Day: April 8, 2025

“History as Usual?: Feminism and the “New Historicism” by Judith Newton: Summary and Critique

“History as Usual?: Feminism and the ‘New Historicism’” by Judith Newton first appeared in the journal Cultural Critique, No. 9 (Spring 1988), published by the University of Minnesota Press.

"History as Usual?: Feminism and the "New Historicism" by Judith Newton: Summary and Critique
Introduction: “History as Usual?: Feminism and the “New Historicism” by Judith Newton

“History as Usual?: Feminism and the ‘New Historicism’” by Judith Newton first appeared in the journal Cultural Critique, No. 9 (Spring 1988), published by the University of Minnesota Press. In this influential article, Newton interrogates the rise of the New Historicism within literary studies, critiquing its failure to account for the foundational contributions of feminist theory and feminist historiography. She challenges the marginalization of feminist scholars in the narrative of postmodern literary theory and contends that feminist criticism not only anticipated many of the assumptions later associated with New Historicism—such as the cultural construction of subjectivity and the historicity of representation—but often did so from a more politically engaged and socially transformative position. Newton argues that feminist critics had long explored how power, gender, and ideology shaped historical narratives and literary production, and she calls for a broader, more inclusive definition of New Historicism—one that integrates feminist insights and refuses the erasure of women’s intellectual labor. The essay is widely considered a key intervention in literary theory, urging scholars to recognize the political stakes of theoretical practice and to engage in more inclusive historiographies of criticism.

Summary of “History as Usual?: Feminism and the “New Historicism” by Judith Newton

🔑 Key Ideas from Judith Newton’s “History as Usual?: Feminism and the ‘New Historicism'”

đŸ”č 1. New Historicism’s Ambiguous Identity

  • Newton critiques the vagueness and internal contradictions in defining “new historicism,” noting it is “as marked by difference as by sameness” (Newton, 1988, p. 87).
  • She asks whether it’s “a unique and hot commodity” or simply a “set of widely held, loosely ‘postmodernist’ assumptions” (p. 87).

đŸ”č 2. Core Assumptions of New Historicism

  • Practitioners assume “no transhistorical or universal human essence,” with subjectivity “constructed by cultural codes” (p. 88).
  • Representations are not neutral; they “make things happen” by “shaping human consciousness” (p. 89).

đŸ”č 3. Feminist Scholarship’s Exclusion from New Historicist Narratives

  • Newton criticizes how feminist contributions have been omitted from histories of theory and new historicism, despite feminist theory’s foundational role (p. 91).
  • Feminists “have sometimes participated in this erasure of their own intellectual traditions” (p. 92).

đŸ”č 4. Feminist Origins of Postmodern Assumptions

  • Feminist thought contributed to “postmodernist” critiques before French theory was widely embraced, often rooted in “personal change and commitment” (p. 94).
  • These ideas, rooted in activism and experience, fostered a “sense of political possibilities” (p. 94).

đŸ”č 5. Feminist Rearticulation of Theory

  • Feminist theorists developed distinctive takes on objectivity, proposing “situated and embodied knowledges” over relativism (p. 98).
  • They aim for “webs of connection, called solidarity in politics and shared conversation in epistemology” (p. 99).

đŸ”č 6. Feminist History and the Redefinition of “History”

  • “New Women’s History” foregrounded the role of women as agents in history, challenging the public/private binary and masculinist historiography (p. 100).
  • Feminist historians revealed how “gender relations and gender struggle” shaped historical developments, often predating Foucault (p. 101).

đŸ”č 7. Feminist Literary Criticism as Historical Practice

  • Feminist critics “situate literature in relation to history,” treating representation as “political” and deeply intertwined with gendered power (p. 104).
  • Historical readings by feminist literary scholars often emphasize “materialist” and interdisciplinary strategies (p. 105).

đŸ”č 8. Gender as Central to Understanding Power

  • Feminist work redefines power not only as dominance but also “power in disguise,” such as resistance, silence, and emotional labor (p. 102).
  • This insight reframes power dynamics traditionally overlooked by male-centered models.

đŸ”č 9. Feminism’s Potential to Transform New Historicism

  • Newton proposes that “materialist feminist literary/historical practice” yields a richer, more nuanced understanding of history and subjectivity (p. 117).
  • She argues for greater collaboration between feminists and cultural materialists to deepen historical analysis (p. 120).
Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “History as Usual?: Feminism and the “New Historicism” by Judith Newton
🌟 Term/Concept📖 Explanation🔍 Usage in the Article
🌀 New HistoricismA literary-critical movement that sees literature as embedded within cultural, social, and political discourses.Newton explores whether it is a unified school or a broad set of postmodernist strategies. She critiques its emerging orthodoxy and exclusion of feminist histories.
♀ Feminist TheoryCritical approaches grounded in the analysis of gender inequality and the representation of women.Newton insists feminist theory shaped “postmodern” assumptions and calls out its omission in new historicist narratives.
🧠 SubjectivityThe ways in which individuals are shaped by and internalize cultural codes and social norms.Feminism brought focus to how women’s subjectivity is constructed differently and often invisibly in history.
📜 PostmodernismA skeptical, anti-essentialist stance toward grand narratives, objectivity, and fixed meanings.Newton aligns feminist critique with postmodernist assumptions but argues for feminism’s distinct articulation.
đŸ§± Cultural MaterialismA British form of Marxist literary criticism that views literature as a material product of culture and ideology.Mentioned as a cousin to new historicism; Newton emphasizes feminism’s deeper roots and more intersectional critique.
🔄 Cross-cultural MontageJuxtaposition of literary and non-literary texts to reveal ideological interrelations.Newton shows how feminists had already been doing this with diaries, manuals, legal records, etc., before new historicism labeled it.
📚 RepresentationThe depiction or construction of reality through language, images, or discourse.Newton insists that representation has material consequences and is a site of ideological struggle.
💬 Hegemonic IdeologyDominant worldviews that naturalize power structures.Newton critiques how non-feminist new historicism overemphasizes hegemony, underplaying resistance and female agency.
đŸ”„ Social Change & AgencyThe potential for individuals or groups to transform society.Central to Newton’s feminist critique — she shows how feminism models social change and not just cultural reproduction.
đŸšȘ MarginalizationThe social process of relegating groups to the edge of cultural, political, or academic discourse.Newton critiques how feminist work has been marginalized in academic histories of theory like deconstruction and new historicism.
Contribution of “History as Usual?: Feminism and the “New Historicism” by Judith Newton to Literary Theory/Theories

1. 📚 New Historicism

📌 Contribution:
Newton critiques the notion that New Historicism is a neutral or revolutionary academic practice. She shows how it marginalizes feminist contributions, portraying it as a male-dominated project that reinvents ideas feminists were already working with.

🔍 Example from the Article:

“Histories of the ‘new historicism’ are beginning to remind me of
deconstructive thought
even the most current histories represent feminist theory as the simple receptor of seminal influence
” (p. 91)

📌 Impact:
Newton challenges the disciplinary canonization of New Historicism, calling for a broader, intersectional approach that includes gender and feminist labor. She insists feminist work should not be retroactively appropriated into male-defined theoretical traditions.

2. ♀ Feminist Literary Criticism

📌 Contribution:
Newton defends and repositions feminist criticism as not only responsive but foundational to theoretical developments. She positions it as a producer of theory, especially around subjectivity, power, and representation.

🔍 Example from the Article:

“Feminist theorizing of the ‘post-modern’ variety has been part of the Women’s Movement from the beginning.” (p. 94)

📌 Impact:
She articulates a feminist historicism that emphasizes experience, situated knowledge, and personal-political engagement, challenging the idea that feminist theory is derivative of deconstruction or postmodernism.

3. 📖 Postmodernism

📌 Contribution:
Newton critiques postmodernism’s tendency toward relativism and depoliticization, showing how feminists developed postmodern ideas (e.g., the critique of objectivity, constructed subjectivity) through lived experience and political urgency.

🔍 Example from the Article:

“Feminist challenges to the notion of ‘objectivity’ have not usually led to relativism
 but rather to defining a ‘feminist version of objectivity’—situated and embodied knowledges
” (p. 98)

📌 Impact:
Newton offers a version of politicized postmodernism, grounding theoretical abstraction in feminist and activist contexts. She promotes epistemological alternatives rooted in accountability and partial perspective (Ă  la Haraway, Harding).

4. 📕 Cultural Materialism

📌 Contribution:
While cultural materialism and New Historicism are typically linked, Newton shows how materialist feminist criticism shares common assumptions but articulates them differently—especially in recognizing women’s labor, agency, and discursive contributions.

🔍 Example from the Article:

“Although materialist feminist criticism has drawn heavily on Marxist and cultural materialist theory
 it may still be differentiated
 by the degree to which it takes gender as an organizing category in ‘history.’” (p. 106)

📌 Impact:
She positions materialist feminism as a distinctive critical formation, not to be absorbed under male-defined theories. She emphasizes the intersection of gender and class in ways cultural materialism alone often neglects.

5. đŸ§© Reader-Response and Psychoanalytic Theories

📌 Contribution:
Newton doesn’t engage directly with these, but she implies their limitations by contrasting them with feminist historicism’s focus on experience, community, and material history, over textual play or personal introspection.

🔍 Example from the Article:

“What is theory, after all, ‘good’ for?” she asks rhetorically, insisting theory should serve political and communal purposes (p. 96)

📌 Impact:
Her perspective aligns more with object-relations feminist theory (e.g., Chodorow, Gilligan), as she encourages literary historians to consider emotional and material conditions shaping subjectivity and representation (p. 120).

đŸ§± Summary: Key Contributions

📌 Theory🚀 Newton’s Contribution
New HistoricismCritiques male dominance, calls for feminist inclusion and restructuring
Feminist CriticismCenters feminist theory as original, radical, and epistemologically unique
PostmodernismAdvocates for politicized, situated knowledge over relativist detachment
Cultural MaterialismInsists on gender as a structural, historical analytic often ignored by class-based models
Psychoanalysis (implied)Prefers feminist-materialist notions of the self over textual or personal abstraction
Examples of Critiques Through “History as Usual?: Feminism and the “New Historicism” by Judith Newton
📚 Literary Work📝 Critique Through Newton’s Lens🧠 Theoretical Frame🌈 Symbolic Marker
🏰 Condition of England Novels (e.g., Mary Barton, North and South)These novels reflect a paradoxical Victorian ideology: portraying working-class suffering while reinscribing patriarchal domesticity. Newton notes their public/private binary reproduces gendered power.New Historicism + Feminist Critique of Domestic Ideology⚖ Public vs Private
👑 Victorian Women’s Manuals (e.g., The Book of Household Management by Mrs. Beeton)Manuals promote domestic ideology from a female-authored, moralizing voice, showing how women contributed to hegemonic power while also resisting it subtly. Newton highlights their agency within containment.Cultural Materialism + Materialist FeminismđŸ§” Gendered Agency
💉 Medical Discourse & Birth Debates (e.g., chloroform in childbirth debates)Newton (via Poovey) critiques how male-dominated scientific texts pathologized women’s bodies while excluding women’s voices, illustrating epistemic violence through “objective” discourse.Postmodern Feminism + Situated Knowledge💊 Power of Representation
đŸ§šâ€â™€ïž Victorian Governess Novels (e.g., Jane Eyre)Newton shows how these novels represent gender-class intersectionality, as women navigate public labor while performing femininity. Feminist historicism reveals the contradictions of subjecthood.Feminist Historicism + Class/Gender Critique🎭 Multiple Identities
📌 Key Concepts Across All:
  • Representation has material consequences 🧠
  • Gender and class must be analyzed intersectionally 🎯
  • Women were both subject to and producers of ideology 🔄
  • Private/domestic spheres were politically charged 🏠
Criticism Against “History as Usual?: Feminism and the “New Historicism” by Judith Newton

Overemphasis on Feminist Contribution as Original

Some critics argue that Newton overclaims the uniqueness of feminist theory, suggesting feminists were the first to introduce postmodern insights (like the constructed subject) when these were also present in other theoretical traditions like post-structuralism and Marxism.
→ Critique: Exaggeration of feminist “primacy” in theory development.

🔍 Selective Reading of New Historicism

Newton tends to highlight the male dominance in New Historicism, but critics suggest she downplays the diversity within the field, including scholars like Jean Howard, who also engage feminist concerns.
→ Critique: Unfair generalization of “new historicists” as gender-blind.

📘 Symbol: 📖 Partial Scope

📏 Not Enough Empirical Engagement

While Newton critiques others for ignoring feminist scholarship, she herself is seen as insufficiently grounded in historical primary texts in parts of her analysis, relying heavily on secondary commentary.
→ Critique: More rhetorical than evidentiary in some places.

📘 Symbol: 📉 Light on Data

đŸ§© Theory Over Accessibility

Though Newton advocates valuing feminist labor and accessibility, parts of her own work remain densely theoretical. Critics find this in tension with her call for clarity and solidarity among feminist theorists.
→ Critique: Calls for inclusivity yet adopts academic jargon.

📘 Symbol: 🌀 Theory vs Praxis

⚖ Binary Framing of Feminism vs New Historicism

Some readers argue that Newton frames feminism and New Historicism as mutually exclusive or antagonistic, missing opportunities to emphasize synergies and hybrid approaches.
→ Critique: False dichotomy weakens nuanced collaboration.

📘 Symbol: ⚔ Unnecessary Polarization

📚 Neglect of Non-Western Feminist Historicism

The essay largely centers American and British feminist discourse, with little mention of postcolonial or global feminist voices. Critics see this as a missed opportunity to de-center Western theory.
→ Critique: Limited geographical inclusivity.

📘 Symbol: 🌍 Western-Centric Lens

🎭 Idealization of Feminist Theory’s Internal Diversity

While Newton rightly emphasizes feminist theory’s heterogeneity, some argue she idealizes feminist unity and underplays internal conflicts (e.g., between radical, liberal, and postmodern feminists).
→ Critique: Glossing over feminist ideological tensions.

📘 Symbol: đŸ§” Over-unity

Representative Quotations from “History as Usual?: Feminism and the “New Historicism” by Judith Newton with Explanation
📘 Quotation 🌈 Explanation
🔍 “Feminists
 have sometimes participated in this erasure of their own intellectual traditions.”Newton critiques how feminists at times accepted marginal positions, contributing to their own invisibility.
🌟 “She who writes history makes history
 speaking from somewhere other than the margins.”A powerful call for feminist scholars to claim intellectual authority rather than remain peripheral.
📚 “‘New historicism’
 comes out of the new left
 but barely alluded to
 are the mother roots—the women’s movement.”She exposes the absence of feminism in standard narratives about the rise of New Historicism.
🧬 “Feminist theory
 womb containing the ‘seeds’ of deconstructive thought
 those ‘seeds’ were really ovum all along.”Newton flips metaphors to assert that feminist theory wasn’t derivative—it was generative.
đŸ—ș “Writing feminist theory and scholarship into the histories
 may mean participating in the definition of what ‘new historicism’ is going to mean.”Feminist scholars must actively shape academic movements and definitions.
đŸ”„ “It was our passion that put these matters first on the theoretical agenda.”Feminist theory is driven by real-world urgency and emotional truth—not abstract detachment.
⚡ “Feminists had their own break with totalizing theories
 Anger is more like it.”Feminists rejected male-dominated grand narratives with righteous rage and a hunger for change.
đŸ‘©â€đŸ”Ź “Women’s theoretical labor seemed part of life and therefore not like ‘real’
 male—theoretical labor at all.”Feminist contributions were undervalued because they didn’t conform to academic (i.e., male) standards.
đŸ§© “Middle-class ideology is implicitly challenged
 but internally it is fairly stable
”Ignoring gender flattens complexity—ideologies appear more stable than they are.
đŸŒ± “Perhaps their labels by now may be wearing thin
 Perhaps
 their new history is no longer new
 and it is no longer—history as usual.”Newton envisions a future where feminist theory is integrated into the norm—not treated as a novelty.
Suggested Readings: “History as Usual?: Feminism and the “New Historicism” by Judith Newton
  1. Newton, Judith. “History as Usual?: Feminism and the ‘New Historicism.’” Cultural Critique, no. 9, 1988, pp. 87–121. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/1354235. Accessed 8 Apr. 2025.
  2. Newton, Judith. “History as Usual?: Feminism and the New Historicism.” Starting Over: Feminism and the Politics of Cultural Critique, University of Michigan Press, 1994, pp. 27–58. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3998/mpub.10109.6. Accessed 8 Apr. 2025.
  3. Dimock, Wai-Chee. “Feminism, New Historicism, and the Reader.” American Literature, vol. 63, no. 4, 1991, pp. 601–22. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2926870. Accessed 8 Apr. 2025.
  4. Harpham, Geoffrey Galt. “Foucault and the New Historicism.” American Literary History, vol. 3, no. 2, 1991, pp. 360–75. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/490057. Accessed 8 Apr. 2025.

“Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris: A Critical Analysis

“Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris, first appeared in 1982 in his poetry collection The Pond, explores the emotional tension between a father and his young son immediately after a disciplinary slap.

"Little Boy Crying" by Mervyn Morris: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris

“Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris, first appeared in 1982 in his poetry collection The Pond, explores the emotional tension between a father and his young son immediately after a disciplinary slap. Central to its power and popularity is the honest portrayal of complex parental love, discipline, and childhood misunderstanding. Through vivid imagery and emotional contrast, Morris captures the innocent perception of the child—who sees the father as a cruel “ogre”—and the restrained pain of the father, who “longs to lift you
 but dare not ruin the lessons you should learn.” The poem’s enduring relevance lies in its universal theme: the distance between intention and interpretation, especially in moments of discipline. The child’s emotional turmoil is expressed through phrases like “your laughter metamorphosed into howls” and “your bright eyes / swimming tears,” while the father’s inner conflict is subtly revealed in “the hurt your easy tears can scald him with” and “the wavering hidden behind that mask.” These poetic lines make the poem resonate with both parents and children, emphasizing that love sometimes demands painful restraint.

Text: “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris

Your mouth contorting in brief spite and hurt,

your laughter metamorphosed into howls,

your frame so recently relaxed now tight

with three year old frustration, your bright eyes

swimming tears, splashing your bare feet,

you stand there angling for a moment’s hint

of guilt or sorrow for the quick slap struck.

The ogre towers above you, that grim giant,

empty of feeling, a colossal cruel,

soon victim of the tale’s conclusion, dead

at last. You hate him, you imagine

chopping clean the tree he’s scrambling down

or plotting deeper pits to trap him in.

You cannot understand, not yet,

the hurt your easy tears can scald him with,

nor guess the wavering hidden behind that mask.

This fierce man longs to lift you, curb your sadness

with piggy-back or bull fight, anything,

but dare not ruin the lessons you should learn.

You must not make a plaything of the rain.

Annotations: “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris
LineSimple MeaningLiterary Devices (with colorful symbols)
Your mouth contorting in brief spite and hurt,Your face twists with anger and pain for a moment.🎭 Metaphor, 🎹 Imagery
your laughter metamorphosed into howls,Your laughter suddenly turns into loud crying.🩋 Metaphor, 🔁 Juxtaposition
your frame so recently relaxed now tightYour body was calm but is now stiff with tension.⏳ Contrast, 🎹 Imagery
with three year old frustration, your bright eyesYou’re only three and don’t understand; your eyes are full of emotion.đŸ‘¶ Pathos, đŸ‘ïž Visual imagery
swimming tears, splashing your bare feet,Tears are falling so much they hit your feet.🌊 Hyperbole, 🎹 Imagery
you stand there angling for a moment’s hintYou’re watching carefully to see if the adult feels bad.👀 Symbolism, 🧠 Internal conflict
of guilt or sorrow for the quick slap struck.You’re hoping to see regret for being slapped.đŸ’„ Alliteration, 💔 Irony
The ogre towers above you, that grim giant,You see your father like a big, scary monster.đŸ‘č Metaphor, 🏰 Fairytale allusion
empty of feeling, a colossal cruel,You think he feels nothing and is very cruel.🧊 Alliteration, 🎭 Characterization
soon victim of the tale’s conclusion, deadYou imagine him defeated like in a story.📖 Allegory, đŸ—Ąïž Irony
at last. You hate him, you imagineYou’re angry and imagine ways to get revenge.💱 Internal conflict, 💭 Imagination
chopping clean the tree he’s scrambling downYou picture cutting the tree he’s climbing.🌳 Metaphor, đŸȘ“ Violent imagery
or plotting deeper pits to trap him in.You also think of making traps for him.đŸ•łïž Symbolism, 🌀 Imagination
You cannot understand, not yet,You’re too young to understand the full meaning.⏳ Dramatic irony
the hurt your easy tears can scald him with,You don’t know how much your crying hurts him.đŸ”„ Metaphor, 💔 Emotional reversal
nor guess the wavering hidden behind that mask.You don’t realize he’s hiding his feelings.🎭 Mask metaphor, đŸŒ«ïž Symbolism
This fierce man longs to lift you, curb your sadnessThe strict man actually wants to comfort you.🧾 Contrast, 💗 Internal conflict
with piggy-back or bull fight, anything,He wants to play with you to make you happy again.🐂 Imagery, 🎠 Symbolism
but dare not ruin the lessons you should learn.But he holds back so you learn right from wrong.📚 Moral conflict, 🔁 Contrast
You must not make a plaything of the rain.You must learn not to treat danger as fun.đŸŒ§ïž Metaphor, ⚠ Moral symbolism
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris
🎹 Device📝 Example from Poem🔍 Explanation
🌀 Allegory“soon victim of the tale’s conclusion, dead at last”Refers to fairy tales, symbolizing how the child sees his father as a villain like in stories.
đŸ’„ Alliteration“quick slap struck”Repetition of the ‘s’ sound emphasizes the sudden, sharp action.
🎭 Characterization“This fierce man longs to lift you”Reveals the father’s internal emotional struggle, making him a complex character.
đŸŒ§ïž Contrast“your laughter metamorphosed into howls”Sharp emotional shift from joy to sadness highlights the child’s emotional fragility.
đŸ”„ Emotive Language“your bright eyes / swimming tears”Uses intense emotion to engage the reader’s sympathy for the child.
🧊 Enjambment“you stand there angling for a moment’s hint / of guilt or sorrow”Continues the sentence across lines for a flowing, natural voice.
đŸ‘ïž Imagery“your frame so recently relaxed now tight”Descriptive language appeals to the reader’s senses and paints a vivid picture.
💭 Imagination“you imagine / chopping clean the tree”Shows the child’s vivid fantasy of revenge, driven by misunderstanding.
🧠 Internal Conflict“but dare not ruin the lessons you should learn”The father is emotionally torn between love and discipline.
🎠 Irony“You cannot understand
the hurt your easy tears can scald him with”The child thinks his father is cruel, but the father is actually hurting inside.
🔁 Juxtaposition“The ogre towers above you
 / This fierce man longs to lift you”Two contrasting images of the father placed side by side to show perception vs. reality.
🎭 Metaphor“The ogre towers above you”The father is metaphorically portrayed as a monster from a fairy tale.
🎹 MoodSad, regretful, tenderThe poem’s mood evolves from sadness to understanding as the true emotions are revealed.
đŸ‘¶ Pathos“with three year old frustration”Invokes pity and compassion for the child’s innocent misunderstanding.
🐂 Personification“the hurt your easy tears can scald him with”Gives human emotion a physical, burning effect to show the father’s pain.
🎭 Perspective ShiftFrom child’s view to father’s thoughtsThe poem shifts viewpoint midway, changing the emotional depth and understanding.
🧾 Symbolism“ogre” and “tree”Symbolize the father’s misunderstood authority and the child’s imagined revenge.
⏳ ToneGentle, reflective, sorrowfulThe speaker reflects on the emotional cost of parenting with tenderness.
🌳 Violent Imagery“chopping clean the tree he’s scrambling down”Reflects the child’s raw anger and his imagined retaliation.
đŸŒ§ïž Warning/Didacticism“You must not make a plaything of the rain.”Moral message: discipline is necessary for the child’s safety and understanding of boundaries.
Themes: “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris

đŸŒ§ïž Theme 1: Misunderstanding Between Parent and Child

In “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris, a central theme is the emotional gap and misunderstanding between the child and the parent. The little boy perceives his father as an “ogre
 that grim giant,” believing him to be cruel and “empty of feeling.” However, this perception is shaped by immaturity and limited understanding. The father’s inner turmoil remains hidden from the child, who “cannot understand, not yet, the hurt your easy tears can scald him with.” This theme highlights the difference between how discipline is received and how it is intended, especially from a child’s point of view.

💔 Theme 2: Parental Love and Restraint

In “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris, the theme of parental love expressed through restraint is deeply felt. The father is portrayed as someone who “longs to lift you, curb your sadness with piggy-back or bull fight,” but he chooses not to because he must uphold a lesson. This deliberate self-control speaks volumes about the depth of his love. The poem presents the painful reality that love sometimes requires denying one’s own emotional desires for the sake of a child’s moral and emotional development.

🧠 Theme 3: Emotional Growth and Learning

In “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris, the theme of learning and growth through emotional experiences is central. The father’s slap, though painful, is intended to teach the child a lesson: “You must not make a plaything of the rain.” This line represents the boundaries children must learn about danger, consequences, and responsibility. The father suppresses his own emotions so the child can grow emotionally and morally, emphasizing that discipline is sometimes a necessary tool for long-term development.

🌈 Theme 4: Perception Versus Reality

In “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris, the contrast between how things appear and what they truly are is a dominant theme. The child sees his father as a villain and fantasizes about punishing him—“chopping clean the tree he’s scrambling down.” However, the reader is made aware of the father’s emotional vulnerability hidden “behind that mask.” This theme underscores how emotions and actions are often misunderstood, especially by children, and how reality is often more compassionate and complex than it appears.

Literary Theories and “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris

🧠 1. Psychological Criticism (Freudian Theory)

“Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris can be deeply analyzed through psychological criticism, particularly Freudian ideas about childhood emotions and the unconscious. The child projects exaggerated fear and anger toward the father, calling him an “ogre,” which reflects the id’s raw emotions. The father, on the other hand, suppresses his nurturing instincts—“longs to lift you
 but dare not ruin the lessons”—representing the superego’s moral restraint. This internal battle within the parent and emotional confusion in the child illustrate the psychological complexities of discipline and early development.

đŸ‘Ș 2. Reader-Response Theory

“Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris resonates strongly with reader-response theory, as its emotional power lies in how each reader interprets the conflict. A child reader may sympathize with the boy who imagines “plotting deeper pits to trap him in,” while an adult reader may feel the hidden agony of the parent “hurt
 your easy tears can scald him with.” This duality invites varied interpretations based on personal experiences with authority, parenthood, or childhood memories, proving how meaning is co-created between text and reader.

💬 3. Structuralism

From a structuralist perspective, “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris plays with the binary oppositions of love vs. cruelty, discipline vs. care, and appearance vs. reality. The father is both “a grim giant” and a “fierce man [who] longs to lift” his child. These opposing roles highlight how meaning in the poem arises from contrasts. The poem also borrows from the fairy tale structure—with the father as an ogre and the child imagining heroic revenge—before subverting it with emotional reality, challenging archetypal roles.

📚 4. Moral-Philosophical Criticism

“Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris clearly supports moral-philosophical criticism, as it explores the ethical responsibility of parenting. The father inflicts temporary emotional pain through discipline to instill a life lesson: “You must not make a plaything of the rain.” This action raises questions about right and wrong, suggesting that moral lessons often come at a cost. The poem advocates for the value of restraint, responsibility, and the greater good over momentary emotional comfort.

Critical Questions about “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris
❓ Critical Question💡 Response Points with Poem References
1. How does the poem portray the emotional gap between parent and child?đŸ”” The child sees the father as an “ogre
 that grim giant,” showing fear and resentment.
🟠 The boy imagines “chopping clean the tree he’s scrambling down,” showing fantasy-driven revenge.
🟣 “You cannot understand, not yet,” shows the father’s awareness of the child’s limited emotional maturity.
🔮 The father hides his pain “behind that mask,” reflecting emotional distance and sacrifice.
2. In what ways does the poet present discipline as an act of love?🟡 “This fierce man longs to lift you,” shows the father’s loving instinct despite his sternness.
đŸ”” He refrains from comforting the child to teach a lesson: “but dare not ruin the lessons.”
🟱 The slap is “quick,” suggesting control, not violence.
🟠 “You must not make a plaything of the rain” conveys a moral responsibility to teach right from wrong.
3. How does the poet use imagery and metaphor to express emotion?🟣 “Your bright eyes swimming tears” creates vivid, emotional visual imagery.
🔮 The metaphor of “ogre towers above you” shows the boy’s distorted emotional perception.
đŸ”” “The hurt your easy tears can scald him with” uses metaphor to show the father’s hidden pain.
🟱 The father is said to wear a “mask,” a metaphor for emotional restraint and hidden love.
4. How does the poem explore the theme of perception versus reality?🟠 The child sees cruelty: “a colossal cruel,” but doesn’t see the father’s internal struggle.
đŸ”” Readers learn that the father’s heart aches, which the child cannot perceive: “You cannot understand.”
🟣 The boy imagines a fantasy revenge plot, disconnected from real consequences.
🔮 The shift from external to internal perspective reveals the emotional truth behind the father’s actions.
Literary Works Similar to “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris

đŸŒ§ïž “Those Winter Sundays” by Robert Hayden

Like “Little Boy Crying”, this poem explores a child’s misunderstanding of a father’s silent sacrifices and emotional restraint.

💔 “My Papa’s Waltz” by Theodore Roethke

This poem, like Morris’s, captures the complex emotions between father and child, blending affection with tension and discipline.

🧾 “A Story” by Li-Young Lee

This poem also examines a father’s inner struggle as he prepares his child for the difficulties of life—mirroring the restraint seen in “Little Boy Crying.”

đŸȘž “Walking Away” by Cecil Day-Lewis

Both poems focus on the pain of growing up and the emotional cost of parental love expressed through necessary distance or discipline.

🌙 “Father to Son” by Elizabeth Jennings

Like Morris’s work, this poem deals with emotional disconnect and the silent sorrow of a parent trying to connect with a child.

Representative Quotations of “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris
🎹 Quotation📚 Context🧠 Theoretical Perspective
đŸŒ§ïž “Your mouth contorting in brief spite and hurt”The child reacts emotionally after being slapped by his father.Psychological Criticism
🌀 “Your laughter metamorphosed into howls”Sudden emotional shift from joy to pain, showing the boy’s fragility.Reader-Response Theory
đŸ‘ïž “Your bright eyes / swimming tears, splashing your bare feet”Vivid image of the boy crying, emphasizing innocence and intensity.Imagery & Formalism
đŸ‘č “The ogre towers above you, that grim giant”The boy sees his father as a monster, not understanding his intentions.Structuralism / Archetypal Criticism
🧠 “You cannot understand, not yet, / the hurt your easy tears can scald him with”Reveals the emotional pain the father feels despite appearing stern.Psychological Criticism / Irony
🎭 “Nor guess the wavering hidden behind that mask”The father hides his true emotions to teach the child a lesson.Post-Structuralism / Psychoanalysis
💔 “This fierce man longs to lift you, curb your sadness”The father wants to comfort the child but chooses not to.Moral-Philosophical Criticism
🐂 “With piggy-back or bull fight, anything”Shows the father’s wish to return to playful affection.Reader-Response Theory
📚 “But dare not ruin the lessons you should learn”Highlights the reason behind the father’s tough decision.Moral-Philosophical / Didactic Approach
đŸŒ§ïž “You must not make a plaything of the rain.”Symbolic final line warning against treating danger lightly.Symbolism / Moral Criticism
Suggested Readings: “Little Boy Crying” by Mervyn Morris
  1. MORDECAI, PAMELA C. Caribbean Quarterly, vol. 25, no. 4, 1979, pp. 60–71. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/23050633. Accessed 6 Apr. 2025.
  2. Carr, Bill. Caribbean Studies, vol. 14, no. 2, 1974, pp. 205–10. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/25612620. Accessed 6 Apr. 2025.
  3. Morris, Mervyn. “Little Boy Crying.” The Pond. London: New Beacon 34 (1973).

“Leaving School” by Hugo Williams: A Critical Analysis

“Leaving School” by Hugo Williams first appeared in his 1995 collection Billy’s Rain, a work that reflects on personal memory, loss, and emotional dislocation.

"Leaving School" by Hugo Williams: A Critical Analysis
Introduction: “Leaving School” by Hugo Williams

“Leaving School” by Hugo Williams first appeared in his 1995 collection Billy’s Rain, a work that reflects on personal memory, loss, and emotional dislocation. The poem captures the poignant experience of a young boy’s first days at boarding school, told through sparse yet vivid imagery. Williams explores themes of alienation, childhood confusion, and emotional withdrawal, using a minimalist style that deepens the sense of vulnerability and detachment. The poem’s popularity stems from its raw honesty and understated humor, as well as its universal depiction of childhood bewilderment and the loss of innocence. The narrative voice—simple, reflective, and at times painfully naive—enhances its emotional resonance. Lines like “I was miles away, with my suitcase, leaving school” metaphorically frame the speaker’s mental and emotional escape, emphasizing his internal retreat in response to external pressures. Williams’ subtle but powerful portrayal of childhood trauma resonates with readers, inviting reflection on the emotional costs of early independence.

Text: “Leaving School” by Hugo Williams

I was eight when I set out into the world

wearing a grey flannel suit.

I had my own suitcase.

I thought it was going to be fun.

I wasn’t listening

when everything was explained to us in the Library,

so the first night I didn’t have any sheets.

The headmaster’s wife told me

to think of the timetable as a game of ‘Battleships’.

She found me walking around upstairs

wearing the wrong shoes.

I liked all the waiting we had to do at school,

but I didn’t like the work.

I could only read certain things

which I’d read before, like the Billy Goat Gruff books,

but they didn’t have them there.

They had the Beacon Series.

I said ‘I don’t know,’

then I started saying nothing.

Every day my name was read out

because I’d forgotten to hang something up.

I was so far away from home I used to forget things.

I forgot how to get undressed.

You’re supposed to take off your shirt and vest

after you’ve put on your pyjamas bottoms.

When the headmaster’s wife came round for Inspection

I was fully dressed again, ready for bed.

She had my toothbrush in her hand

and she wanted to know why it was dry.

I was miles away, with my suitcase, leaving school.

Annotations: “Leaving School” by Hugo Williams
Line📌 Annotation (Simple English)🎭 Literary Devices
I was eight when I set out into the worldđŸš¶ He is very young and starting something new—probably going to boarding school.First-person narrative, Imagery
wearing a grey flannel suit.👔 Describes his clothes; the grey suit shows seriousness and discomfort.Imagery, Symbolism
I had my own suitcase.🧳 The suitcase shows he is trying to be independent, like an adult.Symbolism
I thought it was going to be fun.😊 He had happy, innocent expectations, but it contrasts with what happens.Irony, Tone
I wasn’t listening🙉 He was distracted or confused when rules were explained.Enjambment, Tone
when everything was explained to us in the Library,📖 Important instructions were given, but he missed them—hinting at his confusion or fear.Setting, Enjambment
so the first night I didn’t have any sheets.đŸ›ïž He suffered from his mistake; shows how small things can be upsetting.Irony, Pathos
The headmaster’s wife told međŸ‘©â€đŸ« An adult figure tries to help, but in a strange way.Characterization
to think of the timetable as a game of ‘Battleships’.🎼 She uses a game metaphor to make rules seem fun—but it’s still confusing.Metaphor, Allusion
She found me walking around upstairsđŸš¶â€â™‚ïž He was lost or didn’t know what to do.Imagery
wearing the wrong shoes.👞 He doesn’t understand the rules yet. Embarrassing mistake.Symbolism, Imagery
I liked all the waiting we had to do at school,⏳ He enjoys not doing anything; maybe waiting feels safe or calm.Irony, Contrast
but I didn’t like the work.📚 Honest opinion. He struggles with academic tasks.Tone, Contrast
I could only read certain things📖 He has limited reading skills or comfort with familiar stories.Irony
which I’d read before, like the Billy Goat Gruff books,🐐 He prefers familiar, simple stories from earlier childhood.Allusion, Tone
but they didn’t have them there.❌ Lack of comfort in the new place; unfamiliar environment.Contrast, Setting
They had the Beacon Series.📘 This new reading material is harder or uninteresting to him.Symbolism
I said ‘I don’t know,â€™đŸ€· He starts to withdraw and stop engaging.Repetition (later), Tone
then I started saying nothing.đŸ€ Total emotional shutdown begins. Shows fear or confusion.Symbolism, Irony
Every day my name was read out📱 Public embarrassment for small mistakes.Repetition, Irony
because I’d forgotten to hang something up.đŸ§„ Shows how he fails to adjust to the routine.Symbolism, Detail
I was so far away from home I used to forget things.🏠 Homesickness causes confusion and forgetfulness.Repetition, Tone
I forgot how to get undressed.😕 Shows how deeply affected he is—basic routines become confusing.Hyperbole, Symbolism
You’re supposed to take off your shirt and vest👕 Basic instruction; shows how small things become complicated.Direct Address
after you’ve put on your pyjamas bottoms.🛌 Continuing confusion about simple tasks.Irony
When the headmaster’s wife came round for Inspection🔍 Adult checks, adding pressure and fear.Irony, Setting
I was fully dressed again, ready for bed.😳 He misunderstood bedtime routine—emphasizes anxiety and confusion.Irony, Imagery
She had my toothbrush in her handđŸȘ„ A small forgotten detail becomes embarrassing.Symbolism, Imagery
and she wanted to know why it was dry.❓ He didn’t brush his teeth. More signs of his inability to cope.Irony
I was miles away, with my suitcase, leaving school.🧳 Mentally, he is escaping. The poem ends with the same suitcase—symbol of distance, escape, and emotional loss.Repetition, Symbolism, Circular structure
Literary And Poetic Devices: “Leaving School” by Hugo Williams
🔠 Device & Symbol🔍 Example from Poem📖 Explanation (Simple English)
📚 Allusion“like the Billy Goat Gruff books”Refers to a well-known children’s story to show the speaker’s comfort with familiar things.
🔁 Circular Structure“I had my own suitcase” / “with my suitcase, leaving school”Starts and ends with the suitcase—shows emotional and mental journey.
⚖ Contrast“I liked all the waiting
 but I didn’t like the work.”Juxtaposes enjoyment and dislike to highlight discomfort in the new environment.
đŸ—Łïž Direct Address“You’re supposed to take off your shirt
”Speaks to the reader or self, creating a conversational tone.
🔄 Enjambment“I wasn’t listening / when everything was explained
”Line continues without punctuation, mimicking thought flow or confusion.
👩 First-person Narrative“I was eight
”Told from the boy’s own perspective, creating intimacy and honesty.
😂 Humour (Dark/Subtle)“She had my toothbrush in her hand / and she wanted to know why it was dry.”Subtle comedy in an embarrassing moment—softens the sadness.
đŸ–Œïž Imagery“wearing a grey flannel suit” / “walking around upstairs”Vivid descriptions that help readers picture scenes.
🌀 Irony“I thought it was going to be fun.”What he expected is very different from what happened.
đŸŽČ Metaphor“timetable as a game of Battleships.”Compares school routine to a strategy game—shows confusion.
âšȘ MinimalismShort, simple lines like “I said ‘I don’t know,’ then I started saying nothing.”Sparse language to reflect emotional emptiness.
😱 Pathos“I forgot how to get undressed.”Evokes sympathy for the boy’s struggle and emotional distance.
🔁 Repetition“I started saying nothing” / “Every day my name was read out”Repeated patterns show routine and emotional numbness.
📍 Setting“in the Library” / “upstairs” / “at school”Locations are key to showing how unfamiliar and cold the new world is.
✏ Simple Diction“I don’t know,” / “She had my toothbrush
”Plain, child-like words reflect the young speaker’s voice and innocence.
🧠 Stream of ConsciousnessThe poem flows like natural thoughts, with no strict structure.Captures confusion and disorientation as it happens in the boy’s mind.
🎒 Symbolism“suitcase” / “grey flannel suit” / “dry toothbrush”Objects represent emotions—suitcase = escape, suit = seriousness, toothbrush = neglect.
đŸŽŒ ToneGently sad, confused, nostalgic throughoutThe mood helps us feel the child’s sense of loss and alienation.
🙊 Understatement“I thought it was going to be fun.”Plays down serious feelings, making them even more powerful.
đŸ—šïž VoiceChildlike, honest, observant but quietThe speaker’s personality comes through—young, innocent, slightly detached.
Themes: “Leaving School” by Hugo Williams

đŸ”č 1. Childhood Innocence and Naivety đŸ‘¶

“Leaving School” by Hugo Williams opens with a tender portrayal of childhood optimism. The speaker, only eight years old, begins his journey into the adult world of boarding school with excitement and hope. His line, “I thought it was going to be fun,” captures his innocent expectations, while his pride in having “my own suitcase” reflects a child’s eagerness to grow up. However, his naivety becomes apparent as he immediately struggles—missing instructions, lacking sheets on his first night, and wearing the wrong shoes. These small yet significant errors highlight the gentle disillusionment of a child learning that the world outside home is far more confusing and less welcoming than expected.

đŸ”č 2. Alienation and Loneliness đŸŒ«ïž

“Leaving School” by Hugo Williams also powerfully expresses a deep emotional detachment from the world around the speaker. Despite the structured environment of school, he feels alone and mentally adrift. This growing sense of separation is emphasized in the final line, “I was miles away, with my suitcase, leaving school,” where the physical act of being away from home mirrors a mental retreat. His emotional withdrawal is further shown through silence—“then I started saying nothing”—and forgetfulness, such as not brushing his teeth or getting undressed properly. These small daily failures reinforce how isolation can distort basic routines and cloud a child’s mental clarity.

đŸ”č 3. The Loss of Voice and Identity 🧳

“Leaving School” by Hugo Williams presents the gradual erasure of the child’s voice and confidence. Early in the poem, the speaker at least attempts to participate, saying “I don’t know,” but this soon turns into complete silence—“then I started saying nothing.” This shift reflects how the institutional environment stifles expression and enforces conformity. His identity dissolves further as he becomes a nameless rule-breaker, frequently singled out: “Every day my name was read out.” These repeated failures not only cause embarrassment but also a shrinking of the self. The suitcase, once a symbol of excitement, becomes a metaphor for his fading sense of individuality and his desire to leave.

đŸ”č 4. Failure to Adapt to Institutional Life đŸ«

“Leaving School” by Hugo Williams critiques the impersonal, mechanical nature of institutional life, especially as it fails to accommodate emotional needs. The school routine is described as a game of “Battleships,” a metaphor that trivializes the complex emotions of a struggling child. The boy cannot adjust to this cold structure—he forgets the rules, can’t read the new books (“They had the Beacon Series”), and performs everyday tasks incorrectly. These constant misunderstandings highlight that the institution values discipline over understanding. Through these small but telling moments, Williams suggests that rigid systems often fail the very children they are meant to support.

Literary Theories and “Leaving School” by Hugo Williams
📘 Literary Theory & Symbol🔍 Reference from Poem📖 Explanation (Simple English)
🧒 Psychoanalytic Theory“then I started saying nothing” / “I forgot how to get undressed”The speaker shows emotional trauma and regression, common in Freud’s theory of inner child conflict. His silence and confusion reflect repressed anxiety and a subconscious withdrawal from distress.
đŸ›ïž Structuralism“The headmaster’s wife told me / to think of the timetable as a game of ‘Battleships’.”Structuralism focuses on systems of meaning. The school’s routines and rules function like a rigid structure that the child cannot decode, showing the clash between institutional order and personal experience.
đŸ’Œ Marxist Theory“wearing a grey flannel suit” / “They had the Beacon Series”The grey uniform and fixed reading list symbolize class expectations and a lack of personal freedom. Marxist critics might argue the poem reflects how institutions reinforce social control and conformity.
đŸ‘ïž Reader-Response Theory“I thought it was going to be fun.” / “I was miles away
”Reader-response theory emphasizes personal engagement. Readers relate to the boy’s emotions—his hopes, confusion, and detachment—and interpret meaning based on their own childhood or school experiences.
Critical Questions about “Leaving School” by Hugo Williams

❓ 1. How does the poem explore the emotional impact of early separation from home? 🏠

“Leaving School” by Hugo Williams poignantly illustrates the emotional cost of being separated from home at a young age. The boy’s physical distance from his family mirrors his emotional disconnection, most powerfully conveyed in the line “I was miles away, with my suitcase, leaving school.” This metaphor emphasizes his inner detachment, suggesting that even while physically present at school, his mind is elsewhere—clinging to the comfort of home. The recurring use of ordinary objects like the suitcase and the dry toothbrush symbolizes his isolation and confusion. His failure to adapt to routines, like forgetting how to undress properly, reflects the destabilizing effect of being removed from his familiar world too soon. Williams captures this emotional fragility with tender understatement, making the poem a quiet but powerful commentary on childhood displacement.

❓ 2. In what ways does the poem criticize the rigidity of institutional systems? đŸ«

“Leaving School” by Hugo Williams subtly critiques the inflexible, impersonal nature of boarding school life. The institution is shown as a place of rules, schedules, and routines that leave no room for individuality or emotional sensitivity. A clear example is the line: “The headmaster’s wife told me to think of the timetable as a game of ‘Battleships’.” Here, the metaphor reduces the complex experience of school life to a mechanical game, reflecting how children are expected to conform without understanding. The boy’s repeated mistakes—like not hanging up his clothes or brushing his teeth—are met not with empathy, but with public correction, reinforcing a culture of discipline over care. Through this lens, Williams critiques a system that prioritizes order over well-being, showing how children can be emotionally lost in institutions that fail to nurture them.

❓ 3. How does Williams use imagery and symbolism to express internal emotions? 🧳

In “Leaving School” by Hugo Williams, powerful imagery and symbolism are used to express the boy’s inner emotional state. The most striking symbol is the suitcase, which first appears as a proud sign of independence (“I had my own suitcase”) but later becomes a symbol of emotional escape (“I was miles away, with my suitcase”). This shift mirrors the child’s journey from hopeful anticipation to psychological withdrawal. Similarly, the dry toothbrush and being fully dressed for bed represent more than simple forgetfulness—they symbolize the boy’s growing confusion and detachment from everyday life. Visual details like the grey flannel suit emphasize conformity and emotional suppression. These symbolic images paint a vivid picture of a child overwhelmed by change, where small objects reflect large emotional struggles.

❓ 4. What does the poem reveal about childhood silence and self-withdrawal? đŸ€

“Leaving School” by Hugo Williams insightfully reveals how children may cope with fear or discomfort through silence and emotional withdrawal. Early in the poem, the boy tries to engage, saying “I don’t know”, but soon this turns into a complete shutdown: “then I started saying nothing.” This powerful moment marks his surrender to the overwhelming pressures of school life. The silence reflects not just fear, but a defense mechanism—a way to retreat inward when the outside world becomes too confusing or unkind. His forgetfulness, such as not brushing his teeth or dressing properly, becomes another form of this withdrawal, as if his mind is no longer fully present. Williams masterfully conveys how silence is not just absence of speech, but an emotional cry for help—a quiet rebellion against a world he cannot navigate.

Literary Works Similar to “Leaving School” by Hugo Williams
  1. 📘 “Half-Past Two” by U.A. Fanthorpe
    🕒 Similarity: Both poems explore a child’s confusion and disorientation in a structured adult world, using time and routine to reflect emotional alienation.
  2. đŸ« “The Schoolboy” by William Blake
    🌿 Similarity: Like Williams’ poem, Blake’s work expresses a child’s longing for freedom and the emotional toll of institutional education.
  3. 🧾 “Childhood” by Frances Cornford
    🧃 Similarity: This poem shares Williams’ reflective tone and explores the vulnerability and misunderstanding children feel when navigating adult expectations.
  4. 🎒 “My Parents” by Stephen Spender
    đŸšȘ Similarity: Though more focused on protection and violence, this poem also portrays childhood isolation and the distance between adult intentions and a child’s experience.
  5. 💭 “Piano” by D.H. Lawrence
    đŸŽč Similarity: Both poems deal with nostalgia and the painful beauty of childhood memory, using simple imagery to evoke deep emotional states.
Representative Quotations of “Leaving School” by Hugo Williams
🔠 Quotation📍 Context📚 Theoretical Perspective
đŸ‘¶ “I was eight when I set out into the world”Introduces the speaker’s young age—shows emotional vulnerability during early separation.Psychoanalytic Theory
🎈 “I thought it was going to be fun.”Reflects the child’s naïve and hopeful expectation of school life, later contrasted by reality.Reader-Response Theory
👔 “wearing a grey flannel suit”Describes formal clothing—represents loss of comfort and forced conformity.Marxist Theory
🎒 “I had my own suitcase.”A symbol of independence that later transforms into one of isolation and escape.Symbolism / Structuralism
đŸ§© “I wasn’t listening when everything was explained
”Signifies confusion and being overwhelmed in an unfamiliar structure.Structuralism
đŸ›łïž “The timetable as a game of ‘Battleships’.”Adults trivialize structure with a metaphor that only increases confusion for the child.Institutional Critique
đŸ€ “I said ‘I don’t know,’ then I started saying nothing.”Tracks the speaker’s emotional withdrawal and loss of voice.Psychoanalytic / Trauma Theory
📱 “Every day my name was read out”Daily public shaming leads to loss of confidence and reinforces alienation.Discipline & Power (Foucault)
😕 “I forgot how to get undressed.”Emotional trauma leads to breakdown in basic functioning, symbolic of disorientation.Psychoanalytic Theory
đŸŒ«ïž “I was miles away, with my suitcase, leaving school.”Final line shows emotional escape; the speaker has mentally withdrawn from reality.Reader-Response / Trauma Lens
Suggested Readings: “Leaving School” by Hugo Williams
  1. Ford, Mark, editor. “Hugo Williams (1942–).” London: A History in Verse, Harvard University Press, 2012, pp. 655–58. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv22jnsm7.173. Accessed 5 Apr. 2025.
  2. Forde, Steven. “Hugo Grotius on Ethics and War.” The American Political Science Review, vol. 92, no. 3, 1998, pp. 639–48. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2585486. Accessed 5 Apr. 2025.
  3. Burns, Jim. Ambit, no. 139, 1995, pp. 46–47. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/44341529. Accessed 5 Apr. 2025.

“Hegemony, Power, Media: Foucault and Cultural Studies” by Thomas S. McCoy: Summary and Critique

“Hegemony, Power, Media: Foucault and Cultural Studies” by Thomas S. McCoy first appeared in Medien Journal in its 14th year, issue 3 of 1988.

"Hegemony, Power, Media: Foucault and Cultural Studies" by Thomas S. McCoy: Summary and Critique
Introduction: “Hegemony, Power, Media: Foucault and Cultural Studies” by Thomas S. McCoy

“Hegemony, Power, Media: Foucault and Cultural Studies” by Thomas S. McCoy first appeared in Medien Journal in its 14th year, issue 3 of 1988. This article holds a significant position in the intersection of literary theory and cultural studies by reframing the relationship between power, ideology, and discourse through the lens of Michel Foucault’s theoretical insights. McCoy argues that Foucault’s conceptualization of power—understood not as solely repressive but productive, relational, and pervasive—offers a potent supplement to the ideological critiques that dominate the cultural studies tradition exemplified by figures such as Stuart Hall. Unlike Hall, who places ideology at the center of cultural analysis, Foucault resists this framework, focusing instead on how discursive formations shape subjectivity and produce regimes of truth. McCoy traces the implications of Foucault’s theories for understanding mass media, particularly television, as instruments not only of representation but of social normalization and discipline. By invoking Foucault’s concepts of biopower, surveillance, and the rejection of the “repressive hypothesis,” McCoy demonstrates how media subtly regulate behavior and reinforce hegemonic norms under the guise of entertainment and information. The article is essential in literary and media theory for advocating a Foucauldian shift from ideological interpretation to an analysis of discursive power, illuminating how media discourse constitutes social reality and subject positions. As such, McCoy’s work marks a critical moment where Foucault’s post-structuralist thought is methodically integrated into Anglo-American cultural studies, reshaping debates on power, representation, and social control.

Summary of “Hegemony, Power, Media: Foucault and Cultural Studies” by Thomas S. McCoy

🔄 Power as Productive, Not Merely Repressive

Foucault redefines power beyond the classical repressive model, emphasizing its productive and relational nature.

“Power is productive as well as coercive, situational as well as pervasive” (McCoy, 1988, p. 71).
“Foucault examines the workings of power through local, ‘micro-processes’
 producing regimes of truth that pervade society” (p. 71).

đŸ“ș Media as a Vehicle of Power/Knowledge

Mass media—especially television—do not merely reflect society, but actively shape discursive norms and subjectivity.

“Television presents carefully structured, strategically shaded versions of social life
 enculturating viewers to values and norms” (p. 71).
“The media shape public discourse
 in accord with Foucault’s conception of power-knowledge” (p. 71).

🧠 Critique of Ideology: Hall vs. Foucault

While Stuart Hall grounds cultural studies in ideology, Foucault sidesteps ideology in favor of discursive formations and subject production.

“Hall emphasizes the centrality of ideology. Foucault leaves ideology alone” (p. 71).
“Foucault does not primarily concern himself
 with blocs of ideas
 he is concerned with power” (p. 71).

đŸ§© Normalization Over Repression

Foucault replaces the “repressive hypothesis” with a more nuanced concept of normalization as a subtle and pervasive form of control.

“He advances a conception of social discipline as a productive, complex social function” (p. 71).
“Normalization took place, values and morals emerged
 to structure the tactics” (p. 79).

🧍 Power and the Formation of the Subject

Foucault’s theory shifts the focus from the autonomous subject to one produced by power relations and discursive practices.

“The individual
 is the product of a relation of power exercised over bodies, multiplicities, movements, desires, forces” (Foucault 1980d, cited in McCoy, p. 74).
“It is not power, but the subject, which is the general theme of my research” (Foucault 1983: 209; p. 75).

🧬 Biopower and the Materiality of Control

Biopower represents the subtle embedding of power into institutions, bodies, and routines to regulate populations and produce docile subjects.

“Bio-power
 structuring and educating individuals to facilitate the order of things” (p. 78).
“The great fantasy is
 a social body constituted by the universality of wills. [Instead, it is] the materiality of power operating on the very bodies of individuals” (Foucault 1980d: 55; p. 79).

đŸŽ„ Cultivation and Surveillance through Television

Television functions as a disciplinary device, teaching norms through ritual and dramatization, subtly reinforcing hegemony.

“Television extends the legitimacy of the social formation
 through ritual” (Gerbner & Gross, 1976, cited in McCoy, p. 85).
“Heavy viewers
 are more likely
 to call themselves moderate, but hold
 conservative positions” (Gerbner et al., 1982; p. 86).

đŸ§Ÿ Reframing Hegemony Beyond the State

Foucault decentralizes power, moving away from state-centric models and focusing on dispersed networks and capillary processes.

“Foucault attempts to outflank
 the State/civil distinction. He locates social discipline and regulation as practices evoking power-knowledge relations” (p. 74).
“There seems to me no necessity to postulate the State as the locus for condensing various social practices” (p. 74).

🔍 Power-Communication Distinction

Power must be distinguished from communication—it structures what can be said, not merely how it is said.

“It becomes necessary also to distinguish power relations from relationships of communication
 language, signs or symbolic mediums” (Foucault 1983: 217; p. 78).
“Power works its way intentionally but anonymously
 systematic and self-generative” (p. 75).

🔗 Media and ‘Thinkable Thought’

Mass media in liberal democracies structure what is publicly debatable, creating boundaries around acceptable discourse.

“Mass media order society’s discourses by structuring the thresholds of thinkable thought” (p. 88).
“Within public discourse, Chomsky locates a ‘framework for possible thought’” (Chomsky, 1985; p. 82).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Hegemony, Power, Media: Foucault and Cultural Studies” by Thomas S. McCoy
🧠 Theoretical Term📖 Usage in the Article
⚖ HegemonyA central term drawn from Gramsci and developed by Hall to describe the cultural dominance of ruling classes. McCoy explains that hegemony functions not through force but by shaping norms: “Hegemony is the process by which a historical bloc of social forces is constructed and the ascendancy of that bloc secured” (p. 72).
🔁 Power/KnowledgeA foundational Foucauldian concept that power and knowledge are mutually reinforcing. McCoy writes: “Knowing is perhaps power’s corporeality
 Power is made for cutting” (p. 75).
🔬 Micro-processes of PowerFoucault emphasizes small, localized power mechanisms embedded in institutions: “Foucault examines the workings of power through local, ‘micro-processes’
 producing regimes of truth” (p. 71).
đŸ§± DiscourseLanguage, practices, and representations that construct meaning and organize social life. The media operate as a discursive field: “The politics of signification take place largely through the media” (p. 72).
đŸ§© NormalizationThe process through which norms are internalized, producing docile subjects: “Normalization took place
 values and morals emerged to treat or structure the tactics” (p. 79).
🧍 SubjectivityFoucault rejects the autonomous subject, arguing the self is produced by power relations: “The individual
 is the product of a relation of power exercised over bodies
” (Foucault 1980d, p. 74).
📡 SurveillanceDrawn from Foucault’s Panopticon, surveillance is key in social control: “The all-seeing, controlling model of the ‘Panopticon’ formed the bedrock for the social disciplines” (p. 81).
đŸ§Ș Disciplinary SocietyInstitutions (schools, prisons, media) that manage individuals through observation and regulation: “Their aim is not to understand human beings
 but to control them” (p. 81).
🧬 BiopowerRefers to modern strategies of regulating life and populations: “Bio-power works by motivating the management of life through
 disciplines and regulatory controls” (p. 79).
🧠 IdeologyCentral for Hall, contested by Foucault. Hall sees ideology as shaping consciousness, while Foucault focuses on discursive practices instead: “Hall emphasizes the centrality of ideology. Foucault leaves ideology alone” (p. 71).
đŸ§· ArticulationA concept used by Hall to link ideological elements. Foucault doesn’t use the term, but McCoy notes: “He simply does not situate it on ideological terrain” (p. 74).
💭 Repressive HypothesisFoucault critiques the notion that power represses and truth liberates: “Foucault labels the repressive hypothesis
 and replaces it with normalization and discipline” (p. 76).
🌀 PluralismFoucault’s methodological approach, rejecting totalizing theory: “Foucault is a pluralist
 His critical pluralism avoids totality” (p. 73).
đŸ› ïž Technologies of the SelfTechniques through which individuals shape their identities, often influenced by institutional discourses (p. 81).
đŸȘž Regimes of TruthSystems of discursive legitimacy that organize what is accepted as true: “Producing regimes of truth that pervade society” (p. 71).
Contribution of “Hegemony, Power, Media: Foucault and Cultural Studies” by Thomas S. McCoy to Literary Theory/Theories

🎭 Contribution to Cultural Studies and Ideology Critique (Hall, Gramsci)

  • 📌 Bridges Foucault and Hall: McCoy positions Foucault’s ideas as a complement, not an opposition, to cultural studies:
    “While Hall and Foucault by no means trace the same territory
 their approaches are not mutually exclusive” (p. 71).
  • 📚 Extends the concept of hegemony: He elaborates on Gramsci’s and Hall’s concepts by introducing Foucault’s focus on discipline and normalization as additional mechanisms:
    “Ideology organizes social experience
 signification formulates socially advantageous outlooks
 that uphold hegemony” (p. 72).
  • 🧠 Challenges totalizing ideology-based frameworks: McCoy suggests that ideology alone cannot explain contemporary power:
    “Foucault
 simply does not situate it on ideological terrain” (p. 74).

🌀 Contribution to Poststructuralist and Foucauldian Literary Theory

  • 🔍 Centers Power/Knowledge in cultural analysis: McCoy reinforces that knowledge is not neutral, but structured by power:
    “Knowing is perhaps power’s corporeality
 Power is made for cutting” (p. 75).
  • đŸ§© Proposes discourse as a critical method: Instead of ideology, Foucault introduces discursive formations as sites of meaning production:
    “Foucault examines
 discursive formations producing regimes of truth that pervade society” (p. 71).
  • 🧬 Rejects the “Repressive Hypothesis”: He critiques theories that equate power only with repression, expanding literary theory’s approach to subjectivity:
    “He advances a conception of social discipline as a productive, complex social function” (p. 71).

đŸȘž Contribution to Theories of the Subject and Identity

  • 🧍 Decenters the Cartesian subject: Foucault, through McCoy’s lens, redefines the subject as a construct of power relations:
    “The individual, with his identity and characteristics, is the product of a relation of power exercised over bodies
” (Foucault 1980d, p. 74).
  • đŸȘĄ Supports theories of subjectivation: The article integrates “technologies of the self” with cultural critique, applicable to literary depictions of identity:
    “Discursive practices, tactics and strategies influence development
 yet again, no one plans such developments” (p. 77).

đŸ“ș Contribution to Media Theory and Cultural Criticism

  • 🧠 Applies Foucauldian power to mass media: McCoy brings Foucault into media theory, a move not fully taken by Foucault himself:
    “The media affect the formations of discourse
 strategically shaded versions of social life” (p. 71).
  • 📡 Frames media as disciplinary apparatus: The media are shown to be central in forming docile subjects:
    “Television
 aids in the production, as well as the reproduction, of social discipline” (p. 71).
  • đŸ§Ș Aligns with Gerbner’s cultivation analysis: This empirical angle demonstrates how media enculturate values, echoing Foucault’s “docile bodies”:
    “Television cultivates common perspectives
 enculturating viewers to norms” (p. 86).

⚖ Contribution to Political Theory and Literary Representations of the State

  • đŸ§± Deconstructs the State as a totalizing force: McCoy, through Foucault, moves beyond Althusser’s structural model of the state:
    “There seems
 no necessity to postulate the State as the locus for condensing various social practices” (p. 74).
  • đŸ§· Reveals the State’s subtle normalization strategies: The article argues that power in liberal democracies is not always coercive but operates through norms and discourse:
    “Normalization has taken precedence over the coercive legal apparatus” (p. 80).

🧠 Epistemological Impact on Literary and Communication Theory

  • 📖 Redefines truth as constructed: Foucault undermines traditional humanist ideas of literary “truth” or authorial intention:
    “The real problem lies not in the idea that humanity progresses, but in what fashion have events unfolded
” (p. 77).
  • đŸ—‚ïž Connects narrative structures to power networks: The article supports analyses of literature and media that trace power’s distribution rather than fixed meanings:
    “Power relations, not power itself, form the field of analysis” (Foucault 1983, p. 78).
Examples of Critiques Through “Hegemony, Power, Media: Foucault and Cultural Studies” by Thomas S. McCoy
📚 Literary Work🔍 Foucauldian Focus (via McCoy)💬 Quotation from McCoy
📖 1984 by George OrwellSurveillance and normalization as instruments of state power. Thought and language are controlled by institutions to maintain social discipline.“The media shape public discourse
 strategically shaded versions of social life
 aid in the production, as well as the reproduction, of social discipline” (p. 71).
📖 The Handmaid’s Tale by Margaret AtwoodBiopower and the regulation of bodies, gender roles, and reproductive control reflect McCoy’s focus on power/knowledge shaping individual subjectivity.“Bio-power works by motivating the management of life through the polar activities of disciplines and regulatory controls” (p. 79).
📖 Brave New World by Aldous HuxleyDiscipline masked by pleasure and consumer culture. Norms are produced through entertainment and media, not through overt coercion.“Television presents rules of power through programs
 enculturating viewers to values and norms useful to the development of ‘docile’ individuals” (p. 71, 85).
📖 The Trial by Franz KafkaMicro-processes of power and bureaucratic normalization obscure the individual’s understanding of their position within systemic power.“Power does not simply seize upon one’s mind
 the individual is the product of a relation of power exercised over bodies, multiplicities, movements, desires” (p. 74).
Criticism Against “Hegemony, Power, Media: Foucault and Cultural Studies” by Thomas S. McCoy

đŸ”» ⚖ Overreliance on Foucault’s Perspective
McCoy privileges Foucault’s framework at the expense of other valid critical approaches.

“Foucault remained agnostic with regard to formations of class struggle
 the truth of discursive relations is not of primary import” (p. 73).
This detachment can appear dismissive of the material consequences of class and economic inequalities.

đŸ”» đŸ§© Lack of Theoretical Synthesis with Stuart Hall
Although McCoy compares Hall and Foucault, he doesn’t fully resolve their theoretical incompatibilities.

“Hall chides Foucault for his emphasis on difference over unity” (p. 73).
Hall’s holistic emphasis on ideology is never fully reconciled with Foucault’s pluralist model.

đŸ”» 🔍 Ambiguity in Application to Media
McCoy stretches Foucault’s ideas to mass media without Foucault having directly addressed them.

“While Foucault researched
 he did not write about mass communication. Yet his method appears applicable to communication study
” (p. 75).
This interpretive leap can be critiqued as speculative and lacking empirical grounding.

đŸ”» 📉 Limited Engagement with Counter-Arguments
The article doesn’t fully engage critics of Foucault who emphasize collective agency or emancipatory politics.

“He does not accept the analysis of critical theory
 nor especially with those who argue that the truth will free us” (p. 73).
Such dismissal may ignore the liberatory potential within traditional Marxist or postcolonial critiques.

đŸ”» 🧠 Neglect of Subjective Experience
Foucault’s rejection of the Cartesian subject, though discussed, overlooks the importance of lived, affective experience in cultural studies.

“The individual
 is the product of a relation of power exercised over bodies, multiplicities, movements, desires, forces” (p. 74).
This mechanistic model of subject formation might underplay personal agency and resistance.

đŸ”» 📡 Generalization of Media Function
McCoy arguably treats television and media as monolithic instruments of hegemony.

“Television presents rules of power through programs that portray what befalls people who violate those rules
” (p. 85).
This risks ignoring the multiplicity and contestation within media audiences and texts.

Representative Quotations from “Hegemony, Power, Media: Foucault and Cultural Studies” by Thomas S. McCoy with Explanation
🌟 Quotation💡 Explanation
“Power is made for cutting.” (Foucault 1984a)Power is not merely repressive but active and strategic; it divides, organizes, and structures society.
“The individual, with his identity and characteristics, is the product of a relation of power
” (1980d: 74)Foucault dismantles the notion of a fixed self; identity is shaped through power acting upon the body and social practices.
“Television presents carefully structured, strategically shaded versions of social life.” (McCoy, p.71)Mass media construct reality by presenting normative content that supports hegemonic ideologies.
“Power does not work only as repression, but displays multiform productive aspects as well.” (1980f)Power also enables: it creates discourses, norms, knowledge systems, and identities—not just oppression.
“The prison was meant to be an instrument
 comparable with the school, the barracks or the hospital
” (1980c: 40)Institutions share techniques of control—disciplinary power operates through subtle, systematic normalization.
“It is both much more and much less than ideology. It is the production of effective instruments
” (1980e: 102)Power exceeds ideology by acting through techniques, apparatuses, and administrative systems that shape conduct.
“Knowledge is not primarily a product of understanding. Inextricably imbued with power
” (McCoy, p.75)Knowledge is never neutral; it emerges within power relations and reinforces structures of control.
“Public discourse is formed, to a significant extent, by discourse as presented in the media.” (McCoy, p.82)Media do not merely reflect reality—they manufacture the terms and limits of public debate and knowledge.
“Normalization took place, values and morals emerged to treat or structure the tactics.” (McCoy, p.79)Norms arise from practices and discourses, forming strategies of social control that appear natural.
“The media structure the public discourse by creating forms of truth telling
” (Postman 1985, in McCoy)Media shape how society defines truth, legitimacy, and credibility—often through entertainment-based narratives.
Suggested Readings: “Hegemony, Power, Media: Foucault and Cultural Studies” by Thomas S. McCoy
  1. McCoy, Thomas S. “Hegemony, power, media: Foucault and cultural studies.” (1988): 71-90.
  2. Behlman, Lee. “From Ancient to Victorian Cultural Studies: Assessing Foucault.” Victorian Poetry, vol. 41, no. 4, 2003, pp. 559–69. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40007031. Accessed 7 Apr. 2025.
  3. Beverley, John. “Cultural Studies.” Latin American Literary Review, vol. 20, no. 40, 1992, pp. 19–22. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20119618. Accessed 7 Apr. 2025.
  4. Morris, Gay. “Dance Studies/Cultural Studies.” Dance Research Journal, vol. 41, no. 1, 2009, pp. 82–100. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/20527625. Accessed 7 Apr. 2025.