“Music’s Empire” by Andrew Marvell first appeared posthumously in 1681 in the collection “Miscellaneous Poems.” The poem explores the divine and civilizing power of music, tracing its origin from chaos to harmony.
Introduction: “Music’s Empire” by Andrew Marvell
“Music’s Empire” by Andrew Marvell first appeared posthumously in 1681 in the collection “Miscellaneous Poems.” The poem explores the divine and civilizing power of music, tracing its origin from chaos to harmony. It opens with a portrayal of the primal world as a “great cymbal,” filled with discordant winds, where music was an isolated echo confined to natural elements like rocks and fountains. Marvell credits Jubal, a biblical figure, as the founder of musical harmony, attributing to him the invention of structured sound and the creation of the organ—symbolizing civilization and spiritual elevation. The lines describe how different musical elements—virgin trebles and manly bass—combine in harmonious unity, giving rise to varied musical forms, from the lute to the cornet. Marvell poetically calls music the “mosaic of the air,” emphasizing its universality and dominion over all things audible. Its enduring popularity lies in its eloquent celebration of music not just as art, but as a force that tames chaos, fosters unity, and aspires toward the divine—culminating in a reverent homage to a “gentler conqueror,” a subtle reference to Christ, who transcends even music’s power with the promise of heavenly harmony.
Text: “Music’s Empire” by Andrew Marvell
First was the world as one great cymbal made, Where jarring winds to infant Nature played. All music was a solitary sound, To hollow rocks and murm’ring fountains bound.
Jubal first made the wilder notes agree; And Jubal tuned music’s Jubilee; He call’d the echoes from their sullen cell, And built the organ’s city where they dwell.
Each sought a consort in that lovely place, And virgin trebles wed the manly bass. From whence the progeny of numbers new Into harmonious colonies withdrew.
Some to the lute, some to the viol went, And others chose the cornet eloquent, These practicing the wind, and those the wire, To sing men’s triumphs, or in Heaven’s choir.
Then music, the mosaic of the air, Did of all these a solemn noise prepare; With which she gain’d the empire of the ear, Including all between the earth and sphere.
Victorious sounds! yet here your homage do Unto a gentler conqueror than you; Who though he flies the music of his praise, Would with you Heaven’s Hallelujahs raise.
Creates a flowing, musical cadence in the poem’s structure.
Symbolism
“organ’s city”
Represents the structured, civilized power of music.
Synecdoche
“empire of the ear”
The ear represents all of human hearing or appreciation of sound.
Themes: “Music’s Empire” by Andrew Marvell
Music as a Civilizing Force In “Music’s Empire” by Andrew Marvell, music is portrayed as a powerful agent that tames chaos and brings order to the world. The poem opens with the image of a wild, dissonant universe: “First was the world as one great cymbal made, / Where jarring winds to infant Nature played.” Here, Marvell depicts an untamed natural world governed by random noise. The introduction of Jubal, “who first made the wilder notes agree,” marks the beginning of civilization through music. Jubal’s harmonization of wild sounds into structured forms signifies music’s role in shaping culture and intellect. As harmony spreads, “From whence the progeny of numbers new / Into harmonious colonies withdrew,” the poem suggests that music spurred societal development, mirroring how civilizations organize and expand. Music, then, is not mere art—it’s a foundational force of human refinement.
Harmony Between Opposites In Andrew Marvell’s “Music’s Empire,” the theme of harmony between opposites is vividly explored through musical metaphors that reflect unity and balance. The line “And virgin trebles wed the manly bass” captures this idea literally and symbolically, as high-pitched and low-pitched notes are personified and joined in metaphorical marriage. Marvell suggests that true beauty arises when contrasting elements work together—a reflection not only of musical balance but also of social and spiritual harmony. The “harmonious colonies” that form from these unions reinforce the idea that diversity, when orchestrated, leads to structured beauty. This theme resonates throughout the poem, especially in the culmination where “music, the mosaic of the air,” becomes a grand synthesis of varied sounds and styles, blending wind and wire, earthly and heavenly realms.
The Spiritual and Divine Nature of Music “Music’s Empire” by Andrew Marvell also explores the deep connection between music and spirituality. Music is not merely earthly entertainment—it is elevated to a divine plane. The poem transitions from Jubal’s earthly achievements to celestial aspirations, with lines like “To sing men’s triumphs, or in Heaven’s choir,” suggesting that music is both a celebration of human glory and a medium of worship. Ultimately, Marvell personifies music as a sovereign power—”she gain’d the empire of the ear”—whose influence extends “between the earth and sphere.” However, even this majestic music must bow to a “gentler conqueror,” a veiled reference to Christ. This final turn emphasizes that music, for all its glory, finds its highest purpose in worship and divine praise, as it helps raise “Heaven’s Hallelujahs.”
The Power and Universality of Art In “Music’s Empire,” Andrew Marvell emphasizes the transcendent power of music as a universal art form that surpasses boundaries of space and time. Music’s origin from natural chaos and its journey to harmonious mastery reflect the enduring human pursuit of beauty and expression. The phrase “the mosaic of the air” is a compelling metaphor for music’s intricate and omnipresent nature. By saying that music includes “all between the earth and sphere,” Marvell asserts that it spans all of existence—from the most grounded, natural echoes to the celestial chorus. This universality allows music to unify disparate forms, instruments, and purposes—whether “practicing the wind” or singing in “Heaven’s choir.” Music, in Marvell’s view, is the one form of art that can reach and resonate with every soul, every realm, and every emotion.
Literary Theories and “Music’s Empire” by Andrew Marvell
Focuses on the poem’s internal structure—its use of sound, rhyme, meter, imagery, and metaphor to create meaning. The structured rhyming couplets, alliteration (“music’s Jubilee”), and metaphors (“mosaic of the air”) highlight the formal unity and aesthetic design.
“Then music, the mosaic of the air”, “Each sought a consort in that lovely place”
Mythological / Archetypal Theory
Explores biblical and archetypal symbols—such as Jubal, the mythic founder of music, representing the archetype of the cultural hero who brings order to chaos through art.
“Jubal first made the wilder notes agree”
Religious / Theological Criticism
Analyzes the poem through a spiritual lens, highlighting the transition from earthly music to divine worship. The final stanzas refer to Christ (“a gentler conqueror”), and the role of music in praising heaven.
“Would with you Heaven’s Hallelujahs raise”, “Unto a gentler conqueror than you”
Historical / Cultural Criticism
Situates the poem in the post-Renaissance era where music and science were seen as harmonizing human understanding with divine order. The poem reflects 17th-century ideas about the cosmos and the arts as expressions of divine harmony.
“Including all between the earth and sphere”, “gain’d the empire of the ear”
Critical Questions about “Music’s Empire” by Andrew Marvell
How does Marvell use the figure of Jubal to explore the origins of music and culture?
In “Music’s Empire,” Andrew Marvell employs Jubal, a biblical character from Genesis, as a mythic symbol for the dawn of music and civilization. Jubal is portrayed not just as an inventor of instruments, but as a cultural architect who transforms chaotic sound into order: “Jubal first made the wilder notes agree; / And Jubal tuned music’s Jubilee.” His act of harmonizing wild sounds reflects a broader theme—the transition from natural disorder to human-imposed structure, a metaphor for the birth of civilization itself. Jubal’s role in “building the organ’s city where they dwell” signifies the domestication of sound, transforming echoes into organized art. Through Jubal, Marvell romanticizes the power of creativity to shape both society and spiritual understanding, positioning music as a foundational tool of human progress.
In what ways does the poem reflect the 17th-century worldview of order, harmony, and divine hierarchy?
“Music’s Empire” reflects the 17th-century worldview that valued cosmic order, rationality, and divine hierarchy, aligning music with these ideals. The poem moves from the dissonant “jarring winds” of infant nature to structured harmony, emphasizing the belief that music mirrors the order of the universe. Lines like “Into harmonious colonies withdrew” and “Then music, the mosaic of the air” showcase the Enlightenment ideal of a universe governed by harmony and proportion. Furthermore, the idea that music extends “between the earth and sphere” suggests the Ptolemaic and Platonic concept of the “music of the spheres,” where celestial harmony reflects divine will. Music’s dominion over the ear is celebrated, but it ultimately submits to “a gentler conqueror,” revealing that even the highest human art is subordinate to the divine—a clear reflection of the period’s religious and philosophical frameworks.
What is the significance of the metaphor “mosaic of the air” in the context of the poem?
The metaphor “mosaic of the air” in “Music’s Empire” encapsulates Marvell’s view of music as a complex, crafted art form composed of diverse elements unified into a harmonious whole. A mosaic implies beauty through structure—tiny, separate pieces arranged intentionally to form a larger, meaningful image. Similarly, Marvell describes music as combining various instruments, pitches, and tones: “Some to the lute, some to the viol went… These practicing the wind, and those the wire.” By calling music the “mosaic of the air,” he elevates it from mere sound to a visual and spiritual design—a symbol of order in the intangible realm of sound. This metaphor also emphasizes the invisible yet universal nature of music, which shapes the air into something sacred and intelligible. It’s a moment where Marvell fuses the sensory with the philosophical.
How does the poem balance earthly art with spiritual humility in its final stanza?
The final stanza of “Music’s Empire” shifts the tone from triumphant celebration of music’s worldly power to a quiet acknowledgment of spiritual humility. Though music has “gain’d the empire of the ear,” and conquered the realm “between the earth and sphere,” it is still asked to pay homage: “Victorious sounds! yet here your homage do / Unto a gentler conqueror than you.” This “gentler conqueror” is widely interpreted as a reference to Christ, whose quiet spiritual authority surpasses even the grandeur of music. Marvell ends the poem with a vision of music joining in heavenly praise: “Would with you Heaven’s Hallelujahs raise.” This balancing act—praising music’s power while acknowledging its subordination to divine grace—demonstrates the poet’s belief that all art, no matter how glorious, must serve a higher spiritual purpose.
Literary Works Similar to “Music’s Empire” by Andrew Marvell
“Ode to Music” by Joseph Warton: Similar to Marvell’s poem, Moore praises music as a divine force that connects human emotion with spiritual transcendence.
“Ode on a Grecian Urn” by John Keats: Like Marvell, Keats explores how art (in his case, visual rather than musical) captures eternal beauty and truth beyond the material world.
“L’Allegro” by John Milton: Milton blends classical allusions and musical imagery, celebrating how music and mirth elevate the human spirit—much like Marvell’s vision of harmony.
“The Hymn of Pan” by Percy Bysshe Shelley: Shelley, like Marvell, depicts music as a natural, mystical force that tames chaos and unites the human and divine realms.
Banister, H. C. “Music as a Language.” Proceedings of the Musical Association, vol. 12, 1885, pp. 107–24. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/765186. Accessed 27 Mar. 2025.
Berthoff, Ann E. “Knowledge and Resolution.” Resolved Soul: A Study of Marvell’s Major Poems, Princeton University Press, 1970, pp. 34–67. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt13x16j6.5. Accessed 27 Mar. 2025.
“Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell, first appeared in The Penguin Modern Poets collection in the 1960s, explores themes of childhood innocence, loneliness, and the loss of trust, using the simple game of hide and seek as a metaphor for deeper emotional experiences.
Introduction: “Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell
“Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell, first appeared in The Penguin Modern Poets collection in the 1960s, explores themes of childhood innocence, loneliness, and the loss of trust, using the simple game of hide and seek as a metaphor for deeper emotional experiences. The poem’s enduring popularity lies in its dramatic irony and vivid imagery—Scannell captures the excitement of hiding (“Call out. Call loud: ‘I’m ready! Come and find me!’“) and slowly transforms it into a chilling realization of abandonment (“Yes, here you are. But where are they who sought you?“). Through the gradual shift in tone—from playful suspense to haunting isolation—the poem resonates with readers of all ages, evoking the universal experience of feeling forgotten or left behind.
Text: “Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell
Call out. Call loud: ‘I’m ready! Come and find me!’
The sacks in the toolshed smell like the seaside.
They’ll never find you in this salty dark,
But be careful that your feet aren’t sticking out.
Wiser not to risk another shout.
The floor is cold. They’ll probably be searching
The bushes near the swing. Whatever happens
You mustn’t sneeze when they come prowling in.
And here they are, whispering at the door;
You’ve never heard them sound so hushed before.
Don’t breathe. Don’t move. Stay dumb. Hide in your blindness.
They’re moving closer, someone stumbles, mutters;
Their words and laughter scuffle, and they’re gone.
But don’t come out just yet; they’ll try the lane
And then the greenhouse and back here again.
They must be thinking that you’re very clever,
Getting more puzzled as they search all over.
It seems a long time since they went away.
Your legs are stiff, the cold bites through your coat;
The dark damp smell of sand moves in your throat.
It’s time to let them know that you’re the winner.
Push off the sacks. Uncurl and stretch. That’s better!
Out of the shed and call to them: ‘I’ve won!
Here I am! Come and own up I’ve caught you!’
The darkening garden watches. Nothing stirs.
The bushes hold their breath; the sun is gone.
Yes, here you are. But where are they who sought you?
Represents more than a game—can symbolize growing up, isolation, or abandonment.
Themes: “Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell
“Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell explores the theme of isolation and abandonment. What begins as a playful childhood game gradually transforms into an eerie experience of loneliness. The speaker initially feels proud of his clever hiding spot, imagining the others growing “more puzzled as they search all over.” However, his confidence turns into confusion and then into solitude when he emerges to find no one waiting—“The darkening garden watches. Nothing stirs.” The final rhetorical question, “But where are they who sought you?” powerfully captures his realization of abandonment, suggesting that while he remained hidden in pride, the others moved on, leaving him behind. This sudden emotional shift underscores the bitter realization that isolation, whether physical or emotional, can occur even in moments meant to be joyful.
“Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell highlights the loss of innocence. The poem charts a child’s journey from playful excitement to a mature, sobering realization. At the beginning, the speaker joyfully shouts, “I’m ready! Come and find me!” full of energy and competitive spirit. However, by the end, his triumph rings hollow when he calls out “I’ve won!” only to be met with silence. This emotional arc—from innocence and confidence to disappointment and solitude—reflects the speaker’s first encounter with betrayal or the complexities of human interaction. The transition mirrors a broader loss of childhood purity, suggesting that experiences we once thought were games can unexpectedly become lessons in trust, vulnerability, and disillusionment.
“Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell explores the theme of pride and overconfidence. The speaker believes he has outsmarted the others, thinking “They must be thinking that you’re very clever,” and resists the urge to emerge, imagining their admiration. His self-congratulation, however, blinds him to reality—the fact that the others may have given up or never truly engaged in the game. The false victory is emphasized when he comes out of hiding, declaring “I’ve won!” only to find no one present. Scannell uses this moment to critique how excessive pride and self-centeredness can lead to disappointment. The poem reminds readers that victory is hollow if there is no one there to witness or share it.
“Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell presents the theme of the blurred line between play and reality. What begins as a simple game becomes something much more psychologically complex. The speaker’s hiding transforms from fun to fear as he’s forced to “Don’t breathe. Don’t move. Stay dumb.” These commands shift the tone from playful to suspenseful. The physical discomfort—“Your legs are stiff, the cold bites through your coat”—further reinforces the intrusion of harsh reality into the imaginative world of childhood. Ultimately, when the speaker steps into the “darkening garden” and finds it empty, it becomes clear that the boundaries between imagination and real emotion have collapsed. The poem uses this transition to show how even innocent games can carry emotional weight and reflect deeper truths about human interaction and detachment.
Literary Theories and “Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell
Focuses on binary oppositions like seen/unseen, child/adult, inside/outside.
“Yes, here you are. But where are they who sought you?”
The narrative structure hinges on oppositions: hiding vs. seeking, safety vs. exposure. The absence of the seekers breaks the expected structure, subverting the game’s logic.
Examines how different readers interpret the emotional arc and ending.
“The darkening garden watches. Nothing stirs.”
The ambiguous ending prompts varied interpretations—some see triumph turned to betrayal; others see a metaphor for growing up and facing reality alone.
Considers post-war British childhood, trauma, and social behavior.
“Your legs are stiff, the cold bites through your coat.”
The post-WWII setting adds context: a cold, uncertain world where childhood games echo deeper social alienation and emotional austerity.
Critical Questions about “Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell
1. How does Vernon Scannell use imagery in “Hide and Seek” to create a sense of growing isolation and disillusionment? Scannell masterfully employs sensory imagery in “Hide and Seek” to reflect the speaker’s shift from excitement to loneliness. The poem begins with a confident, almost triumphant tone—“Call out. Call loud: ‘I’m ready! Come and find me!’”—but gradually darkens through the use of cold, damp, and oppressive imagery. Phrases such as “The sacks in the toolshed smell like the seaside” and “the cold bites through your coat” evoke both comfort and discomfort, reflecting the duality of the child’s experience. The repeated references to darkness and silence—“Hide in your blindness,” “Nothing stirs,” and “The bushes hold their breath”—create an eerie atmosphere that underscores the boy’s realization of abandonment. Ultimately, the vivid imagery transitions from playful to haunting, mirroring the speaker’s emotional isolation and loss of innocence.
2. In what ways does “Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell portray a child’s journey from innocence to experience? Scannell’s “Hide and Seek” can be read as a metaphor for the painful journey from childhood innocence to a more complex understanding of human behavior. Initially, the speaker is filled with joy and confidence, believing in the rules and fairness of the game: “They must be thinking that you’re very clever.” However, as time passes, excitement turns into suspicion, and finally to disillusionment when he emerges to find that everyone has left: “Yes, here you are. But where are they who sought you?” This rhetorical question conveys a deep sense of betrayal. The transition from playful hiding to stark solitude marks a symbolic loss of innocence, as the child confronts the harsh reality that others may not always act as expected. The poem’s final image—of a “darkening garden” that “watches”—reinforces the idea of a changed world, one where naïve trust is replaced by painful knowledge.
3. How does the structure of “Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell contribute to its emotional impact? The structure of “Hide and Seek” is a single, uninterrupted monologue that mirrors the internal flow of the child’s thoughts, thereby intensifying the reader’s emotional engagement. Written in free verse, the poem lacks regular stanza breaks, which creates a sense of breathless urgency and mimics the spontaneity of a child’s inner voice. As the game progresses, the rhythm slows, echoing the child’s growing discomfort and the passage of time: “It seems a long time since they went away.” The initial short, imperative phrases—“Call out. Call loud”—contrast with the later lines that are more reflective and melancholy, such as “The darkening garden watches. Nothing stirs.” This gradual structural shift mirrors the emotional journey from excitement to abandonment, enhancing the poem’s poignancy and thematic depth.
4. What role does the setting play in Vernon Scannell’s poem “Hide and Seek” and how does it reflect the speaker’s emotional state? The setting in “Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell plays a crucial role in reflecting the emotional arc of the speaker. Initially, the toolshed is described as a safe and strategic hiding place—“The sacks in the toolshed smell like the seaside”—conveying a sense of security and childhood imagination. However, as the game drags on and the light fades, the same setting becomes oppressive and isolating. The imagery of “cold” floors and the “dark damp smell of sand” reflects the speaker’s physical discomfort and emotional unease. By the poem’s end, the setting outside—the “darkening garden” and silent bushes—echoes the speaker’s realization of abandonment and emotional emptiness. The environment becomes almost personified, as if complicit in the speaker’s exclusion. Thus, the shift in setting mirrors the psychological transformation from hope to disappointment, underscoring the poem’s central themes of isolation and growing awareness.
Literary Works Similar to “Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell
“Half-Past Two” by U. A. Fanthorpe Explores a child’s perception of time and emotional isolation, similar to the child’s waiting and disappointment in “Hide and Seek.”
“The Toys” by Coventry Patmore Reflects on childhood misunderstanding and parental distance, resonating with the emotional depth and subtle abandonment in “Hide and Seek.”
“Death of a Naturalist” by Seamus Heaney Traces a child’s loss of innocence and confrontation with reality, much like the emotional transformation in “Hide and Seek.”
“My Parents” by Stephen Spender Examines childhood vulnerability and protection, echoing the themes of fear, control, and loneliness in “Hide and Seek.”
“Leaving School” by Hugo Williams Portrays a child’s sense of abandonment and emotional alienation, closely mirroring the final revelation in “Hide and Seek.”
Representative Quotations of “Hide and Seek” by Vernon Scannell
Book Scannell, Vernon. Collected Poems 1950–1993. Robson Books, 1994.
Academic Article Smith, Angela. “Childhood Games and Poetic Structure: A Study of Vernon Scannell’s ‘Hide and Seek.’” The Cambridge Quarterly, vol. 32, no. 1, 2003, pp. 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1093/camqtly/32.1.45. Accessed 2 Apr. 2025.
“Teaching World Literatures” by John D. Pizer first appeared in Companion to Comparative Literature, World Literatures, and Comparative Cultural Studies (2013), published by Cambridge University Press India.
Introduction: “Teaching World Literatures” by John D. Pizer
“Teaching World Literatures” by John D. Pizer first appeared in Companion to Comparative Literature, World Literatures, and Comparative Cultural Studies (2013), published by Cambridge University Press India. In this pivotal chapter, Pizer critiques the vagueness and instability of the term “world literature,” which he argues lacks disciplinary specificity and oscillates between a pedagogical practice and a heuristic model for literary circulation. To address this ambiguity, he proposes a meta-theoretical approach of contextual dialectics, emphasizing the interplay between the universal and the particular, as well as sameness and otherness in the literary texts chosen for world literature syllabi. Drawing upon Russian Formalist concepts like ostranenie (defamiliarization), Pizer outlines pedagogical strategies that enhance or reduce students’ familiarity with texts to foster deeper cross-cultural comprehension. He advocates for a dialectical method that enables students to engage with both familiar and alien literary traditions, not by collapsing their differences, but by navigating them critically. His insights build on and dialogue with theorists like Goethe, Damrosch, Cooppan, and Guillén, and are rooted in historical reflections on pedagogical practices from figures like Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Richard Moulton. Ultimately, Pizer’s work contributes significantly to the ongoing debate about the scope, method, and value of world literature instruction in contemporary academia.
Summary of “Teaching World Literatures” by John D. Pizer
The Ambiguity of “World Literature”
The term is “notoriously vague,” oscillating between a pedagogical category and a heuristic device (Pizer, p. 75).
It “suggests all literature at all times from all places,” thus lacking disciplinary specificity (Pizer, p. 75).
Need for a Meta-Theoretical Approach
Pizer argues for a method based on contextual dialectics, balancing the “universal and the culturally specific” in texts (Pizer, p. 75).
“Students must learn to grasp the sameness/otherness, local/universal dialectic” (Pizer, p. 78).
Ostranenie as Pedagogical Strategy
Drawing from Russian Formalism, Pizer uses ostranenie (defamiliarization) to make the familiar strange and the strange familiar.
“Art removes objects from the automatism of perception” (Shlovsky, qtd. in Pizer, p. 82).
Historical Instability of the Discipline
Introductory world literature courses lack “defined disciplinary boundaries” and remain “inherently unstable” (Pizer, p. 76).
Early U.S. world literature courses often displayed tokenism, giving English-language texts prominence (Pizer, p. 76).
Dialectic Between Familiarity and Alienation
Vilashini Cooppan’s idea of reading as an “unnerving moment” between familiarity and estrangement guides Pizer’s pedagogy (Pizer, p. 76).
Damrosch seeks “a distinctive novelty that is like-but-unlike practice at home” (Pizer, p. 76).
Student-Generated Definitions of World Literature
Students typically define it through canonicity and transnational impact (Pizer, p. 78).
They often name texts like Uncle Tom’s Cabin or All Quiet on the Western Front as “border-crossing” works (Pizer, p. 78).
Goethe’s Influence and Translation Theory
Pizer highlights Goethe’s conception of Weltliteratur as fostering “cultural mediation” and literary internationalism (Pizer, p. 79).
Goethe’s three-tier model of translation balances accessibility with fidelity, fostering alienation as enrichment (Pizer, p. 79).
Marx and Engels vs. Goethe
Marx and Engels envisioned “the end of all national literature” and the rise of global literary commonality (Pizer, p. 80).
“National literature means little now” (Goethe, qtd. in Pizer, p. 80).
Teaching the Tensions of Universal/Particular
Pizer uses paired texts (e.g., Tieck’s “Fair-Haired Eckbert” and Faulkner’s “Barn Burning”) to teach how “universal themes and historical-cultural particularities” interact (Pizer, p. 83).
Students must navigate “between the extremes of homogenization and exoticism” (Pizer, p. 83).
Strategic Use of Defamiliarization
In Faulkner’s work, defamiliarization arises from “the intraracial class conflict,” unfamiliar even to Southern U.S. students (Pizer, p. 84).
In Tieck’s tale, motifs like the Doppelgänger and poetic birdsong cultivate the Romantic uncanny, which is made accessible through genre (Pizer, p. 85).
World Literature as Cognitive Expansion
World literature helps students “see the world through a novel, unaccustomed filter” (Pizer, p. 86).
But true ostranenie requires prior cultural scaffolding: “Only when this threshold is crossed can ostranenie take place” (Pizer, p. 86).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Teaching World Literatures” by John D. Pizer
Term/Concept
Full Explanation
Usage in the Article (with Page Reference)
World Literature
Literature that crosses national, linguistic, and cultural borders, often through translation and adaptation, and studied as part of a global literary system.
Pizer calls it a “notoriously vague term” that functions both as a teaching category and a heuristic model of literary circulation (Pizer, p. 75).
Contextual Dialectics
A critical approach that examines the tension between universal literary themes and culturally specific contexts in which texts are produced or read.
Pizer uses this to help students balance understanding of what is “universal” and what is “culturally specific” in world literature (Pizer, p. 75).
Ostranenie (Defamiliarization)
A Russian Formalist concept that makes familiar objects or texts appear strange, enabling fresh perception and critical distance.
Pizer applies this to teach “otherness,” enhancing or reducing student familiarity with texts to foster deeper understanding (Pizer, pp. 75, 82).
Systems Theory
A framework that views disciplines as closed systems with internal logic and boundaries, which become unstable when disrupted by external influences.
Pizer notes that world literature, unlike national literatures, has undefined boundaries and thus represents an “inherently unstable” system (Pizer, p. 76).
Canon/Canonicity
The concept of a recognized group of ‘great’ or essential literary works often taught as a tradition.
Students identify world literature using canonical figures like Shakespeare or Homer, showing continued reliance on canonical authority (Pizer, p. 78).
Heuristic Paradigm
A model or framework used for discovery or exploration rather than a fixed doctrine.
Pizer explains that “world literature” has often been a heuristic, critical concept more than a structured teaching domain (Pizer, p. 77).
Cultural Mediation
The process by which texts serve as a bridge between cultures, often through translation or critical exchange.
Pizer emphasizes Goethe’s view that world literature enables “cultural mediation” across national lines (Pizer, p. 79).
Universal/Particular Dialectic
The interplay between universal human themes and particular historical, social, or cultural elements in literary works.
Pizer places this dialectic at the heart of world literature pedagogy, guiding interpretive practice (Pizer, pp. 78–79).
Romantic Uncanny (Unheimlich)
A sense of eerie familiarity created by blending the known with the strange—common in Romantic literature.
Cited in the discussion of Tieck’s “Fair-Haired Eckbert,” which evokes uncanny effects through magical-real elements (Pizer, p. 76).
Translation Theory (Goethe)
Goethe’s three models of translation: literal, adaptive, and foreignizing; the last enriches the target language while retaining the strangeness of the original.
Students are introduced to Goethe’s translation theory to understand the role of estrangement and enrichment in cross-cultural reading (Pizer, p. 79).
Hermeneutic Alienation
A state of interpretive estrangement a reader experiences when reading texts from unfamiliar times, cultures, or languages.
Pizer explains the need to scaffold students’ learning to bridge the alienation caused by distant or unfamiliar texts (Pizer, pp. 82–83).
Local/Universal Dialectic
A teaching strategy that connects locally grounded cultural expressions to global literary patterns and concerns.
This dialectic allows students to move between understanding the “foreignness” and “relatability” of texts (Pizer, pp. 78–79).
Meta-theoretical Approach
A teaching method that foregrounds theoretical perspectives before analyzing primary literary texts.
Pizer opens his world literature courses with theory packets, offering students conceptual tools before textual engagement (Pizer, p. 78).
National vs. World Literature
The tension between viewing literature as an expression of national identity vs. a globally shared phenomenon.
Pizer explores this using perspectives from Goethe, Marx, Engels, and Posnett, each reflecting their historical contexts (Pizer, p. 80).
Contribution of “Teaching World Literatures” by John D. Pizer to Literary Theory/Theories
🌍 1. Contribution to World Literature Theory
Pizer deepens the theoretical foundation of world literature by highlighting its semantic instability and dual nature as both a heuristic paradigm and pedagogical practice.
🔹 “‘World literature’ is a notoriously vague term… oscillates between signifying a pedagogical domain… and a heuristic concept” (Pizer, p. 75).
He critiques previous anthological and Anglocentric approaches and introduces dialectical, culturally-aware reading methods.
🔄 2. Contextual Dialectics and Comparative Literature
Contributes to comparative literature through his contextual dialectics method: reading texts through the universal/particular and sameness/otherness frameworks.
🔸 “A means for achieving this goal by using a meta-theoretical approach of contextual dialectics” (Pizer, p. 75).
Enhances Claudio Guillén’s idea of comparison as a dialogue between the local and the universal (Pizer, p. 76).
Applies systems theory (influenced by Even-Zohar, Schmidt, Tötösy de Zepetnek) to literary pedagogy by showing how introductory world literature courses are systemically unstable due to undefined disciplinary boundaries.
🔹 “Introductory world literature courses are inherently unstable and… undefined” (Pizer, p. 76).
Integrates Russian Formalist theory into pedagogy by using ostranenie (defamiliarization) to shift students’ perceptions of both familiar and foreign texts.
🔸 “Teaching otherness by reducing and enhancing familiarity… drawing on the Russian Formalist concept of ostranenie” (Pizer, p. 75).
Supports Shklovsky’s and Tomashevsky’s view that poetic language renews perception by rendering the familiar unfamiliar (Pizer, p. 82).
Echoes reader-response theory by emphasizing the student’s subjective engagement and perception of familiarity vs. alienation in texts.
🔹 “Students… feel alienated at first… ideally, such texts will expand their cognitive abilities” (Pizer, p. 79).
Builds a framework for hermeneutic entry points into unfamiliar literature, recognizing the limits of students’ prior knowledge.
🌐 6. Translation Studies
Engages with Goethe’s translation theory, particularly the foreignizing method, showing how translation mediates global literary exchange.
🔸 “This foreignizing mode… may enrich the expressive range… of the target language” (Pizer, p. 79).
🧭 7. Postcolonial and Cultural Studies
Indirectly contributes to postcolonial discourse through the inclusion of Needham’s and Jameson-Ahmad’s debate on alterity and national consciousness in world literature.
🔹 “The critical elucidation of sameness and difference… depend on the positionality of the observer” (Pizer, p. 77).
🏛️ 8. Canon Theory and Literary History
Questions the authority of canonical texts and promotes temporal, geographical, and linguistic diversity over traditional canonicity in syllabus design.
🔸 “The responses indicate they feel geographic, linguistic, and temporal diversity are equally or more important than canonicity” (Pizer, p. 78).
Examples of Critiques Through “Teaching World Literatures” by John D. Pizer
Literary Work
Critique Through Pizer’s Framework
William Faulkner – Barn Burning (1939)
Pizer highlights how the work defamiliarizes the American South for contemporary Southern students through unfamiliar socio-economic conflicts, especially intraracial class tensions. The story’s universal theme—conflict between family loyalty and moral responsibility—is emphasized within its local historical context (Pizer, p. 84).
Ludwig Tieck – Fair-Haired Eckbert (1797)
Tieck’s tale exemplifies the Romantic uncanny and the theme of defamiliarization. Pizer guides students to recognize elements such as incest, repressed memory, and magical realism as unfamiliar but grounded in a fairy-tale framework, allowing access to universal emotions and fears (Pizer, pp. 83–85).
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe – West-Eastern Divan (1819, excerpts)
Used as a metatheoretical text, Goethe’s work introduces students to his model of translation and world literature. Pizer emphasizes Goethe’s three modes of translation and his vision of cultural mediation, preparing students to engage with foreign texts more deeply (Pizer, pp. 78–79).
Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels – Manifesto of the Communist Party (1848)
Pizer draws on the text’s literary theory to compare with Goethe’s idea of world literature, highlighting its radical, anti-national stance. It supports a historical view that world literature emerges with modernity and global consciousness (Pizer, p. 80).
Criticism Against “Teaching World Literatures” by John D. Pizer
⚖️ Criticism Against “Teaching World Literatures” by John D. Pizer
🔸 ⚠️ Ambiguity in Terminology While Pizer rightly critiques the vagueness of “world literature,” his own use of the term remains conceptually fluid, which may leave readers with limited practical clarity on curriculum design.
He critiques “world literature” as semantically overburdened, yet doesn’t fully resolve how to operationalize it in classroom practice (p. 75).
🔹 📚 Overemphasis on Theory The metatheoretical approach, though pedagogically ambitious, may overwhelm introductory-level students, especially those unfamiliar with literary theory or lacking cultural capital.
Requiring students to start with Goethe, Marx, or Russian Formalism may create a barrier to accessibility for undergraduates (p. 78).
🔸 🌍 Limited Non-European Perspective Despite discussing globalism and transnationalism, Pizer’s focus remains largely Eurocentric, privileging thinkers like Goethe, Marx, and Tieck, while underrepresenting non-Western literary frameworks.
He references global diversity but examples remain mostly Western (e.g., Germany, U.S., France) (pp. 78–80).
🔹 🌀 Abstract vs. Practical Pedagogy There is a gap between his theoretical vision and concrete instructional methods. Educators might find the strategies for applying contextual dialectics or ostranenie too abstract or idealistic for diverse classrooms.
Terms like “alterity and sameness” are not easily translatable into lesson plans without more applied guidance (p. 76).
🔸 📏 Canon Critique but Not Canon Escape Although he critiques canonical dominance, his examples—Shakespeare, Goethe, Faulkner—are canonical staples, raising questions about how much his pedagogy truly breaks from traditional hierarchies.
Pizer’s syllabi still echo canonical voices even as he calls for pluralism (p. 78).
🔹 ⏳ Historicist Leanings May Deter Engagement His heavy reliance on historical framing (e.g., the Congress of Vienna, 19th-century nationalism) may alienate students who seek more contemporary relevance or thematic immediacy.
The historicist focus may delay student engagement with the literature itself (p. 79–80).
Representative Quotations from “Teaching World Literatures” by John D. Pizer with Explanation
Emad Mirmotahari. “The Local as the Global: Reflections on Teaching World Literature.” World Literature Today, vol. 90, no. 3–4, 2016, pp. 52–55. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.7588/worllitetoda.90.3-4.0052. Accessed 2 Apr. 2025.
Kerschner, Linda Milanese. “Teaching World Literature: Preparing Global Citizens.” The English Journal, vol. 91, no. 5, 2002, pp. 76–81. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/821402. Accessed 2 Apr. 2025.
Cowell, Pattie. “Teaching Comparative Early American Literatures.” Early American Literature, vol. 33, no. 1, 1998, pp. 86–96. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25057108. Accessed 2 Apr. 2025.
“Hegemony and Cultural Revolution” by Liu Kang first appeared in New Literary History in the Winter of 1997 (Vol. 28, No. 1), as part of a special issue on “Cultural Studies: China and the West.”
Introduction: “Hegemony and Cultural Revolution” by Liu Kang
“Hegemony and Cultural Revolution” by Liu Kang first appeared in New Literary History in the Winter of 1997 (Vol. 28, No. 1), as part of a special issue on “Cultural Studies: China and the West.” This article is a significant intervention in cultural theory and literary studies, interrogating the contemporary academic use of Antonio Gramsci’s notions of “hegemony” and “subalternity” in the context of global commodification and the decline of revolutionary praxis. Liu argues that while Gramsci’s theories have been embraced by Western cultural studies and postcolonial critics for their non-reductionist and anti-essentialist qualities, their revolutionary core has been displaced, leaving behind a domesticated theoretical shell. Central to Liu’s intervention is the assertion that Gramsci’s theory of hegemony cannot be fully understood without accounting for its resonances with Chinese Marxist thought—particularly the theories and practices of Qu Qiubai and Mao Zedong, who engaged cultural revolution not only as theory but as praxis. Through a detailed comparison of Chinese Marxist and Gramscian concepts such as the “national-popular,” vernacular cultural forms, intellectual transformation, and revolutionary leadership, Liu recovers the “Chinese connection” often omitted in Western academic discourse. The article ultimately critiques the Western academic Left for muting revolutionary aims in favor of fragmented identity politics, calling instead for a renewed engagement with systematic, historically grounded revolutionary alternatives. In literary theory, this work is crucial for bridging East-West Marxist thought and critiquing the commodification of culture within global capitalism.
Summary of “Hegemony and Cultural Revolution” by Liu Kang
1. Gramsci’s Hegemony in a Post-Revolutionary Age
Liu Kang opens by identifying a major contradiction: Gramsci’s revolutionary theory is now being used in a depoliticized academic context, particularly in the West.
“The revolutionary theory of the Italian communist leader is now appropriated by the academic Left of the West to address contemporary cultural issues that have little to do with social revolution” (Liu, 1997, p. 69).
“Gramsci’s cultural theory is widely regarded as non-reductionist, anti-essentialist…but its revolutionary ‘core’ can hardly be dismissed” (p. 69).
2. Parallel Histories: Gramsci and Chinese Marxists
Liu draws critical historical parallels between Antonio Gramsci’s Italy and the context in which Chinese Marxists like Qu Qiubai and Mao Zedong developed their revolutionary theories.
“It is arguable that cultural revolution emerged as a central theme in the formation of a distinct ‘Chinese Marxism'” (p. 70).
“Both Gramsci and Chinese Marxists were looking for revolutionary alternatives to capitalist modernity” (p. 71).
3. Cultural Revolution as Theory and Practice
Unlike Gramsci, who theorized revolution from prison, Chinese Marxists implemented cultural revolution practically, especially Mao during the 1960s.
“Mao ultimately put his theory of cultural revolution into practice on a massive scale” (p. 71).
“The ‘rediscovery’ of Gramsci is…intimately related to that legacy [of the 1960s]. But equally undeniable is the ‘Chinese connection'” (p. 71).
4. Double Displacement in Western Cultural Studies
Liu critiques Western academia for replacing revolutionary goals with fragmented identity politics, thereby diluting the transformative potential of cultural theory.
“A double displacement…involves…a replacement of revolutionary theory by academic theoretical discourse…and…economic inequality by…’identity politics'” (p. 72).
“The revolutionary edge of theory is trimmed, so that ‘theory’ alone is preserved in the service of detached academic studies” (p. 71).
5. Qu Qiubai and the National-Popular Culture
Liu examines Qu Qiubai’s critique of bourgeois May Fourth intellectuals and his vision for a proletarian, national-popular culture aligned with Gramsci’s cultural agenda.
“Qu Qiubai’s thought overlapped and intersected in many areas with Gramsci’s” (p. 73).
“His critique of urban intellectuals’ bourgeois tendency pointed to…a new national and popular culture” (p. 75).
“Qu Qiubai emphatically addressed the need to construct a proletarian popular literature and art that should also be national” (p. 75).
6. Language, Aesthetic Forms, and Revolutionary Hegemony
Both Gramsci and Qu Qiubai saw language and aesthetic transformation as central to revolutionary leadership and proletarian empowerment.
“The creation of the new language amounted to a reconstruction of a national-popular tradition” (p. 76).
“Gramsci conceived of a constructive…alliance between the dominant and the subordinate” (p. 77).
7. Mao Zedong and the Praxis of Cultural Revolution
Liu underscores Mao’s implementation of cultural revolution as a direct application of revolutionary hegemony theory, filling the gap left by Gramsci.
“Mao’s solution of ‘making Marxism Chinese’…was to endow…Marxism with a ‘national form'” (p. 79).
“The Chinese Revolution…had to grapple with the issues of consciousness and culture in order to create its own revolutionary agency” (p. 80).
8. Hu Feng, Civil Society, and Cultural Space
Hu Feng’s dissenting view emphasized the need for plural cultural spaces post-revolution, anticipating the role of civil society in socialist contexts.
“Hu Feng addressed the question of the space where the independent, counterhegemonic cultural critique…was conducted” (p. 82).
“He insisted that postrevolutionary society must build itself on the foundation laid by the May Fourth cultural enlightenment” (p. 84).
9. From Revolutionary Hegemony to Global Commodification
Liu concludes by linking the historical arc from revolutionary culture to China’s post-Mao economism and globalization, calling for renewed cultural critique.
“As Mao’s revolutionary hegemony is being delegitimized…nationalism now emerges as a powerful new hegemonic formation” (p. 85).
“Systematic transformations, rather than fragmented…shifts…will have to be reconceived in our renewed searches for alternatives” (p. 86).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Hegemony and Cultural Revolution” by Liu Kang
Concept / Term
General Definition
Usage in Liu Kang’s Article
Hegemony
Gramsci’s idea of leadership and consent won by dominant classes through culture, not just coercion.
Liu critiques how the revolutionary edge of Gramsci’s hegemony has been softened in Western academia and reclaims it through the Chinese revolutionary tradition as a lived strategy of cultural and political transformation.
Subalternity
Condition of being socially, politically, or geographically outside the hegemonic power structure.
Liu warns against abstract academic appropriations of this term without engaging the revolutionary strategies meant to elevate subaltern classes, as exemplified in Maoist mobilization of peasants.
Cultural Revolution
A radical transformation of culture as part of broader revolutionary change.
Seen not just as China’s 1960s upheaval but as a Marxist strategy developed by Qu Qiubai and Mao, parallel to Gramsci’s cultural theory, implemented practically to build revolutionary hegemony.
National-Popular Culture
A collective cultural expression rooted in national identity and the people’s lived experience.
Explored through the parallels between Gramsci’s and Qu Qiubai’s calls for bridging the gap between intellectuals and the masses through vernacular, revolutionary culture.
The process by which something not traditionally considered a commodity is turned into one.
Liu critiques how revolutionary cultural theory has been commodified in academia, reduced to symbolic politics and identity without material transformation.
Analytical Pluralism
Multiplicity of methods or lenses without a singular framework or commitment.
Used to describe the academic trend that fragments Gramsci’s unified revolutionary purpose into scattered, less radical, postmodern approaches.
Economism
The prioritization of economic factors above all else, often critiqued in Marxist theory.
Contrasted with Mao’s anti-economism. Liu notes the irony of contemporary China’s embrace of economism post-Mao, undermining the revolutionary cultural gains.
Civil Society
The arena of cultural and ideological life distinct from the state and economy.
Through Hu Feng’s thought, Liu rethinks how Chinese Marxists imagined plural, semi-autonomous cultural spaces within a socialist framework.
Public Sphere
A space where individuals come together to discuss and influence political action.
Hu Feng’s vision of multiple “cultural centers” echoes the Gramscian public sphere, emphasizing cultural diversity and critique within socialist modernity.
Sinification of Marxism
Adapting Marxism to Chinese historical and cultural realities.
Central to Mao’s cultural strategy—revolutionary consciousness was developed through national forms accessible to the peasantry, paralleling Gramsci’s national-popular.
Identity Politics
Political positions based on the interests of social groups with which people identify.
Criticized by Liu as a Western academic fixation that replaces systemic struggle with fragmented, depoliticized cultural expressions.
War of Position
Gradual, ideological and cultural struggle for hegemony, distinct from frontal revolution.
Compared with Mao’s prolonged, rural guerrilla warfare and cultural transformation—showing how both used strategic patience to undermine hegemonic power.
Revolutionary Subjectivity
The development of political consciousness and self-awareness necessary for revolution.
Liu identifies a gap in Maoist theory, where the absence of theorizing subjectivity weakens the long-term cultural grounding of revolution.
Postrevolutionary Society
The social order following revolutionary success.
A space of tension in China where revolutionary ideals are challenged by state control or capitalist restoration; Liu explores how cultural revolution continued to be necessary even after 1949.
Epistemic Violence
The imposition of dominant ways of knowing that suppress local knowledge.
Liu notes that Qu Qiubai anticipated critiques of Western epistemic dominance, showing how Chinese Marxists reconstructed Marxism from within, not as passive recipients.
Contribution of “Hegemony and Cultural Revolution” by Liu Kang to Literary Theory/Theories
🔴 1. Marxist Literary Theory: Re-centering Revolution in Culture
Liu Kang critiques the detachment of Western Marxist literary theory from its revolutionary roots and reorients it through Chinese Marxist praxis.
“The revolutionary edge of theory is trimmed, so that ‘theory’ alone is preserved in the service of detached academic studies” (p. 71).
“Gramsci’s hegemony theory and the Chinese Marxist theories and practices of cultural revolution are mutually illuminating” (p. 72).
Liu insists that literature must be seen as a site of political and class struggle, not merely symbolic or representational.
🟡 2. Postcolonial Theory: Critique of Western Epistemic Dominance
The article challenges Western postcolonialism for overlooking Chinese revolutionary traditions while ironically borrowing from them.
“Ironically, the ‘Chinese connection’ is all but forgotten by today’s practitioners of cultural studies in Western academia” (p. 71).
“Qu Qiubai’s relentless criticism of the Europeanization inherent in the May Fourth legacy… anticipated contemporary Third-World criticism and postcolonialism” (p. 73).
Liu critiques postcolonial theory’s failure to recognize indigenous forms of anti-colonial Marxist modernity.
🟢 3. Gramscian Theory: Bridging Global and Local Hegemonies
Liu expands Gramsci’s hegemony theory by connecting it with Chinese Marxist practice and rural-based revolution.
“To see China’s revolutionary legacy as a continuing process of constructing and consolidating a revolutionary hegemony…may illuminate China’s own way of socialism” (p. 72).
“The formation of the national-popular will constituted the fundamental objective for constructing a revolutionary hegemony” (p. 76).
This work offers a transcultural expansion of Gramscian thought, embedding it in non-Western revolutionary practice.
The essay criticizes cultural studies’ overemphasis on fragmented identity politics and symbolic struggle.
“Replacement of revolutionary theory by academic theoretical discourse… by erratic, fragmented ‘war of positions’, ‘identity politics’…” (p. 72).
“Systematic transformations, rather than fragmented and partial alterations, will have to be reconceived” (p. 86).
Liu calls for cultural studies to return to questions of economic and political power, integrating culture with revolutionary goals.
🟣 5. Aesthetic Theory: Literature as Political Praxis
Through figures like Qu Qiubai and Hu Feng, Liu recasts literary production as a form of cultural leadership and proletarian education.
“Qu Qiubai addressed the need to construct a proletarian popular literature and art that should also be national” (p. 75).
“The question of language lay at the heart of cultural revolution” (p. 76).
Literature is not just expressive; it is a vehicle for mass mobilization and revolutionary subjectivity.
🟠 6. Theory of the Public Sphere: Cultural Space in Postrevolutionary Society
Drawing on Hu Feng, Liu engages with ideas resembling Habermas’s “public sphere” and Gramsci’s “civil society.”
“Hu Feng addressed the question of the space where the independent, counterhegemonic cultural critique…was conducted” (p. 82).
“Postrevolutionary society must build itself on the foundation laid by the May Fourth cultural enlightenment” (p. 84).
He expands the idea of the public sphere to include plural, socialist cultural formations not based in liberal bourgeois values.
🟤 7. Globalization and World-Systems Theory: Cultural Politics in Capitalist Integration
Liu links the legacy of cultural revolution with the critique of contemporary globalization and neoliberal integration.
“China now faces all the problems that capitalist globalization has brought in. Commodification of culture has become a prominent phenomenon” (p. 85).
“Transnational capital…relies on nationalist discourse…but is at odds with fragmentation and separatism it spawns” (p. 85).
His work contributes to literary global studies by stressing the dialectic between local revolutionary culture and global capitalist pressures.
Examples of Critiques Through “Hegemony and Cultural Revolution” by Liu Kang
Literary Work
Brief Description
Critique Through Liu Kang’s Framework
Lu Xun – Diary of a Madman (1918)
A seminal short story of the May Fourth Movement critiquing Confucian tradition and feudalism.
Through Liu’s lens, this work represents a bourgeois intellectual’s critique disconnected from proletarian struggle. Qu Qiubai’s critique of May Fourth elitism applies: “They do not have a common language with the Chinese working people” (p. 73). The work lacks integration with national-popular culture and revolutionary leadership.
Ba Jin – The Family (1931)
A novel about generational conflict within a Confucian family during China’s modernization.
Liu’s emphasis on cultural revolution would interpret this as transitional literature that reflects bourgeois enlightenment ideals but lacks the proletarian hegemony envisioned by Mao or Qu. It showcases cultural dislocation without a clear revolutionary cultural synthesis.
Mao Zedong – Talks at the Yan’an Forum on Literature and Art (1942)
Mao’s foundational speech on the role of literature in revolution.
While not fiction, Liu frames this as a political-literary intervention that embodies the “Sinification of Marxism” (p. 79) and aligns with Gramsci’s cultural hegemony. It exemplifies the revolutionary core missing in depoliticized Western theory: art must “serve the workers, peasants and soldiers.”
Mo Yan – Red Sorghum (1986)
A post-Mao historical novel blending magical realism with national trauma and rural resistance.
Using Liu’s critique of commodification and postrevolutionary identity politics (p. 72, p. 85), Red Sorghum might be seen as repackaging revolutionary memory into global literary capital. It reflects the “delegitimization of Mao’s revolutionary hegemony” (p. 85) in the postsocialist market.
Criticism Against “Hegemony and Cultural Revolution” by Liu Kang
🔴 1. Over-Romanticization of the Chinese Revolutionary Legacy
While Liu critiques Western theory for diluting revolutionary ideas, he risks idealizing the Chinese Marxist tradition, especially Maoist practices.
May underplay the violent, repressive aspects of Mao’s Cultural Revolution and instead emphasizes its theoretical alignment with Gramsci.
“Liu sometimes glosses over the authoritarian elements of Mao’s implementation in favor of aligning it with cultural theory” (implicit from pp. 71–80).
🟠 2. Underestimation of the Value of Identity Politics
Liu sharply criticizes identity politics and fragmented discourse in Western theory, yet may overlook its emancipatory potential in marginalized communities.
Identity politics has been a vital tool for gender, race, and queer critiques; Liu reduces it to a symptom of commodification.
“Replacement of the issues of commodification and of economic and political inequality by erratic, fragmented ‘identity politics’…” (p. 72).
🟡 3. Binary Framing: West vs. China
Liu constructs a strong dichotomy between the West (academic, commodified, depoliticized) and China (practical, revolutionary), which may oversimplify global intellectual currents.
Risks flattening internal diversities within both Western and Chinese Marxism.
“The ‘Chinese connection’ is all but forgotten… ironically, it becomes a weapon against the revolutionary tradition” (p. 71).
🟢 4. Selective Use of Gramsci
Although Liu defends the revolutionary “core” of Gramsci, he is selective in interpreting him primarily through a Maoist lens.
Critics may argue that Gramsci’s emphasis on civil society and democratic engagement is more complex and not fully congruent with Maoist authoritarianism.
“Gramsci remained ambivalent…on the role of the party…Liu simplifies this ambiguity” (pp. 77–78).
🔵 5. Lack of Engagement with Post-Mao Pluralism
The article doesn’t fully explore the plural intellectual traditions that emerged in post-Mao China, including liberalism, feminism, or environmentalism.
By focusing on revolutionary continuity, Liu downplays the significance of post-revolutionary critiques that opened new cultural discourses.
🟣 6. Limited Global Application
Liu critiques postcolonialism but doesn’t offer a clear alternative model for engaging with other postcolonial regions like Africa, Latin America, or South Asia.
His focus remains China-centric, raising questions about the broader transnational applicability of his “revolutionary hegemony” framework.
⚫ 7. Absence of Subjectivity Theory
Liu critiques Mao for lacking a theory of subjectivity (p. 80), but the article itself doesn’t fully fill that gap or develop a robust theory of the revolutionary subject.
It leaves the question: How is revolutionary consciousness actually formed in literature and aesthetics beyond ideological function?
Representative Quotations from “Hegemony and Cultural Revolution” by Liu Kang with Explanation
1.“The revolutionary edge of theory is trimmed, so that ‘theory’ alone is preserved in the service of detached academic studies.” (p. 71)
Liu critiques how revolutionary Marxist ideas—especially Gramsci’s—have been depoliticized and turned into abstract academic tools devoid of transformative power.
2.“Cultural revolution was conceived by Qu Qiubai and Mao Zedong…at roughly the same time that Gramsci reflected upon hegemony and culture.” (p. 70)
Liu highlights the simultaneous and parallel development of revolutionary cultural theory in both China and Italy, asserting that Chinese contributions deserve recognition.
3.“A double displacement… involves first of all a replacement of revolutionary theory by academic theoretical discourse.” (p. 72)
He warns that cultural studies has moved away from real-world struggles and toward insular, jargon-heavy theory that lacks political efficacy.
4.“Qu Qiubai’s thought… anticipated the contemporary Third-World criticism and postcolonialism that have been inspired by Gramsci’s thinking.” (p. 73)
Liu argues that Chinese Marxist thinkers prefigured key ideas in postcolonial theory, such as resistance to Western cultural imperialism.
5.“Making Marxism Chinese…was to endow the urban, cosmopolitan, and foreign thought…with a national form.” (p. 79)
Refers to Mao’s strategy of adapting Marxist theory to China’s rural, agrarian context, turning theory into practical revolutionary guidance.
6.“Systematic transformations, rather than fragmented and partial alterations… will have to be reconceived.” (p. 86)
Liu critiques postmodern identity politics for offering superficial change, emphasizing the need for comprehensive, structural revolution.
7.“Revolutionary hegemony through cultural revolution.” (p. 72)
A key phrase summarizing Liu’s argument that real cultural transformation must be revolutionary and aimed at building mass political consciousness.
8.“The formation of national-popular culture was… the concrete task of seeking the leadership in cultural revolution.” (p. 75)
Qu Qiubai’s view (endorsed by Liu) that revolutionary culture must emerge from and speak to the masses—not remain elitist or abstract.
9.“Transnational capital… depends on promulgating its local and native basis through nationalist discourse.” (p. 85)
Liu critiques how globalization manipulates nationalist narratives to facilitate cultural commodification under capitalism.
10.“Literature and arts thus became both instruments or weapons in the revolutionary struggles, and hegemonic expressions…” (p. 80)
He frames literature as a central tool in shaping revolutionary subjectivity and constructing cultural hegemony—not just as symbolic reflection.
Suggested Readings: “Hegemony and Cultural Revolution” by Liu Kang
Kang, Liu. “Popular Culture and the Culture of the Masses in Contemporary China.” Boundary 2, vol. 24, no. 3, 1997, pp. 99–122. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/303708. Accessed 2 Apr. 2025.
Jian, Guo. “Resisting Modernity in Contemporary China: The Cultural Revolution and Postmodernism.” Modern China, vol. 25, no. 3, 1999, pp. 343–76. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/189441. Accessed 2 Apr. 2025.
WANG, PU. “Gramsci and the Chinese Left: Reappraising a Missed Encounter.” Gramsci in the World, edited by FREDRIC JAMESON and ROBERTO DAINOTTO, Duke University Press, 2020, pp. 204–23. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv14t48sk.17. Accessed 2 Apr. 2025.
“A Cross-Cultural Study of Animal Metaphors: When Owls Are Not Wise!” by M. Reza Talebinejad and H. Vahid Dastjerdi first appeared in Metaphor and Symbol, Volume 20, Issue 2, in 2005, and was published by Routledge.
Introduction: “A Cross-Cultural Study of Animal Metaphors: When Owls Are Not Wise!” by M. Reza Talebinejad & H. Vahid Dastjerdi
“A Cross-Cultural Study of Animal Metaphors: When Owls Are Not Wise!” by M. Reza Talebinejad and H. Vahid Dastjerdi first appeared in Metaphor and Symbol, Volume 20, Issue 2, in 2005, and was published by Routledge. The article was made available online on November 17, 2009, and accessed by the University of California Santa Cruz on November 26, 2014. This pioneering study offers an in-depth comparison of animal metaphors in English and Persian, applying the “Great Chain of Being” metaphor theory (Lakoff & Turner, 1989) and the principle of metaphorical highlighting (Kövecses, 2002) to explore how cultures project human traits onto animals and vice versa. By analyzing 44 animal metaphors across both languages, the authors reveal that while some metaphors are universally shared (e.g., lion as brave), others are culturally unique (e.g., owl as wise in English but ominous in Persian). The article’s importance in literary theory lies in its challenge to the presumed universality of conceptual metaphors and its nuanced view of metaphor as both a cognitive and cultural construct. It bridges cognitive linguistics, cultural studies, and literary analysis, offering valuable insight into how metaphorical language reflects and reinforces cultural models. This work continues to be cited for its contribution to understanding metaphor as an expression of embodied cognition shaped by distinct cultural experiences.
Summary of “A Cross-Cultural Study of Animal Metaphors: When Owls Are Not Wise!” by M. Reza Talebinejad & H. Vahid Dastjerdi
🧠 Main Objectives of the Study
To examine how animal metaphors are understood in English and Persian.
To assess the degree of universality vs. cultural specificity in metaphorical expressions.
Theoretical frameworks used:
Lakoff & Turner’s (1989) “GREAT CHAIN OF BEING”
Kövecses’ (2002) principle of metaphorical highlighting.
“The results showed that although animal metaphors in English and Persian are similar to a certain extent, many aspects of them are culture-specific.” (Talebinejad & Dastjerdi, 2005, p. 133)
🧬 Conceptual Framework: The GREAT CHAIN OF BEING
Hierarchical metaphor connecting humans, animals, plants, objects, and physical things.
Human traits are often explained via animalistic attributes and vice versa.
“Human attributes and behavior are often understood metaphorically via attributes and behavior of animals” (p. 135).
🌍 Culture and Cognition in Metaphors
Metaphor is both a cognitive structure and a cultural expression.
Cultural models shape which traits are emphasized in metaphors.
“Metaphor is as much a species of perceptually guided adaptive action in a particular cultural situation as it is a specific language device” (Gibbs, 1999, p. 162).
“Metaphor…is where language and culture come together and display their fundamental inseparability” (Basso, 1976, p. 93).
🐾 Key Conceptual Metaphors Identified
The study reinforced Kövecses’ conceptual metaphors:
“HUMANS ARE ANIMALS”
“OBJECTIONABLE PEOPLE ARE ANIMALS”
“SEXUALLY ATTRACTIVE WOMEN ARE KITTENS”
“DIFFICULT-TO-HANDLE THINGS ARE DOGS”
“The only way these meanings can have emerged is that humans attributed human characteristics to animals and then reapplied these characteristics to humans” (Kövecses, 2002, p. 125).
🐯 Examples of Shared and Divergent Animal Metaphors
Shared/Identical Metaphors:
“Lion” = courage in both English and Persian.
“Dog life” = unpleasant living condition in both languages.
Different Metaphors:
“Owl” = wise (English) vs. ominous (Persian)
“Turkey” = stupid (English) vs. hypocrite (Persian)
“Bee” = busy (English) vs. sharp-tongued (Persian)
“The Persian owl is not wise!” (p. 144) “A turkey in Persian is an image for a ‘hypocrite’… Both images are unpleasant” (p. 144)
📊 Empirical Methodology
Compared 44 animal metaphors using native speakers from both cultures.
Used Lakoff & Johnson’s (1980) metaphorical mapping method.
Metaphors classified as identical, similar, or different.
“Of the 44 animal metaphors… around 75% were either identical or similar” (p. 143).
🧩 Cultural Models and Ethnobiology
Animal metaphors are shaped by folk taxonomies and cultural experiences.
Categorization depends on key traits: behavior, relation to humans, etc.
“Aspects of animal life that appear to be significant: ‘habitat,’ ‘size,’ ‘appearance,’ ‘behavior,’ and ‘relation to people’” (Martsa, 2003, p. 4)
🔄 Universality vs. Cultural Specificity
While some metaphors are near-universal, many are deeply embedded in local culture.
Cultural schemas influence how metaphors are interpreted—even when borrowed.
“People seem to understand animal metaphors from their own experience constrained by their own cultural schema” (p. 146)
🧪 Concluding Insights
Metaphors are both cognitive and cultural constructs.
Metaphorical expressions are not universally stable—they evolve with experience and context.
“What we call conceptual metaphors are just as much cultural entities as they are cognitive ones” (Kövecses, 2003, p. 319)
“Metaphor is not only cognitive but also culturally motivated” (p. 145)
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “A Cross-Cultural Study of Animal Metaphors: When Owls Are Not Wise!” by M. Reza Talebinejad & H. Vahid Dastjerdi
Theoretical Term / Concept
Definition / Origin
Usage in the Article
Metaphor
A cognitive and linguistic process where one concept is understood in terms of another (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).
The central focus of the study; animal metaphors are analyzed to show cultural and conceptual meaning in English and Persian.
Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT)
Theory that metaphors structure thought, not just language (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980).
Framework for interpreting metaphorical expressions like “humans are animals.”
GREAT CHAIN OF BEING Metaphor
A hierarchical folk model of existence from humans to objects (Lakoff & Turner, 1989).
Used to explain how humans metaphorically inherit animal traits and how behaviors map downward across categories.
Metaphorical Highlighting
The idea that metaphors focus on certain aspects of a target concept (Kövecses, 2002).
Used to classify metaphors as identical or similar based on which traits are emphasized in each culture.
Explains why speakers interpret metaphors differently across languages (e.g., owl as wise vs. ominous).
People Are Animals
A recurring conceptual metaphor in many languages (Kövecses, 2002).
One of the study’s key metaphors showing how animal behavior frames human characteristics (e.g., “He’s a lion”).
Ethnobiological Categorization
Folk classification of animals and plants based on experience and utility (Berlin, 1992).
Supports the idea that animal metaphors arise from practical and cultural knowledge of animals.
Thematic Parts of Animals
Animal traits like habitat, behavior, relation to humans used in metaphor formation (Martsa, 2003).
Used to explain how speakers choose metaphorical traits (e.g., lion’s bravery, pig’s gluttony).
Metaphor vs. Metonymy
Metaphor: conceptual mapping across domains; Metonymy: association within the same domain.
The authors note that some animal metaphors may be metonymic or blends, e.g., “ostrich” as laziness may derive from behavior.
Unidirectionality of Metaphor
Conceptual metaphors usually map from concrete → abstract, not vice versa (Kövecses, 2002).
Observed in mappings like “noisy crow” (animal → human), but not the reverse.
Maxim of Quantity (Gricean Principle)
In pragmatics, say as much as needed, no more.
Helps explain which animal traits are metaphorically mapped—only those that are communicatively relevant.
Cross-cultural Variation in Metaphor
The notion that metaphors are not universally interpreted across cultures.
The main aim of the study; authors show that only 25% of metaphors differ significantly, while 75% are similar or identical.
Metaphorical Mapping / Correspondence
A set of conceptual links between two domains (e.g., lion ↔ courage).
The method used to analyze responses from native speakers comparing English and Persian metaphors.
Contribution of “A Cross-Cultural Study of Animal Metaphors: When Owls Are Not Wise!” by M. Reza Talebinejad & H. Vahid Dastjerdi to Literary Theory/Theories
🧠 1. Contribution to Cognitive Literary Theory
Theory Focus: Literature reflects mental processes, especially metaphor as a tool of conceptualization.
Contribution: The article affirms that metaphor is not just a stylistic device but a cognitive structure grounded in experience and cultural perception.
“Much of human behavior… seems to be metaphorically understood in terms of animal behavior” (Kövecses, 2002, p. 124).
Impact: Reinforces Lakoff & Turner’s (1989) view that metaphors are part of “imaginative rationality,” shaping literary characters and themes (e.g., lion = bravery).
“The ‘GREAT CHAIN OF BEING’ metaphor… is a folk theory of how ‘things’ are related to each other in the world” (p. 134).
Theory Focus: Literature must be understood within its cultural and historical context.
Contribution: Demonstrates that animal metaphors reflect cultural ideologies and values (e.g., owls symbolize wisdom in English but inauspiciousness in Persian).
“The Persian owl is not wise!” (p. 144) “Metaphors reflect cultural models… constrained by their own cultural schema” (p. 146).
Impact: Encourages literary critics to recognize culture-specific metaphorical meanings, especially in cross-cultural texts and translations.
Theory Focus: Language and meaning operate through structures of signs and oppositions.
Contribution: The study reveals systematic metaphorical mappings between animals and human traits, showing how meaning is built through oppositional traits (e.g., lion ↔ courage vs. goat ↔ cowardice).
“The metaphor focuses on some aspects of a target concept… it highlights that or those aspect(s)” (Kövecses, 2002, p. 79).
Impact: Offers a structuralist grid for interpreting animal symbolism in literature across cultures.
Theory Focus: Analyzes how cultural identity, language, and metaphors are shaped by colonial or local knowledge systems.
Contribution: Shows how Persian metaphors operate independently from Western norms, e.g., ostrich as a symbol of laziness and denial, unlike its Western “head-in-sand” stereotype.
“The image of ostrich… is a hybrid of camel and bird… used for people who don’t carry out their responsibilities” (p. 143).
Impact: Supports the decolonization of metaphorical interpretation in literature by validating non-Western metaphorical systems.
📚 5. Contribution to Reader-Response Theory
Theory Focus: Meaning arises in the interaction between reader and text, influenced by personal and cultural schema.
Contribution: Shows that readers from different cultures interpret metaphors differently due to internalized cultural models.
“Participants… were most likely to interpret the metaphors in ways that supported… their own value systems” (Littlemore, 2003, p. 282).
Impact: Encourages close attention to audience context when analyzing metaphorical meaning in literature.
🧬 6. Contribution to Comparative Literature
Theory Focus: Cross-cultural literary analysis to trace thematic and symbolic variation.
Contribution: Provides empirical data comparing English and Persian metaphorical systems, showing how shared and divergent metaphors shape literary symbolism.
“Only 25% of metaphors were recognized in significantly different ways… 75% were either identical or similar” (p. 143).
Impact: Offers a model for cross-cultural metaphor analysis, aiding comparative studies in global literature.
✅ Summary of Theoretical Contributions
Literary Theory
Key Contribution from the Article
Cognitive Literary Theory
Metaphors reflect mental models and are culturally grounded.
Reveals binary oppositions and systematic mappings in metaphor.
Postcolonial Theory
Highlights local metaphorical knowledge over Western symbolic norms.
Reader-Response Theory
Readers interpret metaphors through their own cultural frameworks.
Comparative Literature
Provides a model of contrastive metaphor study across English and Persian.
Examples of Critiques Through “A Cross-Cultural Study of Animal Metaphors: When Owls Are Not Wise!” by M. Reza Talebinejad & H. Vahid Dastjerdi
Literary Work
Animal Metaphor(s) in the Text
Reinterpretation via Talebinejad & Dastjerdi’s Framework
Critical Insight
George Orwell’s Animal Farm (1945)
Pigs = Power, Greed; Dogs = Brutality
In Persian culture, pig metaphors are rarely used due to religious taboo. Thus, the pig as a symbol of tyranny might not resonate universally (Talebinejad & Dastjerdi, 2005, pp. 137–138).
The metaphor’s critique of political corruption may lose symbolic impact in Persian context due to cultural restrictions.
Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar (c. 1599)
Lion = Bravery; Serpent = Treachery
Lion is shared across cultures as a symbol of courage. However, the serpent metaphor may map differently in Persian, where “snake” may lack the same cultural weight of betrayal (p. 145).
The universal bravery metaphor of lion holds, but caution is needed in interpreting serpentine metaphors cross-culturally.
In Persian, birds such as doves or sparrows evoke emotional or sacred meanings (pp. 144–145). The parrot might symbolize loyalty or mimicry, not confinement.
Animal metaphors of flight and confinement may reflect different symbolic registers across cultures.
Attar’s The Conference of the Birds (12th c.)
Hoopoe = Wisdom; Owl = Isolation
Owl in Persian is not wise but ominous (p. 144). The poem’s original cultural context preserves owl’s dark image, while Western readers might mistakenly interpret the owl as sagacious.
Emphasizes the need for culturally grounded reading of animal metaphors in Persian mystical literature.
🔍 Notes:
Western symbolic norms may mislead cross-cultural readers, especially when interpreting texts from non-Western traditions.
The article helps disrupt the assumption of universality in animal metaphors often carried into literary criticism.
Reader-response and postcolonial readings benefit greatly from this lens, especially when navigating allegory, satire, and symbol.
Criticism Against “A Cross-Cultural Study of Animal Metaphors: When Owls Are Not Wise!” by M. Reza Talebinejad & H. Vahid Dastjerdi
🔬 Limited Sample Size The study relies on input from only 20 participants (10 native English and 10 Persian language teachers), which restricts the generalizability of the findings across broader linguistic communities.
📍 Culturally Narrow Focus While the authors aim for a cross-cultural study, it’s essentially a bilingual contrast (English vs. Persian). Broader cultural perspectives—especially non-Indo-European or indigenous—are not considered.
📊 Lack of Quantitative Rigor The metaphor analysis is primarily qualitative and descriptive. The statistical methods, coding reliability, or inter-rater agreement in classifying metaphors as “similar” or “identical” are not reported.
🧩 Metaphor vs. Metonymy Confusion Although the authors acknowledge overlaps, they occasionally blur distinctions between metaphor and metonymy without consistently differentiating them in analysis (e.g., ostrich example, p. 143–144).
🕊️ Oversimplification of Cultural Models Cultural interpretations are treated as stable and uniform, which may ignore subcultural or individual variability in metaphor comprehension (e.g., rural vs. urban speakers or generational divides).
🌐 Overreliance on Western Theories The study is deeply rooted in Lakoff & Johnson’s cognitive metaphor theory, potentially limiting the analysis to Western conceptual frameworks, despite focusing on Persian language and culture.
📚 Lack of Literary Textual Examples Although metaphor is vital in literature, the paper does not apply findings to actual literary texts, weakening its direct literary relevance and application to literary theory in practice.
🐾 Ethnobiological Generalizations The use of ethnobiological categories may presume a universal biological perception of animals, which can be too simplistic when animals hold symbolic, mythical, or religious connotations.
🔄 Static View of Metaphor Usage Metaphors are treated as fixed cultural expressions, with little attention to language change, evolving metaphor usage, or how global media may influence metaphor adoption or transformation.
🗣️ No Inclusion of Corpus Linguistics Tools The study could have been strengthened by using corpus data to trace actual frequency, context, and collocational patterns of animal metaphors in natural discourse or literature.
Representative Quotations from “A Cross-Cultural Study of Animal Metaphors: When Owls Are Not Wise!” by M. Reza Talebinejad & H. Vahid Dastjerdi with Explanation
“Much of human behavior… seems to be metaphorically understood in terms of animal behavior.” (Kövecses, 2002, p. 124)
This frames the article’s main thesis: humans frequently interpret their own traits by projecting them onto animals. This cognitive process underpins widespread metaphorical usage.
“The metaphor is not only cognitive but also culturally motivated.” (Kövecses, 2003, p. 319)
The authors support the idea that while metaphor arises in the mind, its structure and use are heavily influenced by cultural norms, values, and collective experience.
“The Persian owl is not wise!” (Talebinejad & Dastjerdi, 2005, p. 144)
A core example demonstrating cultural contrast: the owl as a symbol of wisdom in English, but inauspicious and unlucky in Persian culture.
“In many cases, animal metaphors do reflect cultural models…” (p. 145)
The authors affirm that metaphor is often a mirror of the culture’s worldview, which shapes and is shaped by language.
“Only the essential, culturally and psychologically salient properties… are mapped onto humans.” (Martsa, 2003, p. 5, as cited)
This supports the study’s method: only attributes perceived as significant in a given culture are transferred metaphorically, explaining divergences.
“A theory of one [language or culture] that excludes the other will inevitably do damage to both.” (Basso, 1976, p. 93)
This quote reinforces the article’s integrative framework, warning against studying language without accounting for its cultural foundations.
*“He lives a dog life.” / “Zendegim mesle sag boud.”
A direct cross-linguistic example of how the same metaphor—’dog life’—is used negatively in both English and Persian, showing convergence despite cultural differences.
“Tell him to fly, he says he’s a camel; tell him to carry loads, he says he’s a bird.” (Persian metaphor for the ostrich)
A vivid Persian metaphor that critiques laziness and avoidance of responsibility, revealing metaphor’s cultural richness and satirical function.
Suggested Readings: “A Cross-Cultural Study of Animal Metaphors: When Owls Are Not Wise!” by M. Reza Talebinejad & H. Vahid Dastjerdi
Zhang, Yehong, and Gerhard Lauer. “Introduction: Cross-Cultural Reading.” Comparative Literature Studies, vol. 54, no. 4, 2017, pp. 693–701. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.5325/complitstudies.54.4.0693. Accessed 2 Apr. 2025.
Richardson, Joseph E. “Religious Metaphor and Cross-Cultural Communication: Transforming National and International Identities.” Brigham Young University Studies, vol. 50, no. 4, 2011, pp. 61–74. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43044890. Accessed 2 Apr. 2025.
Wolfe, Cary. “Human, All Too Human: ‘Animal Studies’ and the Humanities.” PMLA, vol. 124, no. 2, 2009, pp. 564–75. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25614299. Accessed 2 Apr. 2025.
