lucas argues for institutionalizing sexist discrimination in such cases on the analogy of the speed limit” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 94).

Critique of Relativism in Discrimination:
- The authors expose the danger of moral relativism in justifications of racism and sexism, showing how similar reasoning has historically been used to justify slavery and segregation.
- “No articles in the literature champion the rights of Blacks to be treated as inferior (or to be slaves if they want to be) in order to safeguard their freedom, and Cooper offers no reason for granting such rights to sexists while not granting them to racists” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95).

7. Influence on Intersectionality Studies

Early Formulation of Intersectionality Concepts:
- The article precedes and contributes to Kimberlé Crenshaw’s later work on intersectionality, which examines how multiple forms of discrimination overlap.
- “Policies directed against racism or sexism can be justified only if the society is not racist or sexist” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93).

Conclusion: Broader Impact on Literary and Social Theory

Implicit Racism bridges multiple literary, social, and philosophical disciplines, offering an early critique of implicit bias, intersectionality, and institutional discrimination.

The study challenges sexist and racist justifications by exposing their shared logic, laying groundwork for later scholarship in critical race theory, feminist theory, and postcolonial studies.
It remains an important work in understanding how social injustices are justified through flawed philosophical reasoning, making it a foundational text in intersectional and social justice studies.

Examples of Critiques Through “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through “Implicit Racism”
“Oroonoko” (1688) – Aphra Behn	– The novel portrays Oroonoko as noble yet enslaved, reinforcing hierarchical racial structures where exceptionalism is the only path for Black agency. – This aligns with the pseudo-liberal defense, which justifies discrimination by using statistical differences or exceptions rather than individual merit. – “Lucas argues for institutionalizing sexist discrimination in such cases on the analogy of the speed limit” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 94), meaning that if the majority of a group lacks qualifications, discrimination against all members is justified.
“The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” (1885) – Mark Twain	– The character Jim is depicted as submissive and deferential, reflecting the conservative defense of racial roles that justifies discrimination based on ingrained cultural attitudes. – The novel critiques racism but also reinforces racial paternalism, much like how sexist justifications claim that women benefit from oppression. – “A racist who thinks of servility and deference as essential characteristics of negritude will have as much difficulty taking orders from a Black boss as will a sexist who thinks of a woman boss as inappropriate” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93), meaning that racist logic prevents acceptance of leadership by marginalized groups.
“Heart of Darkness” (1899) – Joseph Conrad	– Conrad’s portrayal of Africa as a place of darkness and primitivism reflects implicit racist logic, assuming that certain races are inherently suited for subjugation. – This aligns with the conservative defense, which maintains that societal prejudices should be upheld because they are deeply embedded in culture. – “If attitudes and habits of discrimination are sufficiently integral to the culture, discriminatory policies and laws are justified” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 92), meaning that systemic racism is legitimized by tradition.
“To Kill a Mockingbird” (1960) – Harper Lee	– Atticus Finch’s moral defense of Tom Robinson represents a pseudo-liberal framework, where a single act of justice is framed as progress, while systemic racism remains unchallenged. – This parallels pseudo-liberal arguments against gender equality, which claim change must be slow and incremental, relying on the goodwill of privileged groups rather than legal or systemic reform. – “The conservative argument policies directed against racism or sexism can be justified only if the society is not racist or sexist” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93), meaning that discrimination is only opposed when it is no longer socially accepted.

Criticism Against “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce

1. Overgeneralization of Philosophical Arguments

The article groups different sexist defenses under a broad framework, treating them as if they uniformly support racial discrimination.
Some philosophers might argue that not all justifications for sexism inherently translate to racism, making the comparison too broad and generalized.
“Several articles which defend sexist practices are implicitly racist” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 91). → While this is a valid observation, it does not account for nuanced defenses of sexism that may not rely on racial logic.

2. Lack of Empirical Evidence for Implicit Racism in Sexist Defenses

The article critiques theoretical defenses of sexism without providing historical or empirical evidence of these arguments being used to justify racial discrimination in real-world policies.
“A racist who thinks of servility and deference as essential characteristics of negritude will have as much difficulty taking orders from a Black boss as will a sexist who thinks of a woman boss as inappropriate” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93). → This analogy is strong in theory but lacks direct case studies or real-life examples demonstrating that the same logic has been applied in legal or policy decisions.

3. Limited Engagement with Intersectionality

The article presents sexism and racism as parallel but separate issues, rather than acknowledging how they intersect in the lived experiences of women of color.
While it identifies the connection between racial and gender oppression, it does not fully engage with the complexities of intersectionality, a concept later developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw in Mapping the Margins (1991).

“Policies directed against racism or sexism can be justified only if the society is not racist or sexist” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93). → This critique is valid, but does not explore how Black women or other marginalized groups experience overlapping forms of discrimination.

4. Philosophical vs. Legal Perspectives on Discrimination

The article frames discrimination as a matter of philosophical logic but does not deeply engage with legal and sociopolitical contexts where sexism and racism function differently.

Some sexist policies were legally challenged earlier than racist ones (e.g., women’s suffrage in some Western countries before civil rights for racial minorities). This suggests that philosophical justifications for sexism and racism have historically functioned differently in law and governance.

5. Absence of Counterarguments from Opposing Philosophers

While the article critiques Lucas, Blackstone, and Cooper, it does not engage with responses from other contemporary philosophers who may reject sexist arguments without endorsing racism.

“Neither Blackstone nor Lucas explains why he thinks that hiring people on the basis of sex… would be so much easier and more beneficial than hiring on the basis of individual qualifications” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 94). → The lack of opposing perspectives limits the depth of the debate, making the argument appear one-sided.

6. Potential Misinterpretation of Libertarian Thought

The article critiques libertarian defenses of sexism but may oversimplify their position on individual freedom.

It implies that libertarianism passively allows discrimination, rather than recognizing that libertarians advocate for non-interference by the state, not necessarily endorsing discrimination itself.
“Such institutions regulate and affect people other than those who choose them” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95). → While valid, this critique does not fully consider libertarian responses that distinguish between personal discrimination and institutionalized oppression.

7. Lack of Cross-Cultural Analysis

The article focuses on Western philosophical debates without considering how sexism and racism are justified differently across cultures.
Non-Western perspectives on discrimination may not align with the conservative, pseudo-liberal, and libertarian defenses described in the paper.

Representative Quotations from “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“Several articles which defend sexist practices are implicitly racist… principles that apply to the areas where sexism and racism are similar.” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 91)	Establishes the article’s main thesis: that defenses of sexism rely on principles that can also justify racism, revealing hidden biases in philosophical arguments.
“If attitudes and habits of discrimination are sufficiently integral to the culture, discriminatory policies and laws are justified.” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 92)	Critiques the conservative defense of discrimination, which argues that prejudices should be preserved because they are part of tradition. This logic could justify both racial and gender discrimination.
“A racist who thinks of servility and deference as essential characteristics of negritude will have as much difficulty taking orders from a Black boss as will a sexist who thinks of a woman boss as inappropriate.” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93)	Draws a parallel between racist and sexist attitudes, showing how both forms of discrimination assume certain groups should be subordinate.
“The conservative argument policies directed against racism or sexism can be justified only if the society is not racist or sexist.” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 93)	Critiques the circular reasoning used in conservative defenses, which claim that change should only happen once discrimination has already disappeared—making change impossible.
“Lucas argues for institutionalizing sexist discrimination in such cases on the analogy of the speed limit.” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 94)	Criticizes pseudo-liberal justifications for discrimination, which argue that broad rules (e.g., hiring restrictions for women) are justified if a statistical majority lacks certain qualifications.
“Neither Blackstone nor Lucas explains why he thinks that hiring people on the basis of sex—and, within the favored sex, on qualifications—would be so much easier and more beneficial than hiring on the basis of individual qualifications.” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 94)	Challenges pseudo-liberal defenses of discrimination, arguing that hiring should be based on individual merit, not gender or racial categories.
“One person cannot be discriminated against as a woman without there being some practice or policy of discrimination which would affect other women who might not so choose.” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95)	Critiques the libertarian defense of discrimination, which claims that discrimination is acceptable if individuals choose it (e.g., a woman choosing to be in a traditional role). The authors argue that individual choices affect systemic discrimination.
“One could produce a racially just society by convincing Blacks that they are better off as slaves, servants, and manual laborers than they would be if they had opportunity equal to those of Whites.” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95)	Uses a satirical analogy to expose the flaws in libertarian arguments, showing that acceptance of discrimination does not make it just.
“Such institutions regulate and affect people other than those who choose them.” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95)	Argues that social institutions create and sustain discrimination, rather than it being an issue of personal choice.
“No articles in the literature champion the rights of Blacks to be treated as inferior (or to be slaves if they want to be) in order to safeguard their freedom, and Cooper offers no reason for granting such rights to sexists while not granting them to racists.” (Ketchum & Pierce, 1976, p. 95)	Critiques philosophers who defend sexism while rejecting racism, exposing inconsistencies in their logic.

“Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race And Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown: Summary and Critique

“Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race and Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown first appeared in Studies in Travel Writing in 2016.

Introduction: “Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race And Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown

“Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race and Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown first appeared in Studies in Travel Writing in 2016. This article critically examines Jessica Howell’s book of the same title, which investigates how Victorian travel writers engaged with climate as a conceptual and narrative device to shape colonial discourse. Howell argues that climatism—a framework linking race, disease, and geography—was pivotal in justifying imperial expansion and racial hierarchies. Through her analysis of figures like Mary Seacole, Richard Burton, Africanus Horton, Mary Kingsley, and Joseph Conrad, Howell highlights the tension between environmental determinism and emerging medical theories of germ transmission. The study demonstrates how these writers used climatic metaphors to assert authority, define racial identities, and justify colonial practices. Howell’s interdisciplinary approach, drawing from travelogues, medical texts, and fiction, positions climate as both a rhetorical strategy and a form of biopolitical control, offering insights into the intersections of literature, imperialism, and medical history. Her work is significant in literary theory, particularly in postcolonial and eco-critical studies, as it underscores the persistent influence of outdated scientific ideologies on cultural narratives.

Summary of “Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race And Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown

Concept of Climatism and Its Role in Imperial Narratives
- Jessica Howell explores how climate functioned as a hermeneutic tool in Victorian travel literature to shape colonial discourse.
- The politicized and racialized discourse of “climatism” allowed Victorian writers to frame national and imperial identity (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 5).
- Climate was used “in multivalent and sometimes conflicting ways, to encourage or discourage imperial expansion, to emphasise or undercut a sense of their own heroism” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 5).
The Interplay of Climate, Race, and Disease in Colonial Contexts
- Writers used tropes and metaphors of climate to discuss disease in colonial territories.
- Despite advancements in germ theory, bacteriology, and parasitology, environmental pathologies persisted in the imperial imagination (Taylor-Brown, 2016, pp. 14-15).
- Howell highlights the rhetorical flexibility of miasma theory, which allowed writers to depict landscapes as either irredeemable sites of disease or locations with colonial potential (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 14).

Mary Seacole’s Manipulation of Climatic Discourse
- Mary Seacole challenged racial fitness theories by emphasizing her own “strong” hybrid physiology in contrast to the “weak” British constitution (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 32).
- Seacole used climate-related disease anxieties to position mixed-race nurses as indispensable, subverting traditional colonial gender roles (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 34).
- In Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands (1857), Seacole ties immunity to belonging, advocating for hybrid subjects through climatic narratives (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 34).
Richard Burton’s Medical Moral Geography
- Burton depicted West Africa as a dangerous landscape for the white body, reinforcing the need for European intervention (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 53).
- His writings inscribed Africans within “geographical boundaries,” effectively trapping them in racialized spaces while positioning whites as conquerors (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 57).
- Burton’s sensation-based approach to climate and disease justified racial and moral hierarchies in colonial medical geography (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 67).
James Africanus Horton’s Anti-Colonial Use of Climate Theory
- Horton, a trained African doctor, used climate discourse to challenge European colonialism and racial superiority (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 85).
- His work “marshals the rhetoric of environmental medicine” to critique Western arrogance and promote African self-governance (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 85).
- Howell highlights Horton’s role in creating space for an educated West African elite, using climatic arguments to assert political agency (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 97).

Mary Kingsley’s Subversion of Climatic Fatalism
- Kingsley described the West African climate as lethally dangerous for Europeans, yet positioned herself as impervious to its effects (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 110).
- Her climate rhetoric intertwined with gendered narratives, reinforcing her anti-colonial but pro-imperial stance (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 118).
- She framed her resilience as a “sympathy” with local environments, using climate discourse to challenge European settlement (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 124).
Joseph Conrad and the Psychological Impact of Climate
- Howell examines how Conrad’s writing explores the symbolic and psychological effects of climate (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 138).
- Conrad’s use of “symbolic mist” and “barometric pressure” reflects the mental toll of colonial illness and destabilizes the ideological foundations of imperialism (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 141).
Conclusion: Climatism as a Colonial Justification and Challenge
- Howell’s study reveals how climate functioned as both a justification for and a challenge to colonial narratives.
- The persistence of outdated disease theories shaped imperial discourse and framed relationships between race, empire, and environment (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 2).
- The book is significant for scholars in postcolonial studies, climate studies, and literary theory, demonstrating how climate mediates cultural authority and colonial power (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 2).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race And Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition/Explanation	Reference from the Article
Climatism	The use of climate as a framework to interpret race, disease, and colonial identity. This theory linked environment to racial hierarchies and imperial ideologies.	“The politicised, racialised discourse of ‘climatism’… afforded writers of fictional and non-fictional travel narratives unique frameworks within which to explore national and imperial identity” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 5).
Biopolitical Power of Climate	The use of climate as a tool to regulate bodies, justify imperial rule, and maintain racial hierarchies.	“In doing so, [climate] expose[s] the biopolitical power of climate as a concept poignantly in dialogue with narratives of disease, race, and empire” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 5).
Miasma Theory	A pre-germ theory belief that diseases were caused by “bad air” from the environment, often used to racialize disease in colonial spaces.	“She makes a case, for example, for the utility of miasma as a ‘particularly rhetorically flexible element of climate’, which enabled writers to reimagine landscapes as irredeemable spaces of pathology, or as spaces of untold potential, in need of palliative imperialism” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 14).
Environmental Pathology	The idea that certain geographic regions, particularly tropical climates, inherently produce disease and degeneration, reinforcing colonial control.	“Despite the increasing acceptance of germ theory and a plethora of discoveries in the fields of bacteriology and parasitology in this time period, environmental pathologies continued to persist in the imperial imagination” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 14).
Medical Moral Geography	The concept that disease, morality, and racial superiority were mapped onto geographic spaces, shaping imperial attitudes.	“Burton’s ability to ‘sense’ an unhealthy area is used not only as a tool to reinforce his rhetorical authority, but as a framework for maintaining racial and moral hierarchies in a kind of ‘medical moral geography’” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 67).
Hybrid Physiology	The idea that mixed-race individuals, particularly those of African and European descent, had greater resistance to tropical diseases, challenging racial inferiority theories.	“By contrasting her ‘strong’ hybrid physiology with the ‘weak’ constitutions of white British subjects, Seacole, ‘tapped into [the] very germane and contentious topic[s]’ of polygenism and racial fitness” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 32).
Polygenism	A racial theory suggesting that different races evolved separately, often used to justify colonial hierarchy and segregation.	“Seacole, ‘tapped into [the] very germane and contentious topic[s]’ of polygenism and racial fitness, directly contradicting those who contended that mixed-race subjects were biologically inferior” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 32).
Acclimatisation Theory	The belief that European settlers could adapt biologically to tropical climates over generations, often debated in colonial medicine.	“The racial understanding of disease resistance, as well as arguments concerning the viability or otherwise of European acclimatisation, were attributable to the realities of acquired and innate immunity” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 34).
Colonial Illness Narratives	The literary and medical discourse that framed disease in colonial territories as a marker of racial and environmental inferiority.	“The aesthetic and rhetorical choices that the authors make in narrating their own tropical experiences represent ‘moments when […] the gaze of the coloniser and the gaze of the medical geographer’ collide” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 20).
Racial Anthropology	The use of scientific and pseudoscientific racial theories to classify and control colonized populations.	“The resulting pro-imperial narratives united racial anthropology with geography and colonial medicine to produce intensely political frameworks which ‘inscribe[d] Africans within geographical boundaries’” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 57).
Suicide by Africa	A literary trope that depicted Africa as a deadly, disease-ridden space that inevitably caused European settlers to perish.	“As Howell demonstrates, she [Kingsley] drew on the established discourse of ‘suicide by Africa’ (111) only to subvert this by representing herself as ‘impervious to climatic illness’” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 111).
Symbolic Registers of Climate	The use of climate as a literary device to explore mental and physical degeneration in colonial settings.	“Howell identifies a concern with the ‘symbolic registers of ‘barometric pressure’’ (138), arguing that writers like Joseph Conrad drew connections between external environment and internal balance” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 138).

Contribution of “Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race And Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory

Colonial Travel Writing as an Ideological Tool: Howell demonstrates how Victorian travel narratives used climate to define racial hierarchies and justify imperial expansion.
- “The politicised, racialised discourse of ‘climatism’… afforded writers of fictional and non-fictional travel narratives unique frameworks within which to explore national and imperial identity” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 5).
Resistance to Colonial Discourses: The study highlights how writers like James Africanus Horton and Mary Seacole subverted colonial rhetoric by using climatic and disease discourse to challenge European superiority.
- “Horton used the notion of climatic danger to criticise western colonial arrogance, champion native constitution, and create ‘space for a pocket of educated West African authorities’” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 97).

2. Ecocriticism and Environmental Humanities

Climatism as an Imperial Justification and Environmental Determinism: Howell’s study examines how colonial travel narratives framed non-European spaces as inherently diseased and inhospitable to Europeans, reinforcing environmental determinism.
- “Despite the increasing acceptance of germ theory and a plethora of discoveries in the fields of bacteriology and parasitology in this time period, environmental pathologies continued to persist in the imperial imagination” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 14).
The Role of Miasma in Environmental Rhetoric: The book discusses how miasma was used to describe colonial spaces as places of danger and degeneration, reinforcing imperialist narratives.
- “She makes a case, for example, for the utility of miasma as a ‘particularly rhetorically flexible element of climate’, which enabled writers to reimagine landscapes as irredeemable spaces of pathology, or as spaces of untold potential, in need of palliative imperialism” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 14).

3. Medical Humanities and Disease Narratives

Medical Geography and Imperial Biopolitics: Howell reveals how climate was central to colonial medical discourse, shaping perceptions of racial immunity and vulnerability.
- “Burton’s ability to ‘sense’ an unhealthy area is used not only as a tool to reinforce his rhetorical authority, but as a framework for maintaining racial and moral hierarchies in a kind of ‘medical moral geography’” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 67).

Hybrid Physiology and Racial Medicine: The study highlights how figures like Mary Seacole used medical narratives to challenge colonial racial theories by emphasizing mixed-race immunity to disease.
- “By contrasting her ‘strong’ hybrid physiology with the ‘weak’ constitutions of white British subjects, Seacole, ‘tapped into [the] very germane and contentious topic[s]’ of polygenism and racial fitness” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 32).

4. Biopolitics and Foucault’s Theory of Power

The Body as a Site of Colonial Control: Howell’s analysis demonstrates how colonial authorities used environmental medicine to regulate bodies and populations in the empire.
- “The resulting pro-imperial narratives united racial anthropology with geography and colonial medicine to produce intensely political frameworks which ‘inscribe[d] Africans within geographical boundaries’” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 57).
Racialized Disease and Surveillance: Travel narratives framed non-European bodies as inherently diseased, reinforcing colonial biopower over indigenous populations.
- “The aesthetic and rhetorical choices that the authors make in narrating their own tropical experiences represent ‘moments when […] the gaze of the coloniser and the gaze of the medical geographer’ collide” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 20).

5. Gender and Postcolonial Feminism

Mary Seacole and the Reframing of Colonial Womanhood: The study highlights how Seacole subverted gendered imperial ideologies by positioning herself as a competent healer rather than a passive colonial subject.
- “Seacole positioned herself, and others like her, as ‘surrogate mothers’, and exploited white British subjects’ fear of disease in order to frame mixed-race nurses as indispensable” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 34).
Mary Kingsley’s Resistance to Colonial Feminine Norms: Howell examines how Kingsley manipulated gendered narratives to gain authority in colonial travel writing while maintaining a racially separatist stance.
- “She garnered narrative authority from this somatic robustness, which she framed as a ‘sympathy’ with local environments, and was able, at the same time, to use climate to argue against widespread European settlement” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 124).

6. Psychological Modernism and Literary Impressionism

Joseph Conrad and the Psychological Symbolism of Climate: Howell explores how Conrad’s use of mist and environmental symbolism represents the psychological and moral deterioration of European colonialists.
- “Conrad’s ‘impressionism’ and use of symbolic mist, she argues, function as motifs, which focus attention on the process of becoming ill and its mental toll” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 141).

Climate as a Metaphor for Colonial Anxiety: The study connects Conrad’s atmospheric descriptions to broader existential doubts about imperialism.
- “This psychologised understanding of climatic illness ultimately ‘thr[e]w the colonial project’s basic feasibility into doubt’” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 141).

Conclusion: The Broader Impact on Literary Theory

Howell’s study bridges multiple fields, including postcolonial studies, ecocriticism, medical humanities, biopolitics, feminist theory, and modernist literary analysis.
By examining climate as a multifaceted literary and ideological tool, the book sheds light on how environmental discourse functioned in the imperial imagination.
Howell’s interdisciplinary approach makes Exploring Victorian Travel Literature a valuable resource for scholars studying colonial literature, travel writing, and the intersection of race, disease, and environment in literary history.

Examples of Critiques Through “Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race And Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown

Literary Work & Author	Critique Through Taylor-Brown’s Analysis	Reference from the Article
Wonderful Adventures of Mrs. Seacole in Many Lands (1857) – Mary Seacole	– Seacole challenges racial and gendered hierarchies by portraying herself as a resilient mixed-race woman with an innate resistance to tropical diseases. – She reverses colonial narratives by framing white British women as vulnerable to illness and positioning herself as an indispensable caregiver.	“By contrasting her ‘strong’ hybrid physiology with the ‘weak’ constitutions of white British subjects, Seacole, ‘tapped into [the] very germane and contentious topic[s]’ of polygenism and racial fitness” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 32).
Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to Al-Madinah and Meccah (1855) – Richard Burton	– Burton’s medical and geographical observations reinforce racial and imperial ideologies by portraying Africa as a diseased landscape dangerous to Europeans. – His use of climatism and medical geography helps justify colonial intervention by mapping racial hierarchies onto geography.	“Burton’s ability to ‘sense’ an unhealthy area is used not only as a tool to reinforce his rhetorical authority, but as a framework for maintaining racial and moral hierarchies in a kind of ‘medical moral geography’” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 67).
Travels in West Africa (1897) – Mary Kingsley	– Kingsley subverts the trope of European vulnerability by depicting herself as immune to African climates, reinforcing her authority as an explorer. – Her work is “anti-colonial but pro-imperial”, using climate discourse to discourage European settlement while maintaining racial separatism.	“She garnered narrative authority from this somatic robustness, which she framed as a ‘sympathy’ with local environments, and was able, at the same time, to use climate to argue against widespread European settlement” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 124).
Heart of Darkness (1899) – Joseph Conrad	– Conrad uses climate and disease as psychological metaphors, portraying colonial spaces as mentally and physically destabilizing. – His use of symbolic mist and barometric pressure reflects existential uncertainty and the failure of imperialism.	“Conrad’s ‘impressionism’ and use of symbolic mist, she argues, function as motifs, which focus attention on the process of becoming ill and its mental toll” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 141).

Criticism Against “Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race And Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown

1. Over-Reliance on Climatism as an Analytical Framework

The study heavily focuses on climatism as a primary interpretative lens, potentially overshadowing other significant factors, such as political, economic, and technological influences on colonial travel writing.
Howell’s argument that climate was used in “multivalent and sometimes conflicting ways” (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 5) is strong, but it may overstate the dominance of climate over other imperial narratives, such as direct racial violence, economic exploitation, and administrative policies.

2. Limited Engagement with Indigenous Perspectives

While the study acknowledges African authors like James Africanus Horton, it still prioritizes European colonial writers as the central voices, reinforcing a Eurocentric focus.
There is less direct engagement with indigenous narratives, which could provide a more nuanced counterpoint to the colonial discourse on climate, disease, and race.

3. Narrow Focus on Victorian Travel Writing

The study limits itself to the 1857–1899 period, which, while historically significant, may miss broader literary and scientific shifts in climate and disease discourse that occurred in the 18th and early 20th centuries.
Expanding the analysis to later colonial or postcolonial texts could provide a more comprehensive perspective on how these ideas evolved.

4. Generalization of Literary Intentions

Some literary authors’ intentions may be oversimplified, particularly when classifying them as either pro- or anti-colonial.
Mary Kingsley, for example, is described as holding an “anti-colonial but pro-imperial” stance (Taylor-Brown, 2016, p. 118), but this label may fail to capture the complexity of her personal and ideological positions.

5. Potential Overstatement of Medical Moral Geography

The argument that Burton and other writers constructed racial and moral hierarchies through medical geography is insightful, but it risks attributing too much intentionality to their descriptions of disease and climate.
Some Victorian travel writers, rather than actively reinforcing imperial rule, may have simply reflected contemporary scientific beliefs about disease and environment rather than strategically shaping colonial ideology.

6. Absence of Contemporary Scientific Counterpoints

The study does not engage deeply with contemporary medical or scientific critiques of Victorian climatism.
Including scientific perspectives from historians of medicine might provide a more balanced evaluation of how climatism functioned alongside emerging germ theory.

7. Lack of Comparative Analysis with Non-British Colonial Texts

The study focuses exclusively on British imperial narratives, missing a comparative perspective with French, Portuguese, or Dutch colonial travel literature, which could provide additional insights into how climatism functioned across different empires.
A broader cross-colonial analysis could test whether the same climate-race-disease narratives were used beyond British imperial writing.

Representative Quotations from “Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race And Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The politicised, racialised discourse of ‘climatism’… afforded writers of fictional and non-fictional travel narratives unique frameworks within which to explore national and imperial identity” (p. 5).	Highlights the central argument that climate was not just a scientific or environmental factor but a rhetorical tool in Victorian travel writing. It helped justify colonial expansion and racial hierarchies.
“Despite the increasing acceptance of germ theory and a plethora of discoveries in the fields of bacteriology and parasitology in this time period, environmental pathologies continued to persist in the imperial imagination” (p. 14).	Shows how outdated medical theories coexisted with scientific progress, indicating that colonial ideologies were not purely based on factual knowledge but on maintaining power structures.
“She makes a case, for example, for the utility of miasma as a ‘particularly rhetorically flexible element of climate’, which enabled writers to reimagine landscapes as irredeemable spaces of pathology, or as spaces of untold potential, in need of palliative imperialism” (p. 14).	Discusses the strategic use of miasma theory—how it allowed colonial writers to justify both the dangers of Africa and the necessity of European intervention.
“The aesthetic and rhetorical choices that the authors make in narrating their own tropical experiences represent ‘moments when […] the gaze of the coloniser and the gaze of the medical geographer’ collide” (p. 20).	Reflects how colonial travel writers merged scientific observation with imperialist ideology, shaping how disease and climate were perceived in different racial and geographical contexts.
“By contrasting her ‘strong’ hybrid physiology with the ‘weak’ constitutions of white British subjects, Seacole, ‘tapped into [the] very germane and contentious topic[s]’ of polygenism and racial fitness” (p. 32).	Explores how Mary Seacole subverted colonial racial hierarchies by using climate-based disease narratives to frame herself as more resilient than white British women.
“Burton’s ability to ‘sense’ an unhealthy area is used not only as a tool to reinforce his rhetorical authority, but as a framework for maintaining racial and moral hierarchies in a kind of ‘medical moral geography’” (p. 67).	Describes how Richard Burton’s travel writing linked disease, morality, and geography, reinforcing colonial control by depicting African landscapes as inherently unhealthy.
“The resulting pro-imperial narratives united racial anthropology with geography and colonial medicine to produce intensely political frameworks which ‘inscribe[d] Africans within geographical boundaries’” (p. 57).	Critiques how travel writing constructed racialized geographies, portraying African populations as being trapped within disease-ridden spaces that required European intervention.
“She garnered narrative authority from this somatic robustness, which she framed as a ‘sympathy’ with local environments, and was able, at the same time, to use climate to argue against widespread European settlement” (p. 124).	Explores how Mary Kingsley used her immunity to tropical diseases to reinforce her credibility as an explorer, while also discouraging mass European settlement in Africa.
“Conrad’s ‘impressionism’ and use of symbolic mist, she argues, function as motifs, which focus attention on the process of becoming ill and its mental toll” (p. 141).	Highlights how Joseph Conrad used climate symbolically in Heart of Darkness, portraying it as both a physical and psychological force that destabilizes European imperialists.
“This psychologised understanding of climatic illness ultimately ‘thr[e]w the colonial project’s basic feasibility into doubt’” (p. 141).	Suggests that Conrad’s depiction of climate in Heart of Darkness serves as a critique of imperialism itself, questioning whether Europeans were physically and mentally suited for colonial rule.

“Casual Racism In Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky: Summary and Critique

“Casual Racism in Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky first appeared in Victorian Literature and Culture in 2019, published by Cambridge University Press.

Introduction: “Casual Racism In Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky

“Casual Racism in Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky first appeared in Victorian Literature and Culture in 2019, published by Cambridge University Press. This article examines the pervasive but often overlooked presence of racial slurs and stereotypes in Victorian novels, particularly in texts that are not explicitly focused on themes of imperialism or racial ideology. Betensky argues that casual racism in these works is significant precisely because of its ordinariness—it appears as unremarkable background noise rather than as a central concern of the narrative. The essay challenges scholars and educators to confront the routine nature of racial bias in Victorian literature and to reconsider how we engage with these texts in the classroom. By drawing attention to the casual racism embedded in works like East Lynne (1861) and The Moonstone (1868), Betensky underscores the need to interrogate the ways in which Victorian literature both reflects and normalizes racist ideologies. She critiques the tendency of Victorian studies to prioritize discussions of imperialism over direct analyses of racism, arguing that casual racism deserves as much scholarly attention as more overtly colonial narratives. Furthermore, she connects this issue to contemporary discourse, suggesting that the failure to critically engage with casual racism in Victorian literature mirrors a broader societal reluctance to acknowledge systemic racism today. By integrating historical context with contemporary concerns, Betensky’s work provides an essential framework for rethinking how race functions in both literature and pedagogy.

Summary of “Casual Racism In Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky

1. Casual Racism as a Teaching Challenge

Betensky describes how teachers of Victorian literature frequently encounter racist references in texts. Initially, these references are discussed, but over time, they become normalized and unnoticed:

“We learn, like the Victorians, to take it for granted.” (Betensky, p. 723)

The essay explores how racism appears incidentally in many works, not just those thematically centered on race and empire.

2. The Pervasiveness of Casual Racism

Casual racism is deeply embedded in Victorian literature, appearing in everyday descriptions and offhand comments rather than forming a major thematic concern.
For instance, in East Lynne (1861), a character uses the phrase “with a Jew’s eye,” a casually anti-Semitic remark that is not central to the novel:

“The slur doesn’t stand out as especially egregious to anyone familiar with Victorian culture.” (p. 724)

Casual racism in these texts is offensive but often overlooked, unlike the explicit anti-Semitism in Oliver Twist (1839), where Fagin’s Jewish identity is central to the novel’s depiction of criminality.

3. Victorian Racism as a Cultural Norm

Victorian literature reflects the widespread racism of the time, much of which was unconscious or unexamined. This raises the question of how contemporary scholars and students should engage with it.

Scholars have traditionally focused on how imperialism is central to Victorian literature, but casual racism, which appears in texts that are not explicitly about race, has been largely ignored.
Betensky questions:

“How do we contend with the pervasive instances of Victorian racism that do not dominate our readings of the texts in which they appear?” (p. 725)

4. The “Speaker’s Benefit” and the Problem of Historical Distance

The essay draws on Michel Foucault’s concept of the “speaker’s benefit,” wherein modern readers take pride in acknowledging the racism of the past to feel morally superior.
This creates a false sense of progress, implying that contemporary society has evolved beyond racism:

“Calling the Victorians repressed is thus not a neutral nor merely an erroneous act… it represents an important investment on the part of those who propagate it.” (p. 732)

By contextualizing Victorian racism without acknowledging ongoing racism today, scholars risk reinforcing the illusion that contemporary society has fully transcended racial prejudices.

5. Implications for Teaching and Antiracist Pedagogy

Betensky discusses how casual racism should be addressed in the classroom.
She critiques the tendency of educators to note racism in texts but then instruct students to “bracket” their reactions in favor of “sophisticated reading.”
She acknowledges her own past failures:

“I had always wanted students to recognize racism when they saw it but had been asking them, at the same time, to take that recognition and bracket it.” (p. 730)

She argues for a pedagogical approach that connects Victorian racism to contemporary systemic racism.

6. Case Study: “Infestation” in The Moonstone

Betensky highlights an example from Wilkie Collins’s The Moonstone (1868), where an Indian character is described as part of a group that “infests the streets.”
She draws a comparison between this and modern political rhetoric, such as Donald Trump’s 2018 tweet about immigrants “infesting” the country.
The use of dehumanizing language persists, illustrating the continuity of casual racism from the Victorian era to the present.

7. The Risk of Ignoring Racism in Literature

Ignoring casual racism in Victorian literature has two key dangers:
1. It alienates students of color, forcing them to endure repeated exposure to racist content without discussion.
2. It trains all students to accept systemic racism as normal or irrelevant.
One of Betensky’s students reflects on how racism should be addressed upfront in classroom discussions:

“Every instance of racism needs to be taken seriously. If, as educators, we decide not to discuss the racism within these texts because of our own discomfort… then we shouldn’t be teaching them at all.” (p. 742)

8. Conclusion: Toward Strategic Presentism

Betensky advocates for a “strategic presentism” approach, which balances historical context with contemporary relevance.
Scholars should not simply historicize Victorian racism but use it to help students understand ongoing racial injustices.

The study of Victorian literature should challenge students to recognize that racism is not just a thing of the past:

“Noticing, thinking, and talking about casual racism in Victorian texts is not even radical. It’s really the least we can do.” (p. 741)

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Casual Racism In Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky

Theoretical Term/Concept	Definition	Usage in the Essay	Key Quote
Casual Racism	Everyday, unremarked racial slurs or stereotypes in literature that do not drive the plot but reflect pervasive racism.	Betensky argues that casual racism is embedded in Victorian literature and is often ignored or normalized.	“Casual racism abounds in Victorian novels. When it appears, casual racism can seem gratuitous, but it’s seldom surprising.” (p. 724)
Centripetal Racism	A form of racism that is central to a text’s structure, theme, or character development.	Betensky distinguishes casual racism from centripetal racism, as seen in Oliver Twist, where anti-Semitism is a fundamental part of Fagin’s depiction.	“Oliver Twist would not be Oliver Twist without Fagin; East Lynne, on the other hand, could lose the slur without being affected in any substantial way.” (p. 724)
Speaker’s Benefit (Foucault)	The sense of moral superiority derived from acknowledging past ignorance while positioning oneself as more enlightened.	Betensky applies this to how modern readers use Victorian racism as a way to distance themselves from their own complicity in systemic racism.	“Calling the Victorians repressed is thus not a neutral nor merely an erroneous act… it represents an important investment on the part of those who propagate it.” (p. 732)
Strategic Presentism	A critical approach that connects past texts to contemporary issues rather than treating them as historically distant.	Betensky argues for a teaching approach that links Victorian racism to present-day systemic racism.	“Strategic presentism offers a path toward contemporary relevance that does not cast aside historical specificity so much as it reframes our relationship to it.” (p. 738)
Historical Contextualization	Understanding a text within its specific historical and cultural background.	Betensky critiques the tendency to use historical context to excuse or neutralize Victorian racism.	“By insisting on the historical specificity of Victorian racism… I had been instructing students to think, falsely, that we stood in an evolved relationship not only to Victorian racism but to racism, period.” (p. 730)
Veil of Ignorance (Spoerhase)	A method of avoiding presentist biases by deliberately ignoring modern knowledge when analyzing historical texts.	Betensky warns that using historical context to separate Victorian racism from today’s racism risks reinforcing ignorance.	“If we hold analyses of racism from our own time at arm’s length as we read Victorian texts, we are effectively imposing what Carlos Spoerhase calls a ‘veil of ignorance’ on ourselves and our students.” (p. 731)
Normalization of Whiteness	The assumption that whiteness is the default or unmarked position in literature and culture.	Betensky discusses how casual racism contributes to the erasure of non-white voices in Victorian studies.	“The banality of Victorian racism surely resonates differently for readers who have not enjoyed its ongoing benefits.” (p. 726)
Microaggressions	Subtle, often unintentional, discriminatory remarks or actions that reinforce racial biases.	Betensky connects casual racism in Victorian literature to modern microaggressions, arguing that both reflect systemic racism.	“For the students who are the most sensitive to every nuance of racism in contemporary discourse, ignoring casual racism in the texts we teach constitutes a betrayal.” (p. 735)
Imperialism and Racism	The link between imperialist ideologies and racial hierarchies in literature.	Victorian literature often reinforces imperialist views, but casual racism can exist even in texts that are not explicitly about empire.	“Imperialist practices tend to be premised on racism; racism and imperialism overlap in many respects. However, not all imperialism is racist, and not all racism is imperialist.” (p. 727)
Dissociation from Racism	The act of recognizing racism but separating oneself from it emotionally or intellectually.	Betensky critiques how Victorian literature professors encourage students to recognize racism but also to “bracket” it.	“I had been asking them, at the same time, to take that recognition and bracket it.” (p. 730)

Contribution of “Casual Racism In Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky to Literary Theory/Theories

1. Postcolonial Theory

Expands the scope of postcolonial critique beyond empire-focused texts

Postcolonial literary criticism often examines the central role of empire and colonialism in shaping literature. Betensky extends this focus by highlighting casual racism in texts that are not primarily about empire.
Key Quote: “As opposed to texts with full-on explorations of race or nation, the ones that interest me here are the texts that are not typically read in this connection.” (p. 723)

This aligns with Edward Said’s (Culture and Imperialism) argument that imperialism shapes even those texts where it is not explicitly foregrounded.
Challenges the notion that racism must be explicit to be significant

Postcolonial critics like Homi Bhabha and Gayatri Spivak have argued that racism is embedded in language and culture. Betensky builds on this by showing how even minor, throwaway references reinforce racial hierarchies.

Key Quote: “The throwaway reference to supposed Jewish greed is not an intrinsic element of the novel, whereas in Oliver Twist, by way of comparison, the depiction of Fagin is explicitly, extensively, and thematically anti-Semitic.” (p. 724)

2. Critical Race Theory (CRT)

Foregrounds the concept of ‘casual racism’ as a systemic issue rather than an individual failing

Betensky aligns with CRT’s premise that racism is structural and systemic, rather than a collection of individual prejudices.
Key Quote: “Casual racism is no less structural or systemic than the racism that demands and has undergone in-depth analysis.” (p. 726)
This complements Cheryl Harris’s (Whiteness as Property) argument that whiteness operates as an invisible system of privilege.

Calls for a shift in literary pedagogy to address embedded racism

Betensky critiques the way Victorian literature is often taught in a way that dissociates contemporary readers from its racism. She urges a pedagogical approach that connects historical racism with modern systemic racism.
Key Quote: “By insisting on the historical specificity of Victorian racism… I had been instructing students to think, falsely, that we stood in an evolved relationship not only to Victorian racism but to racism, period.” (p. 730)

3. Historicism and Presentism (Strategic Presentism)

Reframes the role of historical context in analyzing racism

Betensky critiques traditional historicism, which aims to understand texts purely in their own time, arguing that this approach can lead to the erasure of racism’s ongoing impact.

Key Quote: “If we portray the Victorians as if they were different from us in their ignorance and in the throwaway casualness of their racism… we are effectively portraying our own culture as one that has, to some unexamined degree, transcended racism.” (p. 733)
This aligns with Fredric Jameson’s (The Political Unconscious) argument that literature must be interpreted through both its historical conditions and its ongoing ideological effects.
Supports ‘Strategic Presentism’ as a method for engaging with Victorian racism

Betensky builds on the V21 Collective’s idea of “strategic presentism,” which calls for actively connecting past texts to present-day issues rather than treating them as historically distant.
Key Quote: “Strategic presentism offers a path toward contemporary relevance that does not cast aside historical specificity so much as it reframes our relationship to it.” (p. 738)

4. Reader-Response Theory

Explores how different readers experience casual racism in texts

Betensky argues that whiteness as the default position in literary studies affects how racism is perceived in Victorian texts. Readers of color are more likely to notice and be affected by casual racism than white readers.
Key Quote: “For the students who are the most sensitive to every nuance of racism in contemporary discourse, ignoring casual racism in the texts we teach constitutes a betrayal.” (p. 735)

This aligns with Stanley Fish’s idea that interpretation is shaped by the reader’s background and identity.
Critiques the ‘sophisticated reader’ model in academia

Betensky examines how students are trained to bracket their moral reactions to racism in Victorian literature in the name of scholarly detachment.

Key Quote: “I had been asking them, at the same time, to take that recognition and bracket it.” (p. 730)
This echoes Louise Rosenblatt’s (The Reader, the Text, the Poem) view that emotions and ethics are central to literary interpretation.

5. Foucauldian Discourse Analysis

Applies Foucault’s concept of ‘The Speaker’s Benefit’ to discussions of Victorian racism

Betensky adapts Michel Foucault’s argument (from The History of Sexuality) that modern speakers construct their own self-image by positioning themselves as more enlightened than the past.
Key Quote: “Disavowing Victorian repression has an analogue in disavowing Victorian racism. When we tell our students that Victorian culture was deeply racist… we reap a collective speaker’s benefit.” (p. 732)

Questions how power operates in literary studies through discourse

Betensky critiques the “veil of ignorance” that scholars sometimes impose by separating Victorian racism from contemporary issues.
Key Quote: “Encountering purged words in Victorian texts without noting these continuities allows the triumphalism of the speaker’s benefit to go unchallenged.” (p. 734)

This aligns with Foucault’s (Discipline and Punish) argument that discourse is a means of social control.

6. Pedagogy and Antiracist Education

Advocates for pedagogical methods that highlight casual racism in Victorian texts

Betensky argues that Victorian literature should be taught in a way that makes students critically aware of both past and present racism.
Key Quote: “How do we contend with the pervasive instances of Victorian racism that do not dominate our readings of the texts in which they appear? How, in other words, do we remark the unremarkable?” (p. 724)
Emphasizes the importance of pre-reading activities

One of Betensky’s students suggests that teachers should “frontload” discussions of racism before students read the text, so they are better prepared to notice it.
Key Quote: “A unit on Wuthering Heights should include… what it meant at that time to call a character ‘gipsy,’ and how this was a construction of race and identity.” (p. 742)

Conclusion: A Multidisciplinary Contribution

Betensky’s work bridges literary studies, postcolonial critique, critical race theory, and pedagogy, offering a new framework for understanding casual racism in literature.
By challenging historical contextualization as an excuse for past racism, she redefines the relationship between Victorian texts and contemporary racial discourse.
Her work contributes to ongoing debates in academia about race, privilege, and the role of literature in shaping societal norms.

Examples of Critiques Through “Casual Racism In Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky

Literary Work	Casual Racism Identified	Betensky’s Analysis Applied	Significance in Victorian Studies
East Lynne (1861) – Ellen Wood	Reference to examining a property deed “with a Jew’s eye,” an anti-Semitic trope.	Betensky argues that such casual racism is “offhand” and does not drive the plot, unlike overtly racist characters like Fagin in Oliver Twist. However, its presence reflects ingrained societal racism.	Illustrates how anti-Semitic references were casually woven into Victorian novels without necessarily making them central to the plot, reflecting systemic cultural biases.
Oliver Twist (1839) – Charles Dickens	Fagin’s depiction as a villainous, greedy Jew, with exaggerated racial stereotypes.	Unlike casual racism, this instance is central to the novel’s narrative. Betensky contrasts this with more subtle slurs, suggesting that casual racism operates differently from thematically racist texts.	Highlights the distinction between casual and central racism in Victorian literature. Even though Oliver Twist is explicitly anti-Semitic, it shares a context with more “incidental” racist references found elsewhere.
Jane Eyre (1847) – Charlotte Brontë	Rochester’s disguise as a “shockingly ugly old creature [. . .] almost as black as a crock” when pretending to be a gypsy.	Betensky notes that such passing racist remarks are often overlooked in literary discussions, despite their normalization in Victorian culture. She critiques the tendency to ignore these instances when they do not drive the central plot.	Demonstrates how Victorian literature encoded racist ideas into otherwise unrelated plot points, making them appear incidental rather than overt.
The Moonstone (1868) – Wilkie Collins	Sergeant Bruff refers to “strolling Indians who infest the streets,” using “infest” to describe non-white presence in England.	Betensky critiques how casual racism is embedded in the very language of Victorian literature. Such phrasing subtly reinforces colonialist hierarchies without explicit discussion of race.	Shows how even detective fiction, not primarily concerned with race, perpetuates colonialist ideologies through language.

Key Insights from Betensky’s Framework

Casual Racism vs. Thematic Racism: Some Victorian novels (Oliver Twist) revolve around racist characterizations, while others (East Lynne, The Moonstone) include incidental racism that is no less significant.
Pedagogical Challenges: In teaching Victorian literature, casual racism often becomes unremarkable because it is so frequent. Betensky highlights the difficulty of discussing it without reinforcing modern biases.

Historical Context and Presentism: Betensky warns against seeing Victorian racism as merely a product of its time, arguing that it persists in contemporary narratives.

Criticism Against “Casual Racism In Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky

1. Overemphasis on “Casual” Racism at the Expense of Structural Racism

Some critics argue that Betensky focuses too much on incidental racist remarks rather than the deeper systemic and institutional racism that shaped Victorian literature.

By emphasizing casual racism, the analysis may obscure the broader, more deliberate racial ideologies at play in empire-building and colonial discourse.

2. Risk of Overgeneralization About “The Victorians”

Betensky acknowledges the problem of lumping all Victorians together but still frequently refers to “the Victorians” as a collective.

This broad characterization risks flattening the diversity of opinions on race within Victorian society, including abolitionist and anti-imperialist perspectives.

3. Presentism and Moral Judgment

Some scholars argue that Betensky’s approach leans towards presentism, applying contemporary racial frameworks to historical texts without fully accounting for their historical contexts.

The essay sometimes implies that Victorian racism should be analyzed through modern moral judgments, which could lead to anachronistic readings.

4. Lack of Engagement with Non-Western Perspectives

While Betensky critiques how Victorian texts treat racial others, she does not sufficiently incorporate perspectives from scholars of color or postcolonial theorists outside the Western academic tradition.

This could limit the scope of the analysis, particularly when discussing how racialized subjects resisted or reinterpreted racist narratives.

5. Overemphasis on Pedagogy Over Literary Analysis

The essay is heavily focused on how educators handle racist elements in Victorian literature rather than providing a detailed literary theoretical framework.

Some critics may argue that it lacks a rigorous engagement with existing literary theories on race and empire (e.g., postcolonialism, critical race theory).

6. Ambiguity in Defining “Casual Racism”

The concept of “casual racism” is somewhat nebulous in the essay—sometimes referring to incidental slurs, sometimes to broader ideological undercurrents.

A clearer theoretical definition of how casual racism differs from structural racism or unconscious bias could strengthen the argument.

7. Limited Consideration of Counterexamples

The essay focuses on examples where casual racism is ignored or normalized but does not sufficiently engage with Victorian texts or figures who actively challenged racist ideas.

Works by authors such as Mary Seacole or Frederick Douglass, who responded directly to Victorian racism, are absent from the discussion.

8. Implications for Modern Readership

Betensky suggests that recognizing casual racism in Victorian texts should lead to deeper discussions on modern racism, but critics argue she does not fully explore how this would work in contemporary literary studies.

The essay could provide more concrete strategies for how contemporary readers and scholars should navigate these texts beyond merely acknowledging their racist elements.

Overall Summary of Criticism

While Casual Racism in Victorian Literature offers an important lens for analyzing racial discourse in Victorian novels, it has been critiqued for:

Potentially overshadowing systemic racism with a focus on incidental slurs.
Overgeneralizing Victorian attitudes toward race.
Leaning into presentism.

Lacking engagement with global perspectives.
Prioritizing pedagogy over literary theory.

Representative Quotations from “Casual Racism In Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky with Explanation

Quotation	Explanation
“The first time a casually racist reference crops up in the Victorian texts I teach, I tell my students that the presence of slurs and stereotypes in Victorian literature reflects the prevalence of racism in Victorian society.”	Betensky highlights the normalization of casual racism in Victorian literature and the challenges educators face in addressing it within a historical and pedagogical context.
“We learn, like the Victorians, to take it for granted.”	This statement underscores how casual racism, when encountered repeatedly, becomes normalized and unremarkable, mirroring the way Victorians accepted such rhetoric as part of everyday discourse.
“Casual racism abounds in Victorian novels. When it appears, casual racism can seem gratuitous, but it’s seldom surprising.”	Betensky emphasizes how racism in Victorian literature is so common that it becomes expected rather than shocking, reinforcing its systemic nature.
“The question I wish to pose here is relatively simple: What do we do, and what might we do, when we are faced, especially in a classroom setting, with the banality of Victorian racism?”	The author introduces the central pedagogical dilemma—how to engage with racist elements in Victorian literature without either ignoring them or turning them into mere historical artifacts.
“Calling a kind of racism ‘casual’ by no means implies less racism. And casual racism is no less structural or systemic than the racism that demands and has undergone in-depth analysis—what we could call centripetal racism.”	Betensky challenges the notion that casual racism is benign, arguing that it is as deeply embedded in societal structures as overt, deliberate racism.
“Encountering casual racism as often as we do in Victorian texts without a theory of it or a protocol for seeing it leaves us and our students in the position of having either to ignore it … or to pronounce sanctimoniously, repetitively, and unhelpfully upon ‘the Victorians’.”	She critiques two ineffective approaches—either disregarding racist elements or condemning them without deeper analysis—and calls for a more nuanced response.
“If my ‘we’ includes ‘you,’ it is because you are open to the idea that getting students to think deeply about the embeddedness and ordinariness of racism in their world may sometimes be more important than teaching them about Victorian literature and culture.”	Betensky argues for a teaching approach that prioritizes critical engagement with racism over a purely literary analysis, emphasizing real-world implications.
“Disavowing Victorian repression has an analogue in disavowing Victorian racism. When we tell our students that Victorian culture was deeply racist and provide historical context … we reap a collective speaker’s benefit.”	She connects the idea of “speaker’s benefit” (from Foucault) to the way modern readers distance themselves from Victorian racism, falsely assuming moral superiority.
“The speaker’s benefit is only part of the problem that arises when we differentiate contemporary from Victorian concepts of race. For while histories of race … are crucial … they can also affirm the notion that racism should be diagnosed on the basis of the reconstructed intentions of the subject accused of it.”	Betensky critiques the tendency to analyze Victorian racism only in terms of historical context, arguing that this approach neglects the structural and unconscious nature of racism.
“Casual racism in Victorian literature and culture is not, was not, a Victorian problem: it is a Victorian studies problem.”	She concludes that the real challenge is not just recognizing racism in the past but understanding how it persists in academic discourse and teaching today.

“The Voice” by Thomas Hardy: A Critical Analysis

“The Voice” by Thomas Hardy first appeared in Poems of the Past and Present (1901), a collection that reflects Hardy’s deep sorrow and nostalgia following the death of his first wife, Emma.

Introduction: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

“The Voice” by Thomas Hardy first appeared in Poems of the Past and Present (1901), a collection that reflects Hardy’s deep sorrow and nostalgia following the death of his first wife, Emma. The poem is a poignant elegy that explores themes of grief, memory, and the elusive nature of the past. Hardy captures the haunting presence of Emma’s voice, which seems to call to him, evoking both longing and doubt. The poem’s melancholic tone and rhythmic structure mirror the speaker’s emotional turmoil as he questions whether the voice he hears is real or a figment of his yearning mind. The use of natural imagery, such as the “wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,” enhances the sense of loss and transience. The poem remains popular due to its universal meditation on love and mourning, as well as Hardy’s masterful use of diction and meter to convey the fragility of human emotions (Hardy, 1901).

Text: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me,

Saying that now you are not as you were

When you had changed from the one who was all to me,

But as at first, when our day was fair.

Can it be you that I hear? Let me view you, then,

Standing as when I drew near to the town

Where you would wait for me: yes, as I knew you then,

Even to the original air-blue gown!

Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness

Travelling across the wet mead to me here,

You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,

Heard no more again far or near?

Thus I; faltering forward,

Leaves around me falling,

Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,

And the woman calling.

Annotations: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Line	Annotation (Simple Explanation)	Literary Devices
“Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me,”	The speaker expresses deep sorrow, believing he hears his deceased wife’s voice.	Repetition, Apostrophe, Alliteration
“Saying that now you are not as you were”	The voice tells him she is different now, suggesting a transformation after death.	Contrast, Enjambment
“When you had changed from the one who was all to me,”	She changed in life before her death, possibly referring to emotional distance.	Past vs. Present Contrast, Enjambment
“But as at first, when our day was fair.”	The speaker recalls the happier early days of their relationship.	Nostalgia, Imagery
“Can it be you that I hear? Let me view you, then,”	He questions whether the voice is real and wishes to see her.	Rhetorical Question, Apostrophe
“Standing as when I drew near to the town”	He imagines her waiting for him, as she used to in life.	Visual Imagery, Memory
“Where you would wait for me: yes, as I knew you then,”	He recalls a specific moment when she stood waiting for him.	Repetition, Memory
“Even to the original air-blue gown!”	He remembers her in a specific blue dress, highlighting vivid nostalgia.	Visual Imagery, Symbolism (blue as innocence, past love)
“Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness”	He doubts whether he truly hears her or if it is just the wind.	Personification (listless breeze), Contrast (voice vs. wind)
“Travelling across the wet mead to me here,”	The wind moves through the wet fields toward him.	Personification, Natural Imagery
“You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,”	He realizes she has faded into an unclear, dreamlike state.	Alliteration, Metaphor (dissolving as death, forgetfulness)
“Heard no more again far or near?”	He wonders if he will ever hear her voice again.	Rhetorical Question, Repetition
“Thus I; faltering forward,”	The speaker moves forward in grief but hesitates.	Alliteration, Symbolism (hesitation as emotional struggle)
“Leaves around me falling,”	Falling leaves symbolize the passage of time and death.	Seasonal Imagery, Symbolism (autumn as decay, loss)
“Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,”	The wind is weak and cold, adding to the bleak atmosphere.	Personification, Alliteration
“And the woman calling.”	The poem ends with the haunting idea that she is still calling to him.	Repetition, Ambiguity (real or imagined voice?)

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Device	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	“call to me, call to me”	The repetition of the “c” sound creates rhythm and emphasis, reinforcing the speaker’s longing.
Ambiguity	“And the woman calling.”	It is unclear whether the speaker truly hears his wife’s voice or if it is just his imagination, leaving the ending open to interpretation.
Apostrophe	“Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me,”	The speaker directly addresses his deceased wife, a figure who cannot respond, emphasizing his grief.
Assonance	“You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness”	The repetition of the “i” and “o” vowel sounds creates a melancholic tone.
Contrast	“Saying that now you are not as you were”	The poem contrasts the past and present versions of the wife, showing how death changes memory and perception.
Consonance	“Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward”	The repeated “n” and “th” sounds enhance the soft, eerie quality of the line.
Enjambment	“Can it be you that I hear? Let me view you, then, / Standing as when I drew near to the town”	The sentence flows beyond the line break, mirroring the speaker’s continuous thoughts and emotions.
Imagery (Auditory)	“how you call to me, call to me”	The reader can almost hear the voice of the woman, emphasizing the haunting nature of her presence.
Imagery (Visual)	“Even to the original air-blue gown!”	The speaker vividly recalls a specific image of his wife, making the memory feel real.
Metaphor	“You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,”	The wife is metaphorically described as dissolving, suggesting her fading presence in memory.
Mood	“Leaves around me falling, / Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,”	The mood is melancholic and desolate, created through imagery of falling leaves and the thin wind.
Nostalgia	“But as at first, when our day was fair.”	The speaker reminisces about the past, longing for the happiness he once shared with his wife.
Paradox	“Saying that now you are not as you were”	The voice suggests that she is both the same and changed, reflecting the contradiction of memory and death.
Personification	“Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,”	The wind is given human-like qualities, making it seem almost ghostly and alive.
Repetition	“call to me, call to me”	The phrase is repeated to emphasize the longing and haunting nature of the voice.
Rhetorical Question	“Can it be you that I hear?”	The speaker questions whether he truly hears his wife, showing his uncertainty and grief.
Symbolism	“Leaves around me falling,”	The falling leaves symbolize the passage of time and the inevitability of death.
Tone	“Thus I; faltering forward,”	The tone is sorrowful and hesitant, reflecting the speaker’s emotional struggle with loss.
Understatement	“Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness”	The speaker downplays his deep grief by suggesting that the voice might just be the wind.
Visual Juxtaposition	”Even to the original air-blue gown!” vs. “Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,”*	The contrast between the bright memory of the woman and the bleak present landscape highlights the theme of loss.

Themes: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Grief and Mourning: One of the central themes of “The Voice” is grief and mourning, as the speaker struggles to come to terms with the loss of his beloved wife. From the opening line, “Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me,” the deep sorrow of the speaker is evident. The repetition of “call to me” emphasizes his longing and the haunting presence of the deceased. The poem portrays grief as an emotional weight that does not easily fade; instead, it manifests through memories and imagined voices. The speaker desperately wishes to see his wife again, saying, “Let me view you, then, / Standing as when I drew near to the town.” This longing for a lost loved one showcases the enduring nature of grief, as the past continues to intrude upon the present. However, as the poem progresses, doubt creeps in, and the speaker begins to question whether he truly hears his wife or if it is merely the wind. This uncertainty reflects the psychological toll of mourning, where the boundary between reality and imagination blurs. The final stanza, “Thus I; faltering forward, / Leaves around me falling,” suggests that while grief lingers, life must continue, even in uncertainty and sorrow.

Memory and the Passage of Time: Memory plays a crucial role in “The Voice”, as the speaker recalls his wife as she once was, struggling to reconcile his memories with the painful reality of her absence. He reminisces about their early days, stating, “But as at first, when our day was fair.” This line indicates that the speaker clings to the idealized memory of his wife rather than accepting the way she changed over time. The mention of her “original air-blue gown” symbolizes his effort to preserve her image as he once knew her. However, the contrast between the vibrant past and the bleak present becomes evident as the poem progresses. The speaker initially envisions his wife vividly, but by the third stanza, he begins to doubt, asking, “Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness, / Travelling across the wet mead to me here?” This shift highlights the transient and unreliable nature of memory—what was once clear and certain becomes indistinct over time. The imagery of “leaves around me falling” in the final stanza reinforces the idea that time moves forward, seasons change, and memories inevitably fade, leaving the speaker grappling with the passage of time.
The Supernatural and the Uncertainty of the Afterlife: “The Voice” explores the idea of the supernatural, particularly in how the speaker believes he hears his deceased wife calling to him. From the outset, the poem suggests a ghostly presence, with the speaker exclaiming, “Can it be you that I hear?” This rhetorical question reflects his uncertainty about whether he is truly experiencing a supernatural event or if it is a trick of his own mind. The phrase “You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,” further suggests that the woman’s presence is fading into something intangible, almost spectral. The poem does not provide a definitive answer as to whether the voice is real or imagined, leaving the reader in the same uncertainty as the speaker. This ambiguity mirrors Hardy’s broader philosophical concerns about life, death, and the possibility of an afterlife. The final haunting line, “And the woman calling,” suggests that, whether real or not, the voice continues to exist in the speaker’s mind, symbolizing the lingering connection between the living and the dead.
Nature as a Reflection of Emotion: Hardy frequently uses nature to mirror human emotions, and in “The Voice”, the landscape reflects the speaker’s internal turmoil. In the final stanza, the imagery of “Leaves around me falling, / Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,” creates an atmosphere of decay and desolation. The falling leaves symbolize the passage of time and the inevitability of death, reinforcing the speaker’s grief. Similarly, the “wind oozing thin” conveys a sense of emptiness and loss, mirroring the speaker’s uncertainty about whether he truly hears his wife’s voice or if it is merely the sound of nature. The contrast between the past and present is also marked by nature, as the earlier mention of “our day was fair” suggests a time when life was full of warmth and happiness, whereas the present is cold and uncertain. This use of natural elements to reflect human emotions aligns with Hardy’s broader poetic style, where landscapes often serve as emotional backdrops for his characters’ inner struggles.

Literary Theories and “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Literary Theory	Application to “The Voice”	References from the Poem
Formalism	This approach focuses on the structure, language, and literary devices of the poem rather than external context. “The Voice” uses repetition (“call to me, call to me”) to reinforce the speaker’s longing. The alternating rhythm and shifting tone create an emotional pull, leading to an ambiguous ending. The natural imagery of “Leaves around me falling, / Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward,” enhances the melancholic atmosphere.	– Repetition: “call to me, call to me” – Imagery: “Leaves around me falling” – Rhythm and tone shift between longing and doubt
Psychoanalytic Criticism	This theory, based on Freudian psychology, explores the unconscious mind and emotional conflict. The speaker experiences mourning and possibly hallucinations, as he questions whether he hears his wife or if it is just the wind (“Can it be you that I hear?”). The phrase “You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,” suggests a subconscious realization that she is fading from memory. His hesitation in “Thus I; faltering forward,” reflects inner turmoil between moving on and holding onto the past.	– Questioning reality: “Can it be you that I hear?” – Psychological struggle: “faltering forward” – Symbolism of fading: “dissolved to wan wistlessness”
Feminist Criticism	This approach examines gender roles and the portrayal of women. The poem presents the woman as a passive, almost spectral figure whose existence is shaped by the speaker’s memory. The phrase “Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me,” highlights male-centered grief where the woman has no voice of her own. Additionally, her identity is reduced to an “air-blue gown,” suggesting that she exists more as a symbol than a person. The speaker’s need to recall her as she was “as at first, when our day was fair,” implies an idealization of women rather than recognition of their complexities.	– Male-centered grief: “Woman much missed, how you call to me” – Objectification: “Even to the original air-blue gown!” – Idealization: “as at first, when our day was fair.”
New Historicism	This theory examines literature in the context of historical and cultural influences. Hardy wrote “The Voice” after the death of his wife, Emma, reflecting Victorian attitudes toward grief and the afterlife. The supernatural elements (“And the woman calling”) align with 19th-century spiritualist movements, where people sought contact with the dead. The reference to the “wet mead” and the barren landscape mirrors the late Victorian period’s preoccupation with decay and existential uncertainty.	– Supernatural belief: “And the woman calling.” – Victorian mourning customs: “Woman much missed” – Nature as historical reflection: “Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward.”

Critical Questions about “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

How does Thomas Hardy use imagery to enhance the theme of grief in “The Voice”?
Hardy masterfully employs imagery in “The Voice” to convey the depth of grief experienced by the speaker. From the beginning, the speaker’s yearning for his lost wife is evident as he imagines her calling out to him: “Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me.” The repetition of “call to me” suggests a lingering presence, as if her voice remains in the speaker’s consciousness, refusing to fade. This auditory imagery reinforces his struggle with loss, making the woman feel almost tangible despite her absence. Furthermore, visual imagery strengthens the theme of grief, particularly when the speaker recalls her appearance in the past: “Even to the original air-blue gown!” The specific mention of color suggests that his memory of her remains vivid, highlighting how grief often keeps the departed alive in the mind. As the poem progresses, the natural imagery reflects the speaker’s internal turmoil, particularly in the final stanza: “Leaves around me falling, / Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward.” The falling leaves symbolize decay and the passage of time, while the thin wind suggests emptiness, mirroring the speaker’s deep sorrow and loneliness. Through this interplay of auditory and visual imagery, Hardy crafts a poignant meditation on the enduring pain of loss.
What role does ambiguity play in shaping the meaning of “The Voice”?

Ambiguity is central to the poem, making it a deeply introspective and haunting piece. The poem presents the idea of the deceased wife calling out to the speaker, but Hardy deliberately leaves it unclear whether the voice is real or imagined. The speaker himself is uncertain, asking, “Can it be you that I hear?” This rhetorical question signals his internal conflict—does he truly hear her, or is his grief deceiving him? The phrase “You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,” further adds to the ambiguity, suggesting that she is gradually fading into nothingness, a ghostly presence that may only exist in his memory. The uncertainty reaches its peak in the third stanza, where the speaker begins to question whether the voice is simply the wind: “Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness / Travelling across the wet mead to me here?” This moment destabilizes the entire poem, forcing the reader to confront the blurred line between reality and illusion. By refusing to provide a definitive answer, Hardy captures the psychological turmoil of mourning, where memory, longing, and imagination intertwine, leaving the speaker in a liminal space between past and present.
How does Hardy use structure and sound to reflect the emotional state of the speaker in “The Voice”?
The structure and sound of “The Voice” play a crucial role in expressing the speaker’s fluctuating emotions. The poem follows a regular four-line stanza structure, but its rhythm is disrupted as the speaker’s grief intensifies. The repetition in the opening line, “call to me, call to me,” creates a sense of urgency and emotional distress, mimicking the obsessive thoughts of someone consumed by loss. As the poem progresses, enjambment is used to create a flowing, almost breathless rhythm, reflecting the speaker’s increasing desperation. For example, “Can it be you that I hear? Let me view you, then, / Standing as when I drew near to the town.” The lack of a full stop at the end of the line mirrors the speaker’s racing thoughts and inability to find closure. The final stanza shifts in tone and structure, with shorter, fragmented phrases: “Thus I; faltering forward, / Leaves around me falling.” The use of alliteration (“faltering forward,” “leaves… falling”) slows the pace, suggesting hesitancy and emotional exhaustion. Meanwhile, the soft consonant sounds in “Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward” create an eerie, whispering effect, reinforcing the ghostly and sorrowful atmosphere. Through these structural and sonic techniques, Hardy immerses the reader in the speaker’s emotional turbulence, making his grief feel immediate and palpable.

What does “The Voice” suggest about the relationship between memory and reality?
Hardy’s “The Voice” explores the fragile and often deceptive nature of memory, questioning its relationship with reality. The poem begins with the speaker recalling his wife’s voice, but it quickly becomes unclear whether he is actually hearing her or merely experiencing a projection of his grief. His plea, “Let me view you, then,” reveals his desperate desire to make memory tangible, to bring the past into the present. However, this attempt is doomed to fail, as indicated by the phrase “You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness.” The word “dissolved” suggests that memory is fading and unreliable, while “wan wistlessness” implies emptiness and uncertainty. By the third stanza, reality begins to intrude, as the speaker questions whether the voice is simply the wind: “Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness / Travelling across the wet mead to me here?” This shift signals an internal conflict—his heart longs to believe in the presence of his wife, but his rational mind recognizes that time and death have separated them. The poem ultimately suggests that memory can be both comforting and deceptive, preserving love while also distorting reality. In the final lines, “And the woman calling,” Hardy leaves the conclusion open-ended, implying that memory, whether real or imagined, continues to haunt the speaker, shaping his perception of the world around him.

Literary Works Similar to “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

“When You Are Old” by W.B. Yeats – Like “The Voice”, this poem reflects on love, memory, and loss, as the speaker envisions a time when the beloved will look back with regret and longing.

“Remember” by Christina Rossetti – Both poems explore themes of grief and remembrance, with Rossetti’s speaker urging a loved one to remember her after death, much like Hardy’s speaker yearns for the presence of his lost wife.
“Break, Break, Break” by Alfred Lord Tennyson – This poem, like “The Voice”, expresses sorrow for a lost loved one, using natural imagery (waves and the sea) to reflect the speaker’s grief and emotional turmoil.
“Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” by Thomas Gray – Hardy’s poem shares thematic connections with this elegy, as both meditate on death, the passage of time, and the fading presence of those who have passed.

“Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe – Similar to “The Voice”, Poe’s poem is about mourning a lost love, with an almost supernatural tone where the deceased seems to linger in the speaker’s mind and surroundings.

Representative Quotations of “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
“Woman much missed, how you call to me, call to me,”	The speaker expresses his deep longing for his deceased wife, hearing her voice calling to him. The repetition emphasizes his grief.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – Reflects the speaker’s unconscious yearning and inability to accept loss. Feminist Criticism – Highlights how the woman is portrayed through the male speaker’s emotions rather than her own identity.
“Saying that now you are not as you were / When you had changed from the one who was all to me,”	The speaker acknowledges that his wife changed before her death, possibly emotionally or physically, creating a contrast between the past and the present.	New Historicism – Reflects Hardy’s personal grief after his wife Emma’s death. Formalism – The contrast between past and present shapes the poem’s emotional tension.
“But as at first, when our day was fair.”	The speaker idealizes the past, longing for the early days of their relationship when things were happier.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – Suggests nostalgia as a coping mechanism. Romanticism – Emphasizes an idealized love that contrasts with present sorrow.
“Can it be you that I hear? Let me view you, then,”	The speaker is unsure whether he truly hears his wife or if it is an illusion, showing his internal conflict between reality and memory.	Phenomenology – Explores perception and reality, questioning the existence of the voice. Formalism – Uses a rhetorical question to highlight doubt.
“Even to the original air-blue gown!”	The speaker recalls a specific image of his wife in a blue dress, showing the vividness of memory.	Feminist Criticism – The woman is remembered through her appearance, reducing her to an object of nostalgia. Psychoanalytic Criticism – The color blue may symbolize tranquility or lost innocence.
“Or is it only the breeze, in its listlessness / Travelling across the wet mead to me here?”	The speaker begins to doubt whether he truly hears his wife or if it is just the wind, symbolizing the fragile nature of memory.	Deconstruction – Challenges the reliability of perception, blurring reality and imagination. Modernism – Reflects existential uncertainty.
“You being ever dissolved to wan wistlessness,”	The speaker recognizes that his wife’s presence is fading into an indistinct memory, showing the transient nature of grief.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – Represents the speaker’s subconscious acceptance of loss. Existentialism – Explores the inevitable fading of human existence.
“Thus I; faltering forward,”	The speaker acknowledges his hesitation in moving on, showing the emotional weight of grief.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – Demonstrates resistance to closure. Narratology – The use of fragmented phrasing mirrors the speaker’s uncertainty.
“Leaves around me falling,”	The natural imagery of falling leaves symbolizes the passage of time and the decay of life, reinforcing the theme of mortality.	Ecocriticism – Uses nature as a metaphor for human emotions. Symbolism – Autumn signifies loss and the cycle of life.
“And the woman calling.”	The poem ends ambiguously, leaving open the question of whether the voice is real or imagined, enhancing the haunting effect.	Gothic Literature – Evokes supernatural elements and unresolved tension. Psychoanalytic Criticism – Suggests the persistence of grief in the unconscious mind.

“A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore: A Critical Analysis

“A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore first appeared in 1823 in the Troy Sentinel, an anonymous publication that quickly gained popularity.

Introduction: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

“A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore first appeared in 1823 in the Troy Sentinel, an anonymous publication that quickly gained popularity. Later attributed to Moore, this poem became one of the most enduring Christmas classics, helping to shape the modern image of Santa Claus. Its vivid descriptions, such as St. Nicholas being “chubby and plump, a right jolly old elf” and the names of his eight reindeer—”Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen!”—cemented many of today’s Christmas traditions. The poem’s magical and rhythmic storytelling, filled with warmth and anticipation, resonated with readers, making it a beloved part of holiday culture. Its universal themes of generosity, joy, and the whimsical charm of Christmas Eve captured the imagination of children and adults alike. The scene of Santa filling stockings “with a bundle of toys flung on his back” and his quiet yet enchanting departure—”laying his finger aside of his nose, / And giving a nod, up the chimney he rose”—reinforced the mystique of Santa Claus. Through its playful tone, engaging rhymes, and nostalgic imagery, Moore’s poem became a cornerstone of Christmas literature, defining the holiday spirit for generations.

Text: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

‘Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house

Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse;

The stockings were hung by the chimney with care,

In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there;

The children were nestled all snug in their beds;

While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads;

And mamma in her ‘kerchief, and I in my cap,

Had just settled our brains for a long winter’s nap,

When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter,

I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter.

Away to the window I flew like a flash,

Tore open the shutters and threw up the sash.

The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow,

Gave a lustre of midday to objects below,

When what to my wondering eyes did appear,

But a miniature sleigh and eight tiny rein-deer,

With a little old driver so lively and quick,

I knew in a moment he must be St. Nick.

More rapid than eagles his coursers they came,

And he whistled, and shouted, and called them by name:

“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now Prancer and Vixen!

On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Donder and Blitzen!

To the top of the porch! to the top of the wall!

Now dash away! dash away! dash away all!”

As leaves that before the wild hurricane fly,

When they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky;

So up to the housetop the coursers they flew

With the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too—

And then, in a twinkling, I heard on the roof

The prancing and pawing of each little hoof.

As I drew in my head, and was turning around,

Down the chimney St. Nicholas came with a bound.

He was dressed all in fur, from his head to his foot,

And his clothes were all tarnished with ashes and soot;

A bundle of toys he had flung on his back,

And he looked like a pedler just opening his pack.

His eyes—how they twinkled! his dimples, how merry!

His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a cherry!

His droll little mouth was drawn up like a bow,

And the beard on his chin was as white as the snow;

The stump of a pipe he held tight in his teeth,

And the smoke, it encircled his head like a wreath;

He had a broad face and a little round belly

That shook when he laughed, like a bowl full of jelly.

He was chubby and plump, a right jolly old elf,

And I laughed when I saw him, in spite of myself;

A wink of his eye and a twist of his head

Soon gave me to know I had nothing to dread;

He spoke not a word, but went straight to his work,

And filled all the stockings; then turned with a jerk,

And laying his finger aside of his nose,

And giving a nod, up the chimney he rose;

He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle,

And away they all flew like the down of a thistle.

But I heard him exclaim, ere he drove out of sight—

“Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good night!”

Annotations: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

Line from the Poem	Annotation (Simple English)	Literary Devices
‘Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house	It was Christmas Eve, and the house was quiet.	Alliteration, Imagery
Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse;	No one, not even a small mouse, was making noise.	Personification
The stockings were hung by the chimney with care,	Christmas stockings were hung by the fireplace with care.	Imagery, Symbolism
In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there;	They hoped St. Nicholas (Santa Claus) would arrive soon.	Symbolism
The children were nestled all snug in their beds;	The children were asleep in their warm beds.	Imagery
While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads;	They were dreaming of delicious Christmas treats.	Imagery, Metaphor
And mamma in her ‘kerchief, and I in my cap,	Mother wore a headscarf, and father wore a sleeping cap.	Imagery
Had just settled our brains for a long winter’s nap,	They had just gone to bed for a good night’s sleep.	Personification
When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter,	Suddenly, a loud noise came from the yard.	Onomatopoeia
I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter.	The narrator quickly got out of bed to check.	Imagery
Away to the window I flew like a flash,	He ran to the window quickly.	Simile, Hyperbole
Tore open the shutters and threw up the sash.	He opened the window shutters excitedly.	Imagery
The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow,	The moonlight made the snow shine brightly.	Personification, Imagery
Gave a lustre of midday to objects below,	It was so bright that everything looked clear.	Imagery
When what to my wondering eyes did appear,	Then, something surprising appeared outside.	Imagery, Suspense
But a miniature sleigh and eight tiny rein-deer,	A small sleigh with eight tiny reindeer.	Imagery
With a little old driver so lively and quick,	The sleigh had a little old man who was lively.	Imagery, Alliteration
I knew in a moment he must be St. Nick.	Immediately, the narrator knew it was St. Nicholas.	Imagery
More rapid than eagles his coursers they came,	The reindeer moved faster than eagles.	Simile, Hyperbole
And he whistled, and shouted, and called them by name:	St. Nicholas called out their names loudly.	Repetition, Alliteration
“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now Prancer and Vixen!”	He called Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, and Vixen.	Repetition
“On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Donder and Blitzen!”	He also called Comet, Cupid, Donder, and Blitzen.	Repetition
To the top of the porch! to the top of the wall!	He told them to fly high onto the house.	Imagery, Repetition
Now dash away! dash away! dash away all!	He urged them to move fast and fly away.	Repetition
As leaves that before the wild hurricane fly,	The reindeer moved as fast as leaves in a storm.	Simile
When they meet with an obstacle, mount to the sky;	When wind lifts objects up into the sky.	Personification
So up to the housetop the coursers they flew	They reached the rooftop quickly.	Imagery
With the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too—	St. Nicholas had a sleigh full of toys.	Imagery
And then, in a twinkling, I heard on the roof	Then, the narrator heard noises on the roof.	Onomatopoeia
The prancing and pawing of each little hoof.	The reindeer were moving and stepping there.	Onomatopoeia
As I drew in my head, and was turning around,	As he turned to look, something happened.	Imagery
Down the chimney St. Nicholas came with a bound.	St. Nicholas jumped down the chimney.	Imagery
He was dressed all in fur, from his head to his foot,	He was wearing a fur outfit from head to toe.	Imagery
And his clothes were all tarnished with ashes and soot;	His clothes were dirty with soot from the chimney.	Imagery, Symbolism
A bundle of toys he had flung on his back,	He carried a big sack of toys on his back.	Simile
And he looked like a pedler just opening his pack.	He looked like a traveling salesman opening his bag.	Imagery, Personification
His eyes—how they twinkled! his dimples, how merry!	His eyes twinkled, and he looked very happy.	Imagery, Metaphor
His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a cherry!	His cheeks were red, and his nose was shiny.	Simile
His droll little mouth was drawn up like a bow,	His mouth was curved like a bow.	Simile
And the beard on his chin was as white as the snow;	His beard was thick and white like snow.	Simile
The stump of a pipe he held tight in his teeth,	He held a pipe in his mouth.	Imagery
And the smoke, it encircled his head like a wreath;	The smoke made a wreath around his head.	Personification
He had a broad face and a little round belly	His face was big, and his belly was round.	Imagery
That shook when he laughed, like a bowl full of jelly.	When he laughed, his belly shook like jelly.	Imagery, Simile
He was chubby and plump, a right jolly old elf,	He was plump and looked very cheerful.	Imagery
And I laughed when I saw him, in spite of myself;	The narrator laughed when he saw him.	Imagery
A wink of his eye and a twist of his head	St. Nicholas winked and nodded.	Personification
Soon gave me to know I had nothing to dread;	This made the narrator feel safe.	Symbolism
He spoke not a word, but went straight to his work,	He did not speak but got to work.	Imagery
And filled all the stockings; then turned with a jerk,	He filled all the stockings quickly.	Imagery
And laying his finger aside of his nose,	Then, he touched his nose with his finger.	Imagery
And giving a nod, up the chimney he rose;	And went back up the chimney magically.	Imagery
He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle,	He jumped into his sleigh and whistled.	Alliteration, Repetition
And away they all flew like the down of a thistle.	They flew away quickly into the sky.	Simile
But I heard him exclaim, ere he drove out of sight—	The narrator heard him shout as he left.	Imagery
“Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good night!”	He wished everyone a ‘Merry Christmas!’	Dialogue

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

Literary Device	Example from the Poem	Explanation
Alliteration	“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen!”	The repetition of initial consonant sounds creates a musical quality.
Allusion	St. Nicholas (reference to the historical figure of Santa Claus)	A reference to a well-known figure, making the poem relatable.
Anaphora	“Now dash away! dash away! dash away all!”	The repetition of words at the beginning of successive phrases for emphasis.
Assonance	“He had a broad face and a little round belly / That shook when he laughed, like a bowl full of jelly.”	The repetition of vowel sounds enhances the rhythm and flow.
Consonance	“And he whistled, and shouted, and called them by name:”	The repetition of consonant sounds, often at the end of words, creates harmony.
Dialogue	“Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good night!”	Characters speak directly, making the poem more engaging.
Enjambment	“When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter, / I sprang from my bed to see what was the matter.”	A sentence or phrase carries over to the next line, maintaining flow.
Epiphora	“And laying his finger aside of his nose, / And giving a nod, up the chimney he rose;”	The repetition of words at the end of successive phrases for effect.
Hyperbole	“More rapid than eagles his coursers they came,”	An exaggerated statement for dramatic effect.
Imagery	“The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow, / Gave a lustre of midday to objects below,”	Descriptive language appealing to the senses, creating vivid imagery.
Irony	Santa is described as covered in soot, despite being magical.	A contrast between what is expected and what happens (Santa being dirty).
Metaphor	“While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads;”	A direct comparison without “like” or “as”, adding vividness.
Onomatopoeia	“When out on the lawn there arose such a clatter,”	A word that imitates the sound it describes, enhancing realism.
Parallelism	“To the top of the porch! to the top of the wall!”	Using similar grammatical structures to create a pattern.
Personification	“The moon on the breast of the new-fallen snow,”	Giving human traits to non-human things, making them relatable.
Repetition	“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now Prancer and Vixen!”	Repeating words or phrases to emphasize meaning.
Rhyme	“Away to the window I flew like a flash, / Tore open the shutters and threw up the sash.”	The use of similar-sounding words to create a pleasing effect.
Rhythm	“The prancing and pawing of each little hoof.”	The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables gives the poem a rhythm.
Simile	“His cheeks were like roses, his nose like a cherry!”	A comparison using “like” or “as” to create a strong image.
Symbolism	Stockings represent the hope for gifts from Santa.	Objects represent larger ideas, adding depth to the poem.

Themes: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

The Magic of Christmas: One of the central themes of “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore is the magic and wonder of Christmas. The poem captures the anticipation and excitement of Christmas Eve as the narrator witnesses the arrival of St. Nicholas. This sense of magic is reflected in the imagery of Santa’s sleigh flying through the night, pulled by “eight tiny rein-deer,” and the way he descends “down the chimney” with ease. The poem transforms a quiet and ordinary household into a place of enchantment, filled with dreams of sugar plums and the mysterious visit of Santa Claus. The narrator, initially startled by “a clatter” outside, is soon filled with awe and joy as he recognizes St. Nicholas, saying, “I knew in a moment he must be St. Nick.” This magical transformation of the night into a moment of wonder is what has made the poem so enduring and beloved over generations.
Generosity and the Spirit of Giving: The theme of generosity and the spirit of giving is evident throughout “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore, as Santa Claus represents the joy of selflessly giving to others. St. Nicholas, described as a “right jolly old elf,” does not speak but simply goes “straight to his work,” filling stockings with toys and gifts before quietly disappearing into the night. His kind and cheerful nature is emphasized when he “winked” and gave a reassuring gesture to the narrator, reinforcing that his visit is meant to bring happiness rather than fear. This portrayal of Santa as a figure of generosity aligns with the traditional idea of Christmas as a time of kindness, sharing, and goodwill. The act of giving, without seeking recognition, is a key aspect of Christmas traditions, and this poem has helped shape that cultural expectation.
Family, Home, and Togetherness: The poem also highlights the warmth and comfort of family and home during the Christmas season. The setting is a cozy household where “the children were nestled all snug in their beds,” and the parents are peacefully resting as well. This imagery of a safe and loving home, where stockings are “hung by the chimney with care,” evokes the sense of togetherness that makes Christmas special. Even though Santa is an external visitor, his presence does not disrupt the peace of the home; instead, he adds to its warmth by delivering gifts and departing quietly. This theme reinforces the idea that Christmas is a time for loved ones to come together, sharing in the joy of the holiday within the comforting embrace of home.

The Power of Imagination and Belief: A significant theme in “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore is the power of imagination and belief in the extraordinary. The poem invites readers to embrace the wonder of Santa Claus and his magical sleigh, reinforcing the idea that belief in something joyful can bring happiness. The narrator, an adult, becomes momentarily childlike in his excitement and amazement as he watches St. Nicholas at work, exclaiming, “What to my wondering eyes did appear, but a miniature sleigh and eight tiny rein-deer.” This sense of wonder and belief in the unseen is what keeps the magic of Christmas alive for both children and adults. The poem encourages the idea that sometimes, the most extraordinary things happen when one chooses to believe in them, making it a timeless and cherished piece of Christmas literature.

Literary Theories and “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

Literary Theory	Application to “A Visit from St. Nicholas”	References from the Poem
Structuralism	Structuralism focuses on the underlying structure of texts. The poem follows a clear narrative pattern: a peaceful night, an unexpected event, recognition of Santa, and his departure. The repetition and rhythmic structure reinforce traditional Christmas storytelling. The naming of the reindeer (“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now Prancer and Vixen!”) follows a structured list, emphasizing order and predictability.	“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now, Prancer and Vixen!” (structure and repetition)
Psychoanalytic Criticism	Psychoanalytic criticism examines subconscious desires and emotions. The poem portrays childhood fantasies of Santa Claus, representing a universal wish for magic and wonder. The father’s reaction—”I knew in a moment he must be St. Nick”—shows an adult surrendering to childhood imagination, which can be interpreted as a deep-seated longing for belief in the extraordinary.	“I knew in a moment he must be St. Nick” (belief and imagination)
Marxist Criticism	Marxist criticism looks at class struggle and economic themes. The poem presents Christmas as a time of abundance, with Santa delivering gifts to children. However, it assumes a comfortable middle-class home (“The stockings were hung by the chimney with care”), reflecting a privileged perspective on holiday traditions, excluding those who cannot afford such luxuries.	“The stockings were hung by the chimney with care” (middle-class tradition)
Reader-Response Theory	Reader-response theory emphasizes the reader’s interpretation. The poem has remained beloved because it allows readers to engage with their own memories of Christmas. Lines like “the children were nestled all snug in their beds” evoke nostalgic emotions, and different generations may find varied meanings, depending on their experiences with holiday traditions.	“The children were nestled all snug in their beds” (nostalgia and memory)

Critical Questions about “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

How does “A Visit from St. Nicholas” shape modern perceptions of Santa Claus?
“A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore has played a crucial role in shaping the modern image of Santa Claus. Before this poem, depictions of St. Nicholas varied widely, but Moore’s description of him as a “jolly old elf” with a “little round belly that shook when he laughed, like a bowl full of jelly” became the standard image of Santa Claus in popular culture. The poem also established details such as Santa’s use of a sleigh pulled by reindeer—”Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now Prancer and Vixen! / On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Donder and Blitzen!”—which have remained central to the Santa Claus mythos. How did Moore’s portrayal influence later representations of Santa in literature, advertising, and holiday traditions? Did his depiction reflect existing folklore, or did it invent new characteristics that have since become tradition?

How does the poem create a sense of magic and wonder?
“A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore captures the magic and wonder of Christmas Eve through its imagery, rhythm, and narrative structure. The poem transforms an ordinary home into a place of enchantment, where reindeer fly through the sky—”So up to the housetop the coursers they flew / With the sleigh full of toys, and St. Nicholas too”—and Santa can enter homes effortlessly through the chimney. The narrator’s reaction, “What to my wondering eyes did appear,” emphasizes a childlike amazement at witnessing something extraordinary. How does Moore use literary devices such as rhyme, alliteration, and sensory imagery to enhance this sense of wonder? Does the poem’s portrayal of Santa rely more on visual descriptions or the reactions of the narrator to create its magical atmosphere?
What role does the theme of generosity play in “A Visit from St. Nicholas”?

The poem emphasizes the theme of generosity, portraying St. Nicholas as a silent gift-giver who spreads joy without seeking recognition. His actions are described in a matter-of-fact manner—”He spoke not a word, but went straight to his work, / And filled all the stockings; then turned with a jerk”—which reinforces the idea that he expects nothing in return. This depiction aligns with the broader cultural tradition of Santa Claus as a symbol of giving. However, the poem also presents a somewhat idealized version of Christmas, where the focus is on material gifts and a well-prepared home: “The stockings were hung by the chimney with care.” Does the poem suggest that generosity is primarily expressed through gift-giving, or does it hint at a deeper sense of holiday spirit beyond material presents?
How does “A Visit from St. Nicholas” reflect 19th-century American values and traditions?
Written in the early 19th century, “A Visit from St. Nicholas” provides insight into the customs and values of its time. The depiction of a warm, middle-class home—where children sleep peacefully and stockings are carefully hung—reflects an idealized domestic setting that was highly valued in 19th-century America. The father, the poem’s narrator, is both a protector of the home and a participant in the holiday magic, symbolizing the era’s emphasis on family unity. Additionally, Santa’s role as a bringer of gifts suggests a growing consumer culture and the association of Christmas with material goods. How does the poem’s portrayal of family, home, and holiday traditions compare to contemporary views of Christmas? Does it idealize a specific social class or economic status, and if so, how does that shape its lasting legacy?

Literary Works Similar to “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

“The Night Before Christmas in the South” by E. J. Sullivan – A regional adaptation of Moore’s poem that retains its structure and rhyme scheme while incorporating Southern traditions, demonstrating how “A Visit from St. Nicholas” has influenced holiday poetry.
“Old Santeclaus with Much Delight” (1821, anonymous) – A predecessor to Moore’s poem that also describes Santa’s arrival on Christmas Eve, featuring a similar depiction of Santa as a gift-bringer, making it an important influence on “A Visit from St. Nicholas.”
“Christmas Eve” by Robert Browning – Though more philosophical in tone, this poem shares “A Visit from St. Nicholas”‘s theme of the magic of Christmas night and the wonder associated with the holiday season.

“A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti – Like Moore’s poem, this piece celebrates the joy and warmth of Christmas, though with a stronger focus on religious themes rather than the Santa Claus mythology.
“The Boy’s Christmas” by James Whitcomb Riley – A nostalgic, rhyming poem that captures the excitement of Christmas through a child’s perspective, mirroring the sense of anticipation and wonder found in “A Visit from St. Nicholas.”

Representative Quotations of “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

Quotation	Context	Theoretical Perspective
‘Twas the night before Christmas, when all through the house / Not a creature was stirring, not even a mouse;	This opening line sets the quiet, expectant atmosphere of Christmas Eve, emphasizing the stillness before Santa’s arrival.	Structuralism – Establishes the poem’s predictable narrative pattern and traditional holiday storytelling.
The stockings were hung by the chimney with care, / In hopes that St. Nicholas soon would be there;	Establishes the tradition of hanging stockings and the anticipation of Santa Claus, reinforcing the theme of giving.	Marxist Criticism – Reflects middle-class holiday traditions and expectations of gift-giving.
The children were nestled all snug in their beds; / While visions of sugar-plums danced in their heads;	Illustrates the innocence and excitement of children, capturing the magic of Christmas through their dreams.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – Represents childhood imagination and subconscious desires for magic and joy.
When what to my wondering eyes did appear, / But a miniature sleigh and eight tiny rein-deer,	The narrator’s moment of realization and wonder as he sees Santa Claus for the first time, reinforcing the theme of belief.	Reader-Response Theory – Encourages the reader to experience the wonder of Santa’s arrival alongside the narrator.
“Now, Dasher! now, Dancer! now Prancer and Vixen! / On, Comet! on, Cupid! on, Donder and Blitzen!”	The famous naming of Santa’s reindeer, adding rhythm and a sense of urgency to the poem’s magical atmosphere.	Formalism – Highlights the poem’s rhythm, rhyme, and repetition to create a sense of movement and excitement.
He was dressed all in fur, from his head to his foot, / And his clothes were all tarnished with ashes and soot;	A detailed description of Santa’s rugged appearance, making him seem both mystical and relatable.	New Historicism – Provides insight into 19th-century conceptions of Santa Claus and holiday traditions.
He had a broad face and a little round belly, / That shook when he laughed, like a bowl full of jelly.	Depicts Santa as cheerful and jolly, creating the lasting image of Santa as a warm and friendly figure.	Mythological Criticism – Reinforces Santa as a mythical figure with universal appeal.
He spoke not a word, but went straight to his work, / And filled all the stockings; then turned with a jerk,	Shows Santa as a selfless, silent worker, reinforcing the idea of generosity without expectation of reward.	Moral Criticism – Emphasizes the virtue of generosity and selflessness.
He sprang to his sleigh, to his team gave a whistle, / And away they all flew like the down of a thistle.	Captures the fleeting nature of Santa’s visit, adding to the sense of mystery and excitement.	Post-Structuralism – Suggests Santa’s fleeting presence challenges traditional notions of reality and belief.
But I heard him exclaim, ere he drove out of sight— / ‘Happy Christmas to all, and to all a good night!’	Santa’s farewell, leaving a lasting message of holiday cheer and goodwill that echoes throughout the poem.	Humanism – Promotes universal goodwill and the uplifting spirit of Christmas.

Introduction: “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson

Summary of “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson

Contribution of “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson

Criticism Against “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson

Representative Quotations from “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Moors, Race, and the Study of English Renaissance Literature: A Brief Retrospective” by Mary Floyd-Wilson

Introduction: “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn

Summary of “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn

Contribution of “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn

Criticism Against “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn

Representative Quotations from “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Linguistic Racism” by Michael Cohn

Introduction: “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

Summary of “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

Contribution of “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

Criticism Against “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

Representative Quotations from “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Is It Racism?” by Håkan Jönson

Introduction: “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

Summary of “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

Contribution of “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

Criticism Against “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

Representative Quotations from “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Lacan and Race” by Azeen Khan

Introduction: “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Text: “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Annotations: “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Themes: “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Literary Theories and “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Critical Questions about “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Literary Works Similar to “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Representative Quotations of “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Suggested Readings: “A Christmas Carol” by Christina Rossetti

Introduction: “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce

Summary of “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce

Contribution of “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce to Literary Theory/Theories

Examples of Critiques Through “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce

Criticism Against “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce

Representative Quotations from “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce with Explanation

Suggested Readings: “Implicit Racism” by Sara Ann Ketchum And Christine Pierce

Introduction: “Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race And Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown

Summary of “Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race And Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race And Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown

Contribution of “Exploring Victorian Travel Literature: Disease, Race And Climate” by Emilie Taylor-Brown to Literary Theory/Theories

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Introduction: “Casual Racism In Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky

Summary of “Casual Racism In Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Casual Racism In Victorian Literature” by Carolyn Betensky

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Introduction: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

Text: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

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Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Voice” by Thomas Hardy

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Introduction: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

Text: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore

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Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Visit from St. Nicholas” by Clement Clarke Moore