May 2025 - Page 2 of 2 - English Studies

“The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe: A Critical Analysis

“The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe first appeared in 1817 in the Newry Telegraph, and was later included in Remains of the late Rev. Charles Wolfe, published in 1825.

Introduction: “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe

“The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe first appeared in 1817 in the Newry Telegraph, and was later included in Remains of the late Rev. Charles Wolfe, published in 1825. This poignant elegy captures the quiet, unceremonious burial of British General Sir John Moore following his death in the Battle of Corunna during the Peninsular War. The poem’s enduring popularity lies in its solemn dignity, emotional restraint, and vivid imagery, which collectively honour the heroism of an uncelebrated soldier. Wolfe’s use of stark contrasts—such as the absence of drums or ceremonial rites—emphasizes the raw and intimate nature of military mourning: “Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, / As his corse to the rampart we hurried.” The poem’s restrained language and somber tone reflect the quiet nobility of sacrifice, contributing to its reputation as one of the most touching and respected war elegies in English literature.

Text: “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe

Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note,
As his corse to the rampart we hurried;
Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot
O’er the grave where our hero we buried.

We buried him darkly at dead of night,
The sods with our bayonets turning;
By the struggling moonbeam’s misty light
And the lantern dimly burning.

No useless coffin enclosed his breast,
Nor in sheet nor in shroud we wound him,
But he lay like a warrior taking his rest
With his martial cloak around him.

Few and short were the prayers we said,
And we spoke not a word of sorrow;
But we steadfastly gazed on the face that was dead,
And we bitterly thought of the morrow.

We thought, as we hollowed his narrow bed
And smoothed down his lonely pillow,
That the foe and the stranger would tread o’er his head,
And we far away on the billow!

Lightly they’ll talk of the spirit that’s gone
And o’er his cold ashes upbraid him,
But little he’ll reck, if they let him sleep on
In the grave where a Briton has laid him.

But half of our heavy task was done
When the clock struck the hour for retiring;
And we heard the distant and random gun
That the foe was sullenly firing.

Slowly and sadly we laid him down,
From the field of his fame fresh and gory;
We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone,
But left him alone with his glory.

Annotations: “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe

📜 Original Line	💬 Simplified Meaning	🎭 Literary Devices
Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note	There was no music or funeral sounds.	❗ Irony, 🎵 Alliteration
As his corse to the rampart we hurried;	We quickly carried his body to the fort.	🏃 Imagery, ➡️ Enjambment
Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot	No one fired the traditional gun salute.	❗ Irony, 🔫 Symbolism
O’er the grave where our hero we buried.	Over the grave where we buried him.	🦸 Heroic Tone, 🌌 Imagery
We buried him darkly at dead of night,	We buried him secretly during the night.	🌒 Imagery, 🕒 Alliteration
The sods with our bayonets turning;	We dug the grave using bayonets.	🔪 Symbolism, 🏞 Visual Imagery
By the struggling moonbeam’s misty light	Under faint moonlight through mist.	🌙 Personification, 🌫 Imagery
And the lantern dimly burning.	With only a dim lantern for light.	🕯 Mood, 🌌 Imagery
No useless coffin enclosed his breast,	We didn’t use a coffin.	❗ Irony, 🚫 Symbolism
Nor in sheet nor in shroud we wound him,	He wasn’t wrapped in burial cloths.	🔁 Repetition, 🚫 Symbolism
But he lay like a warrior taking his rest	He looked like a resting soldier.	⚔️ Simile, 🛏 Imagery
With his martial cloak around him.	Covered only with his military cloak.	🧥 Symbolism, 🎖 Martial Imagery
Few and short were the prayers we said,	We said only a few short prayers.	🙏 Minimalism, ⏳ Ellipsis
And we spoke not a word of sorrow;	We didn’t speak our sadness aloud.	🤐 Irony, ❄️ Restraint
But we steadfastly gazed on the face that was dead,	We silently looked at his face.	👁 Imagery, 🎯 Focus
And we bitterly thought of the morrow.	We feared what would come next.	💭 Foreshadowing, 🌅 Dread
We thought, as we hollowed his narrow bed	As we dug his grave, we had thoughts.	⚰️ Metaphor (grave as bed), 💭 Reflection
And smoothed down his lonely pillow,	We leveled the earth like a pillow.	🛏 Metaphor, 🤱 Personification
That the foe and the stranger would tread o’er his head,	Enemies might walk over his grave.	👣 Irony, 🎭 Tragic Imagery
And we far away on the billow!	We would be far off at sea.	🌊 Metaphor, 🌍 Juxtaposition
Lightly they’ll talk of the spirit that’s gone	People may speak lightly of the dead.	💬 Irony, 👻 Metaphor
And o’er his cold ashes upbraid him,	They may criticize him after death.	❄️ Imagery, 🧱 Irony
But little he’ll reck, if they let him sleep on	He won’t care, as long as he rests.	😌 Irony, 💤 Personification
In the grave where a Briton has laid him.	In a grave made by a fellow Brit.	🏴 National Pride, 🛠 Symbolism
But half of our heavy task was done	We were only halfway through.	⚖️ Symbolism, 🔁 Parallelism
When the clock struck the hour for retiring;	When it was time to retreat.	🕰 Metaphor (retirement = retreat), 🔔 Sound Imagery
And we heard the distant and random gun	We heard faraway, scattered gunfire.	🔫 Auditory Imagery, 📡 Symbolism
That the foe was sullenly firing.	The enemy fired gloomily.	😠 Personification, 🔫 Alliteration
Slowly and sadly we laid him down,	We gently placed him in the grave.	🐢 Alliteration, 💧 Tone
From the field of his fame fresh and gory;	He had just died in battle.	⚔️ Juxtaposition (fame/gory), 🩸 Imagery
We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone,	We made no tombstone or inscription.	🚫 Irony, 🪨 Symbolism
But left him alone with his glory.	We left him, honored only by his deeds.	🌟 Personification, 🦸 Noble Tone

Literary And Poetic Devices: “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe

📚 Literary Device (with Symbol)	🧾 Example from the Poem	💬 Detailed Explanation
🎵 Alliteration	“Slowly and sadly we laid him down”	The repetition of initial ‘s’ sounds sets a solemn, mournful tone and adds a rhythmic softness to the line, enhancing its emotional impact.
🎶 Assonance	“By the struggling moonbeam’s misty light”	Repetition of the internal “ee” sound in “beam” and “misty” creates musicality and cohesion, emphasizing the quiet, eerie atmosphere.
⚖️ Contrast	“From the field of his fame fresh and gory”	The juxtaposition of “fame” and “gory” contrasts glory and violence, illustrating the brutal cost of war despite noble outcomes.
⏳ Ellipsis / Minimalism	“Few and short were the prayers we said”	The sparing use of words reflects the urgency and emotional suppression of wartime, highlighting the stoic response of soldiers.
➡️ Enjambment	“As his corse to the rampart we hurried; / Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot”	Lines run into each other without pause, mimicking the continuous and urgent movement of the burial under pressure.
🌸 Euphemism	“Like a warrior taking his rest”	“Rest” is a gentle metaphor for death, softening the reality and honoring the fallen as a hero, not a casualty.
🌅 Foreshadowing	“And we bitterly thought of the morrow”	Implies impending danger or sorrow, creating tension and hinting at the emotional toll the next day may bring.
🦸 Heroic Tone	“Where our hero we buried”	Refers to Moore as a “hero,” emphasizing valor and courage, reinforcing the poem’s tone of reverence and respect.
🌌 Imagery	“The lantern dimly burning”	Vivid visual imagery sets a melancholic, dimly-lit scene, immersing the reader in the solemn night-time burial.
❗ Irony	“We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone”	Despite Moore’s heroism, he is denied any physical memorial. This stark lack of tribute is ironic, considering his valor.
🧊🔥 Juxtaposition	“Fame… fresh and gory”	Placing noble fame next to bloody reality exposes the contradictory nature of war—its honor and horror coexist.
🔁 Metaphor	“His narrow bed”	The grave is metaphorically called a “bed,” associating death with peaceful sleep rather than violence or finality.
🕯 Mood	“We buried him darkly at dead of night”	The diction creates a mood of secrecy, danger, and sorrow, capturing the grave emotional and physical setting.
🔔 Onomatopoeia	“The clock struck”	The word “struck” mimics the sound of a clock, anchoring the moment in auditory experience and marking solemn time.
♻️ Parallelism	“We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone”	The repeated sentence structure emphasizes denial of traditional honors and gives the verse rhythmic strength.
🤱 Personification	“Struggling moonbeam’s misty light”	Moonlight is given human qualities (“struggling”), emphasizing the difficulty of seeing and the oppressive darkness.
🔁 Repetition	“Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note”	The repeated structure stresses the absence of ritual, amplifying the starkness and isolation of the burial.
⚔️ Simile	“Like a warrior taking his rest”	Compares the fallen Moore to a sleeping soldier, suggesting dignity and peace in death rather than defeat.
🪖 Symbolism	“With his martial cloak around him”	The military cloak symbolizes Moore’s identity, rank, and dignity. It replaces formal burial attire, showing honor in simplicity.
🎭 Tone	Final line: “But left him alone with his glory.”	The tone is solemn yet proud. Moore’s memory is honored not with a monument, but with poetic dignity and quiet glory.

Themes: “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe

⚔️ 1. Heroism in Death: “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe presents a powerful theme of heroism that transcends ceremonial tribute. Sir John Moore receives no grand military funeral—“Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note”—yet his dignity and valor are preserved through the quiet respect of his comrades. The line “he lay like a warrior taking his rest” portrays him as a noble figure, suggesting peace earned through sacrifice. Even without a monument—“We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone”—he is remembered for his actions, not outward honors. Wolfe conveys that true heroism lies in quiet courage and the legacy one leaves behind through deeds, not decoration.

🌌 2. The Stark Reality of War: In “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe, the poet does not glorify war but instead shows its brutal and practical realities. The burial occurs “darkly at dead of night”, underscoring the danger and urgency surrounding it. The soldiers use bayonets to dig the grave—“The sods with our bayonets turning”—symbolizing how war leaves no time or tools for peace. The phrase “from the field of his fame fresh and gory” juxtaposes honor with gore, showing that recognition often comes at a bloody cost. This theme reminds readers that war is unforgiving and often dehumanizing, even in the most sacred moments like death.

🧭 3. Duty Over Emotion: A dominant theme in “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe is the suppression of personal grief in favor of military duty. The soldiers do not outwardly mourn—“we spoke not a word of sorrow”—despite their clear emotional strain, shown in “we bitterly thought of the morrow.” Their responsibilities outweigh their feelings, and they carry out the burial with precision and silence. The statement “but half of our heavy task was done” indicates that the mission continued despite the emotional burden. Wolfe emphasizes that discipline demands emotional restraint, especially in the face of loss.

🕯 4. The Silence of Honour: “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe emphasizes that honor does not require loud or formal gestures. The fallen soldier is buried in quiet, without ceremony—“Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot”. Instead of a tombstone, he is left with a deeper, eternal tribute: “But left him alone with his glory.” This silent acknowledgment reflects profound respect. Wolfe suggests that honor is most sacred when it is unspoken, allowing the soldier’s bravery to stand as his true memorial, undisturbed by spectacle or embellishment.

Literary Theories and “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe

📚 Literary Theory	🧭 Application to the Poem	🧾 Textual References
🦸 New Historicism	Examines how the poem reflects the values and military ethics of early 19th-century British society. Moore’s unceremonious burial mirrors the realities of war and stoic nationalism during the Napoleonic Wars.	“We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone” – highlights war-time urgency and cultural priorities of honor over monument.
🕯 Formalism	Focuses on the poem’s structure, style, tone, and use of devices like alliteration, simile, and imagery to convey meaning. The restrained tone reflects emotional control through poetic form.	“Slowly and sadly we laid him down”, “Like a warrior taking his rest”, and the repetitive structure in “Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note.”
🛡 Marxist Criticism	Explores class, power, and material conditions. The absence of ceremony could suggest how even heroic individuals are reduced to anonymity in wartime hierarchies—no privilege in death.	“No useless coffin enclosed his breast… With his martial cloak around him” – a burial stripped of wealth or status.
💭 Psychoanalytic Criticism	Investigates the unconscious motives, repression of grief, and the inner conflict of the soldiers. The suppressed mourning suggests emotional trauma and a defense mechanism of stoicism.	“We spoke not a word of sorrow”, “And we bitterly thought of the morrow” – reveal internal struggle despite outward composure.

Critical Questions about “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe

🕯 1. How does Charles Wolfe portray the emotional restraint of soldiers in wartime?

“The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe presents emotional restraint as both a necessity and a cultural expectation among soldiers. Wolfe deliberately avoids any dramatic outbursts of grief; instead, mourning is muted and internalized. This is clear in “Few and short were the prayers we said, / And we spoke not a word of sorrow”, where the omission of typical mourning rituals highlights a sense of duty over emotion. The silence is not indifference, but discipline. Wolfe’s depiction suggests that emotional control was not just practical in wartime, but also a sign of strength. The soldiers’ grief surfaces subtly in lines like “we bitterly thought of the morrow”, hinting at a deeper psychological toll beneath the composed exterior.

⚔️ 2. In what ways does the poem redefine the concept of honor and memorialization?

“The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe challenges the traditional view that honor requires public ceremonies or monuments. Instead, Wolfe redefines honor as something internal, private, and enduring. The line “We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone” implies a deliberate departure from formal memorials, emphasizing that Moore’s glory is not found in stone but in memory and action. “But left him alone with his glory” beautifully encapsulates the idea that true heroism needs no external validation. By stripping away the grand symbols of remembrance, Wolfe elevates the purity of sacrifice and suggests that legacy is not dependent on visibility.

🌌 3. How does the poem reflect the realities of warfare during the Napoleonic era?

“The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe offers a stark and realistic portrayal of battlefield conditions during the Napoleonic Wars. The poem avoids romanticizing war; instead, it details the gritty logistics of a hurried, unceremonious burial—“The sods with our bayonets turning”—indicating that even death does not pause military urgency. The atmosphere is further grounded in the line “We buried him darkly at dead of night”, which reflects not only secrecy and danger but also the emotional darkness of such circumstances. Wolfe captures how war interrupts even sacred traditions, and how soldiers had to carry out duties in grim, chaotic environments—often without the chance to process loss fully.

💭 4. What psychological impact does the burial have on the soldiers?

“The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe subtly explores the inner emotional turmoil experienced by the soldiers who bury their commander. While they show no outward grief—“we spoke not a word of sorrow”—the poem reveals their inner landscape through the line “we bitterly thought of the morrow”, indicating a suppressed dread and grief. This foreshadows the emotional consequences of war, where mourning is often postponed or never expressed. The repetition of somber, slow-paced phrasing, such as “Slowly and sadly we laid him down”, reinforces their burdened mental state. Wolfe allows readers to sense the psychological heaviness borne by soldiers who must bury their leader and immediately return to danger, underscoring the silent trauma of war.

Literary Works Similar to “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe

⚔️ “Dulce et Decorum Est” by Wilfred Owen
↪ Both poems expose the harsh realities of war, but while Wolfe’s tone is solemn and respectful, Owen’s is bitterly ironic about patriotic sacrifice.

🕯 “Anthem for Doomed Youth” by Wilfred Owen
↪ Like Wolfe’s poem, it mourns soldiers who died without ceremony, emphasizing how war denies proper rites and honor to the fallen.
🪖 “The Soldier” by Rupert Brooke
↪ Shares the theme of patriotic death and noble burial, though Brooke’s tone is more idealistic, imagining a peaceful legacy through death in battle.
🌫 “In Flanders Fields” by John McCrae
↪ Similar in tone and military imagery, this poem also reflects on fallen soldiers and the quiet honor of those left behind.

💭 “To Lucasta, Going to the Wars” by Richard Lovelace
↪ Both explore a soldier’s sense of duty over emotion, though Lovelace’s poem is more about choosing war over love, while Wolfe shows emotional repression in war.

Representative Quotations of “The Burial of Sir John Moore after Corunna” by Charles Wolfe

📜 Quotation	🔍 Context	🧠 Theoretical Perspective
“Not a drum was heard, not a funeral note”	Opening line; sets the silent, somber tone of a burial without ceremony.	Formalism – emphasizes structure and sonic effect (alliteration) to reflect emotional restraint.
“We buried him darkly at dead of night”	Describes the covert burial, carried out in secrecy.	New Historicism – reflects the historical realities of wartime urgency and danger.
“The sods with our bayonets turning”	Soldiers dig the grave using weapons, showing lack of proper tools.	Marxist Criticism – shows how even heroes are denied resources or dignity in war’s hierarchy.
“No useless coffin enclosed his breast”	Denial of luxury or tradition in burial; only necessity remains.	Marxist Criticism – critiques how class and resources determine posthumous honor.
“He lay like a warrior taking his rest”	A peaceful simile for death; compares death to sleep.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – reflects emotional coping via idealized imagery of peace.
“Few and short were the prayers we said”	Reveals emotional and ritual minimalism due to wartime constraints.	Formalism – brevity and simplicity mirror emotional suppression.
“And we bitterly thought of the morrow”	First hint at emotional strain and anxiety about the future.	Psychoanalytic Criticism – shows suppressed trauma and anticipatory grief.
“That the foe and the stranger would tread o’er his head”	Fears that Moore’s grave will be forgotten or desecrated.	Postcolonial Criticism – evokes tensions about homeland, memory, and the foreign “other.”
“But little he’ll reck, if they let him sleep on”	Death as peaceful detachment; honors don’t matter to the dead.	Existentialism – suggests detachment from worldly concerns in the face of mortality.
“We left him alone with his glory.”	Final line; emphasizes internal, silent remembrance over public tribute.	New Historicism – memory replaces monument; reflects period values of quiet dignity.

“Easter Wings” by George Herbert: A Critical Analysis

“Easter Wings” by George Herbert first appeared in 1633 as part of his posthumous poetry collection, The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations.

Introduction: “Easter Wings” by George Herbert

“Easter Wings” by George Herbert first appeared in 1633 as part of his posthumous poetry collection, The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations. The poem is renowned not only for its spiritual depth but also for its distinctive shape, which visually resembles wings, embodying the theme of resurrection and spiritual ascent. Herbert meditates on human fallenness and divine redemption, reflecting on the biblical fall of man and the personal experience of suffering, using compact, wing-like stanzas to symbolize the rise from sin and sorrow to grace and glory. The poem’s popularity lies in its innovative concrete form, its lyrical beauty, and its profound theological resonance. Phrases like “O let me rise / As larks, harmoniously” and “if I imp my wing on thine, / Affliction shall advance the flight in me” show how Herbert envisions human suffering as a means to ascend spiritually through divine union. These metaphysical conceits and the interplay of form and meaning have made “Easter Wings” a beloved and enduring piece in English devotional poetry.

Text: “Easter Wings” by George Herbert

Lord, who createdst man in wealth and store,

Though foolishly he lost the same,

Decaying more and more,

Till he became

Most poore:

With thee

O let me rise

As larks, harmoniously,

And sing this day thy victories:

Then shall the fall further the flight in me.

My tender age in sorrow did beginne

And still with sicknesses and shame.

Thou didst so punish sinne,

That I became

Most thinne.

With thee

Let me combine,

And feel thy victorie:

For, if I imp my wing on thine,

Affliction shall advance the flight in me.

Annotations: “Easter Wings” by George Herbert

Line from Poem	Simple Meaning (Annotation)	Literary Devices
Lord, who createdst man in wealth and store,	God created man full of blessings and abundance.	🕊️ Allusion, ✨ Archaic Language, 📜 Biblical Reference
Though foolishly he lost the same,	Man foolishly lost those blessings (like Adam).	🌀 Irony, 📜 Biblical Allusion
Decaying more and more,	He kept falling deeper into sin.	⏬ Repetition, 🎭 Tone Shift
Till he became	Until he reached his lowest point.	⌛ Enjambment, 🎭 Tone Shift
Most poore:	Man became completely spiritually poor.	💔 Contrast, 🪙 Emphasis on Deprivation
With thee	But with God…	🙏 Devotional Tone, ⌛ Transition
O let me rise	Please let me rise again with You.	🕊️ Resurrection Motif, 🙏 Prayer
As larks, harmoniously,	Like birds rising and singing sweetly.	🐦 Simile, 🎶 Sound Imagery
And sing this day thy victories:	I want to celebrate Your victory (Easter).	✝️ Christian Symbolism, 🎶 Musical Tone
Then shall the fall further the flight in me.	My fall will help me rise even higher.	🔁 Paradox, 🔃 Wordplay (fall vs flight)
My tender age in sorrow did beginne	I began life in sadness and grief.	💔 Pathos, 🧒 Personal Tone
And still with sicknesses and shame.	I continued to suffer physically and emotionally.	😷 Alliteration, 💭 Confessional Tone
Thou didst so punish sinne,	You punished sin strongly.	⚖️ Divine Judgment, ✝️ Biblical Tone
That I became	So much so that I became…	⌛ Enjambment, ⚖️ Cause & Effect
Most thinne.	Weak and empty due to suffering.	🍂 Fragility Metaphor, 💭 Emphasis
With thee	But with You, Lord…	🙏 Spiritual Support
Let me combine,	Let me join with You.	🤝 Union Metaphor, 🙏 Supplication
And feel thy victorie:	Let me experience Your triumph over sin.	✝️ Resurrection Symbolism, 💥 Empowerment
For, if I imp my wing on thine,	If I attach my broken wing to Yours…	🐦 Metaphor (imp = graft), 🔧 Restoration Image
Affliction shall advance the flight in me.	My suffering will help me rise even more.	🔁 Paradox, 💫 Redemptive Imagery

📘 Literary Device Key (Symbols):

🕊️ Allusion – Reference to Creation or biblical events
✨ Archaic Language – Use of old spellings like “createdst”

📜 Biblical Reference – Indirect/direct use of Scripture
🌀 Irony – Opposite of expected outcome (e.g., fall leads to flight)
⏬ Repetition – Pattern in structure or meaning

🎭 Tone Shift – Emotional change in the speaker’s journey
💔 Contrast/Pathos – Highlighting emotional or spiritual lows
🪙 Emphasis on Deprivation – Stark poverty imagery

🙏 Devotional Tone – Prayer-like appeal to God
🐦 Simile/Metaphor (Birds) – Symbol of spiritual ascent
🎶 Sound Imagery – Musical or lyrical beauty

✝️ Christian Symbolism – Cross, resurrection, sin, victory
🔁 Paradox – Apparent contradiction with deeper truth
🔃 Wordplay – Clever use of dual meanings (e.g., fall/flight)

🧒 Personal Tone – Reference to early life or self
😷 Alliteration – Repetition of consonant sounds
💭 Confessional Tone – Intimate sharing of guilt or grief

⚖️ Divine Judgment – God’s justice in punishing sin
🍂 Fragility Metaphor – Thinness as spiritual weakness
🤝 Union Metaphor – Joining with divine strength

💥 Empowerment – Gaining strength through faith
🔧 Restoration Image – Repairing or healing metaphor
💫 Redemptive Imagery – Transformation through suffering

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Easter Wings” by George Herbert

📘 Device	🧾 Definition	✍️ Example	💡 Explanation
Alliteration	Repetition of consonant sounds	“sicknesses and shame”	Creates musical rhythm and emphasizes emotional weight
Allusion	Indirect reference to a known work or story	“Lord, who createdst man…”	Refers to biblical Creation story (Genesis)
Anaphora	Repetition of words at the beginning of lines	“With thee… With thee…”	Emphasizes reliance on God and spiritual renewal
Archaic Language	Outdated or old-fashioned language	“createdst,” “didst,” “thinne”	Reflects 17th-century religious tone and poetic tradition
Assonance	Repetition of vowel sounds	“sing this day thy victories”	Enhances the musical quality of the line
Biblical Reference	A direct or symbolic mention of Scripture	“punish sinne”	Alludes to Christian theology of sin and redemption
Concrete Poetry	Poem’s shape reflects its subject	Poem shaped like wings	Visual form echoes the theme of rising and flying
Contrast	Opposition between two ideas	“fall” vs. “flight”	Shows how downfall can lead to spiritual elevation
Enjambment	A sentence that runs over to the next line	“Till he became / Most poore:”	Forces a pause and emphasizes emotional descent
Imagery	Descriptive language appealing to senses	“larks, harmoniously”	Creates vivid image of joyful, upward movement
Irony	A contradiction between expectation and reality	“Then shall the fall further the flight in me”	Suggests loss or suffering leads to spiritual gain
Metaphor	A direct comparison without “like” or “as”	“imp my wing on thine”	Compares the soul to a bird whose wing is grafted to God’s
Paradox	A seemingly contradictory statement that holds truth	“Affliction shall advance the flight in me”	Suffering leads to personal or spiritual uplift
Personification	Giving human traits to non-human things	“sing this day thy victories”	Victories are treated as having celebratory sound
Prayer Tone	Language expressing a plea or devotion to God	“O let me rise”	The speaker is appealing directly to God for help
Repetition	Reusing words or phrases for emphasis	“rise… flight… rise… flight”	Reinforces key spiritual themes of resurrection
Resurrection Imagery	Visual or verbal symbols of rebirth or rising	“let me rise… sing this day thy victories”	Tied to Easter and rising from sin to grace
Shape Poetry	Poem structured to represent a physical object	Whole poem looks like wings	The wing-shape mirrors the theme of flight/resurrection
Simile	A comparison using “like” or “as”	“As larks, harmoniously”	Compares spiritual rise to the flight of joyful birds
Tone Shift	A change in mood or tone within the poem	From despair (“Most poore”) to hope (“let me rise”)	Marks the speaker’s movement from suffering to salvation

Themes: “Easter Wings” by George Herbert

🕊️Redemption through Suffering: Herbert emphasizes that spiritual ascent is only possible through a descent into suffering, echoing the Christian belief in redemption through Christ’s crucifixion. The poem physically narrows in the middle to reflect the speaker’s lowest point, both spiritually and physically—”Most poore / With thee” (lines 7–8). The contraction in form and content symbolizes human fallenness and affliction, but it’s precisely from this “decaying” state that the speaker hopes to “imp” his wings and rise. This visual and verbal tightening mirrors the theological concept that through humility and suffering, one is prepared for divine grace and elevation.

🦅 Spiritual Flight and Aspiration: The recurring imagery of wings throughout the poem signifies the soul’s longing to ascend towards God. The speaker desires to “imp my wing on thine,” a reference to the practice of grafting feathers to restore a bird’s flight, symbolizing divine assistance in spiritual ascent. The wish to “rise / As larks, harmoniously” (lines 15–16) expresses the speaker’s yearning to join in heavenly praise, suggesting that true elevation comes only when the soul is aligned with God’s will. The shape of the poem—resembling wings—visually reinforces this theme of flight, aspiration, and transcendence.

🌱 Fall and Regeneration: Herbert uses the cyclical pattern of fall and rebirth, akin to the Christian narrative of the Fall and Resurrection, to reflect personal and collective spiritual experience. Phrases like “With thee / O let me rise” (lines 7–8) juxtapose descent and ascent, capturing the regenerative power of divine grace. The fall of man is not the end but the beginning of spiritual growth, as seen in Adam’s “foolishnesse” which leads to the speaker’s own “decaying,” ultimately prompting a cry for renewal. The poem’s shape—a dip and rise—also mirrors this regenerative arc, making the physical structure a metaphor for spiritual recovery.

✝️ Union with Christ: Throughout the poem, the speaker expresses a desire to be united with Christ, both in suffering and in resurrection. “In thee / Let me combine” (lines 17–18) is a plea for mystical union, reflecting the Christian ideal of being one with Christ in both death and eternal life. The poem mirrors Christ’s Passion—downward movement in form as crucifixion, upward movement as resurrection—suggesting that the believer’s journey should mirror Christ’s. By asking to “combine” with Christ, the speaker seeks not just salvation, but participation in the divine life, portraying a deeply intimate and transformative faith.

Literary Theories and “Easter Wings” by George Herbert

🧠 Literary Theory	📜 Application to “Easter Wings”	🔍 Poem References & Interpretation
✝️ Theological Criticism	Explores the poem’s deep engagement with Christian doctrines of sin, grace, and redemption.	The poem is essentially a prayer that mirrors the structure of the Christian narrative: Fall and Resurrection. Phrases like “Lord, who createdst man in wealth and store” and “with thee / O let me rise” (lines 1, 7–8) reflect mankind’s fall and hopeful redemption through divine mercy.
🧬 Formalism / New Criticism	Focuses on the poem’s structure, form, and language as central to its meaning.	The shape of the poem (resembling wings) reflects its theme of ascent after descent. The narrowing and widening of lines mirror the speaker’s spiritual fall and rise. Devices such as alliteration (“decaying / O let me rise”) and paradox enhance the poetic unity.
🕊️ Metaphysical Poetics	Places the poem within the 17th-century metaphysical tradition, emphasizing wit, conceit, and spiritual themes.	Herbert uses the extended metaphor of wings to link spiritual aspiration to physical imagery. The idea of “imp[ing] my wing on thine” is a metaphysical conceit that unites human limitation with divine potential.
💭 Reader-Response Criticism	Emphasizes the individual reader’s interpretation and emotional response to the poem’s spiritual journey.	Each reader might resonate differently with the speaker’s fall and hope for spiritual elevation. The poem invites personal reflection, especially with lines like “Let me combine / And feel thy victorie” (lines 17–18), prompting a sense of shared spiritual longing.

Critical Questions about “Easter Wings” by George Herbert

✝️ 1. How does Herbert’s use of shape poetry enhance the spiritual themes of “Easter Wings”?

Herbert’s visual form is not mere ornamentation—it’s integral to the poem’s meaning. The shape of “Easter Wings” resembles a pair of wings when printed sideways, directly echoing the poem’s central metaphor of spiritual flight and resurrection. This concrete poetry technique reinforces the movement from “poore” to “rise,” and from “decaying” to “victorie.” As the lines narrow in the center—”Most poore / With thee”—they visually depict the speaker’s lowest point, symbolizing both personal sin and the collective fall of mankind. The expansion of the lines thereafter parallels the hope for divine elevation, making the poem not just a meditation on redemption but a visual embodiment of it.

🪶 2. What is the significance of the metaphor “imp my wing on thine” in the context of spiritual renewal?

The phrase “imp my wing on thine” (line 6) is a powerful metaphor drawn from falconry, where damaged wings are mended by attaching feathers from another bird. This conceit suggests that the speaker’s own spiritual ascent is impossible without divine intervention—he must be supported by Christ’s strength. The metaphor portrays human dependence on God not as weakness, but as the means of transformation and flight. By asking to “imp” his broken soul to God’s perfection, the speaker acknowledges the insufficiency of self-reliance and the necessity of grace for renewal. It transforms divine aid into something tactile, tender, and necessary for spiritual progress.

🌱 3. In what ways does “Easter Wings” reflect the Christian doctrine of the Fall and Resurrection?

The poem mirrors the theological arc of humanity’s fall through sin and its redemption through Christ. It opens with “Lord, who createdst man in wealth and store,” indicating an original state of divine blessing. But then, due to “the foolishnesse of man,” humanity “became / Most poore.” This descent echoes the Biblical Fall, where Adam’s disobedience leads to suffering and separation from God. However, Herbert doesn’t end in despair; rather, he seeks resurrection: “With thee / O let me rise.” The poem’s symmetry reflects this theological rhythm—falling into sin and being raised in Christ’s victory, as in “Let me combine / And feel thy victorie” (lines 17–18), embodying Easter’s promise of renewal.

🎶 4. How does Herbert use sound and musicality to enhance the emotional and spiritual resonance of the poem?

Herbert’s poem is rich with rhythmic variation and sonic patterns that heighten its emotional depth. His use of iambic meter varies with the line length, compressing and expanding the rhythm in a way that mirrors the poem’s visual and spiritual journey. The phrase “As larks, harmoniously” (line 16) is not only a metaphor for joyful spiritual ascent but also invokes a musical image. The lark’s song is symbolic of Easter morning and divine praise. Throughout the poem, the balance of alliteration, consonance, and varying meter mirrors both the solemnity of suffering and the lift of redemption, creating a hymn-like cadence that deepens the meditative experience for the reader.

Literary Works Similar to “Easter Wings” by George Herbert

✝️ “The Collar” by George Herbert
Similarity: Portrays the turbulence of spiritual rebellion and eventual submission to God, echoing Easter Wings‘ journey from despair to divine connection.
💀 “Holy Sonnet X (Death, be not proud)” by John Donne
Similarity: Confronts mortality with defiant faith in eternal life, paralleling Herbert’s theme of resurrection and spiritual victory.
🌌 “The World” by Henry Vaughan
Similarity: Reflects on the soul’s detachment from worldly vanity and its longing for divine truth, aligning with Herbert’s vision of spiritual ascent.

❤️ “Love (III)” by George Herbert
Similarity: A tender dialogue between the soul and divine Love, mirroring the humility, grace, and personal devotion found in Easter Wings.

Representative Quotations of “Easter Wings” by George Herbert

📜 Quotation with Symbol	🔍 Context	🧠 Theoretical Perspective
🌍 “Lord, who createdst man in wealth and store”	Begins with man’s original perfection in Eden, setting the stage for the fall.	Theological Criticism – Highlights divine creation and human prosperity before sin.
🍂 “Decaying more and more, / Till he became / Most poore”	Illustrates humanity’s fall from grace, growing more spiritually impoverished.	Theological Criticism – Echoes the doctrine of Original Sin.
🕊️ “With thee / O let me rise”	A hopeful plea to rise with Christ after the fall.	Reader-Response – Invites the reader to share in the emotional yearning for salvation.
⏳ “And fell even at noon”	A metaphor for a sharp spiritual fall at the height of one’s life or success.	Formalism – The sudden descent emphasizes the theme of unexpected decline.
🪞 “That I became / Most thinne”	The speaker reflects on his own spiritual and physical emptiness.	Metaphysical Poetics – The poem’s form literally “thins” here, echoing content.
✝️ “Let me combine / And feel thy victorie”	Expresses the desire to join in Christ’s resurrection and triumph.	Theological Criticism – Suggests a mystical union with the risen Christ.
🌱 “Affliction shall advance the flight in me”	Ends with the paradox that suffering enables spiritual ascent.	Theological / Formalism – Suggests growth and elevation through suffering.
🎶 “As larks, harmoniously”	A lyrical comparison to the joyful ascent of birdsong.	Metaphysical / Musical Imagery – Expresses spiritual elevation through worship.
🪶 “Imp my wing on thine”	A request to graft one’s broken spirit onto divine strength.	Metaphysical Conceit – A vivid metaphor from falconry for divine empowerment.
🔄 “That if I imp my wing on thine, / Affliction shall advance the flight in me”	Concludes with redemptive paradox: affliction as a path to divine flight.	New Criticism – Reveals unity in paradox, form, and spiritual message.

“Metaphor As Hermeneutic” by Richard D. Johnson Sheehan: Summary and Critique

“Metaphor As Hermeneutic” by Richard D. Johnson Sheehan first appeared in 1999 in Rhetoric Society Quarterly (Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 47–64).

Introduction: “Metaphor As Hermeneutic” by Richard D. Johnson Sheehan

“Metaphor As Hermeneutic” by Richard D. Johnson Sheehan first appeared in 1999 in Rhetoric Society Quarterly (Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 47–64). In this influential essay, Sheehan challenges traditional semantic and cognitive theories of metaphor by proposing a rhetorical-hermeneutic perspective that focuses on how metaphors are used rather than how they work. Drawing from thinkers like Donald Davidson, Hans-Georg Gadamer, and I.A. Richards, Sheehan argues that metaphors serve not primarily to transfer meaning but to invite the invention of narratives through interpretation. Instead of treating metaphor as a deviation from literal language or as a cognitive interaction between schemas, Sheehan situates metaphor within the interpreter’s active, context-bound process of understanding, emphasizing stages of identification, invention, and narration. His work is significant in literary theory because it shifts attention from the internal mechanics of language to the social, interpretive acts that shape meaning, aligning metaphorical understanding closely with hermeneutic traditions. This reconceptualization not only redefines metaphor’s role in rhetoric and literature but also aligns with broader movements toward rhetorical and pragmatic views of language in late twentieth-century literary studies.

Summary of “Metaphor As Hermeneutic” by Richard D. Johnson Sheehan

🎨 Metaphor as a Tool for Inventing Narratives

“Metaphors serve as a basis for inventing narratives” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 47).
Rather than viewing metaphors as mysterious cognitive mechanisms, Sheehan emphasizes that metaphors help create new ways of understanding and interpreting reality through narrative construction.

🌟 The Shift from How Metaphors Work to How They Are Used

“The purpose of this essay, therefore, is to discuss how we use metaphors” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 48).
Sheehan critiques the traditional semantic and cognitive approaches, insisting that metaphor theory should focus on use (rhetorical-pragmatic) instead of mechanism (semantic-linguistic).

🔥 Meaning Lies with the Interpreter, Not the Text

“The meaning of Abbey’s metaphor is dependent completely on the interpreter’s prior experiences and beliefs” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 48).
Sheehan argues that metaphoric meaning is generated not by the author or phrase itself but by the reader’s own interpretive framework and experiential background.

🎯 Metaphor as a Device for Perspective Shifting

“A metaphor is a rhetorical device for altering one’s perspective” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 49).
Following thinkers like Burke and Rorty, Sheehan underlines how metaphors encourage audiences to reconceptualize phenomena from fresh angles, effectively changing how we experience the world.

🧩 Critique of Orthodox Theories (Interaction and Substitution Models)

“The debate over metaphor has been almost exclusively over ‘how metaphors work'” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 52).
Sheehan critiques both neo-Aristotelian and interactionist models, claiming they erroneously assume metaphors work differently than literal expressions.

🛠️ Davidson and Searle: Metaphor Belongs to Use, Not Meaning

“Metaphor belongs exclusively to the domain of use” (Sheehan quoting Davidson, 1999, p. 53).
Drawing on Davidson and Searle, Sheehan highlights that metaphors do not possess hidden meanings but function by creatively prompting new interpretations within normal linguistic usage.

🔄 Hermeneutic Circle in Interpreting Metaphors

“Understanding is always an invention of the interpreter” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 56).
Using Gadamer and Heidegger’s hermeneutic circle, Sheehan argues that interpreting a metaphor involves a dynamic, ongoing negotiation between the interpreter’s expectations and the evolving context.

🧠 Identification, Invention, and Narration: The Process of Metaphor Interpretation

“All three of these stages—identification, invention, and narration—are part of a broader hermeneutic act” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 57).
Sheehan introduces a three-stage model of metaphor use: first, recognizing the metaphor; second, inventing its meaning; and third, integrating it into a broader narrative.

📚 Metaphors as Foundations for Scientific and Cultural Narratives

“The whole works of scientific research… are hardly more than the patient repetition… of a fertile metaphor” (Burke quoted in Sheehan, 1999, p. 60).
He shows how metaphors like “nature is a machine” have historically shaped major scientific paradigms and cultural understandings.

🌀 Conclusion: Metaphors as Pragmatic Instruments

“A metaphor is a tool that can be used to guide or change perspective” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 64).
Ultimately, metaphors are valuable not for their semantic properties but for their rhetorical power to transform perception and meaning-making.

Theoretical Terms/Concepts in “Metaphor As Hermeneutic” by Richard D. Johnson Sheehan

🌟 Term/Concept	📚 Explanation	🖋️ Usage in the Article
🎨 Metaphor as Hermeneutic	Metaphor is a tool for interpretation, not a linguistic puzzle to solve.	Sheehan shifts focus from how metaphors work to how they are used to construct meaning through narratives (Sheehan, 1999, p. 47).
🔄 Hermeneutic Circle	Interpretation involves a continuous dialogue between the part and the whole in understanding.	Sheehan applies Gadamer’s hermeneutic circle to show how interpreters mediate between prior expectations, expression, and context (p. 56).
🛠️ Domain of Use	Metaphors function within the pragmatic use of language, not by special cognitive effects.	Following Davidson, Sheehan argues metaphors “belong exclusively to the domain of use” rather than containing hidden meanings (p. 53).
🧠 Interpretive Invention	Meaning is invented by interpreters based on prior experience and narrative context.	He shows that readers invent meanings for metaphors depending on their background, not extracting pre-encoded ideas (p. 48, p. 58).
🎯 Perspective Shift	Metaphors reshape how we perceive and talk about reality by inviting different viewpoints.	Sheehan cites Burke and Rorty to argue that metaphors alter perspectives rather than merely decorate speech (p. 49).
🧩 Identification (Stage 1)	Recognizing a statement as metaphorical when it contrasts with prior knowledge/context.	In the John example, the hearer identifies “John is a priest” as metaphorical because it contradicts what she knows (p. 57–58).
🛤️ Invention (Stage 2)	Creating a coherent meaning by aligning the metaphor with the surrounding narrative.	After identification, interpreters invent a meaning to fit the metaphor within their narrative framework (p. 58–59).
📖 Narration (Stage 3)	Expanding and integrating the metaphor into broader narratives and cultural understandings.	Metaphors are used to build extended narratives, like “nature as machine” shaping scientific paradigms (p. 60–61).
🧬 Meta-narratives	Deep-seated cultural stories constructed through long-term metaphorical invention.	Sheehan explains how dormant metaphors like “time is money” have become part of Western cultural meta-narratives (p. 62–63).
🔥 Critique of Semanticism	Criticism of the idea that metaphors function differently from literal language due to semantics.	Sheehan critiques traditional metaphor theories for their faith in semantic or cognitive causality, calling it unnecessary and misleading (p. 52–54).

Contribution of “Metaphor As Hermeneutic” by Richard D. Johnson Sheehan to Literary Theory/Theories

📜 1. Contribution to Hermeneutics

Contribution: Sheehan expands hermeneutic theory by positioning metaphor interpretation as an inventive act rather than a semantic decoding process.
Reference: “The interpreter’s understanding of a metaphor is dependent completely on his or her inventions of meaning within a contextual narrative” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 55).

Impact: Connects metaphor theory with Gadamerian hermeneutics, emphasizing interpretation as situated, evolving, and contextual rather than uncovering objective meaning.

🔄 2. Contribution to Rhetorical Theory

Contribution: Reorients metaphor studies within rhetoric, focusing on how metaphors are used persuasively rather than on internal cognitive mechanisms.

Reference: “If rhetoric is primarily about how words are used to achieve particular ends, then a rhetorical view of metaphor should concern how people use them, not how they work” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 48).
Impact: Revives classical rhetorical concerns (use, persuasion, audience impact) over formalist concerns (structure, internal relations).

🔍 3. Contribution to Deconstruction/Poststructuralism

Contribution: Challenges the literal/figurative binary by arguing that metaphors are not ontologically different from literal statements.
Reference: “Metaphors gain meaning much like other parts of natural language” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 54).
Impact: Aligns with Derrida’s poststructuralist critique that meaning is always deferred and that distinctions between “literal” and “figurative” are unstable.

📖 4. Contribution to Narrative Theory

Contribution: Frames metaphors as foundational for inventing narratives that structure human experience.
Reference: “Metaphors serve as a basis for inventing narratives” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 47).

Impact: Supports narratological approaches by showing how metaphorical language generates evolving story-worlds and frameworks of meaning.

🧠 5. Contribution to Cognitive Linguistics (Critical)

Contribution: Critiques and complicates cognitive theories (e.g., Lakoff and Johnson) by emphasizing the situated, contextual invention over universal cognitive mechanisms.

Reference: “Metaphor runs the same linguistic tracks that the plainest sentences do” (Sheehan quoting Davidson, 1999, p. 64).
Impact: Shifts attention from hardwired cognition to interpretive negotiation, aligning metaphor use with rhetorical and social practices rather than universal cognitive operations.

🎯 6. Contribution to Phenomenology

Contribution: Emphasizes the lived experience of interpreting metaphors, grounded in personal, situated horizons of meaning.
Reference: “The interpreter negotiates among her prejudices, the words of the text/speaker, and the overall contextual narrative” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 57).
Impact: Resonates with phenomenological hermeneutics (e.g., Heidegger and Gadamer) where meaning arises from existential engagement with the text.

🖋️ 7. Contribution to Interpretation Theory

Contribution: Redefines interpretation as a creative act rather than a discovery of pre-existing meanings.
Reference: “Meaning is wholly dependent on its use to invent a meaning that coheres with the interpreter’s contextual narrative” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 60).

Impact: Supports interpretive pluralism — multiple valid readings depending on varied contexts and backgrounds.

🔥 8. Contribution to Pragmatics

Contribution: Locates metaphor meaning in social-pragmatic usage rather than internal textual properties.

Reference: “Metaphor is something brought off by the imaginative employment of words and sentences” (Sheehan quoting Davidson, 1999, p. 53).
Impact: Backs pragmatic literary theories emphasizing meaning as an effect of communicative action in specific situations.

🌍 9. Contribution to Cultural Studies

Contribution: Shows how metaphors evolve into cultural meta-narratives that shape collective experience and ideology.
Reference: “Dead metaphors like ‘time is money’ have become cultural themes woven into Western narratives” (Sheehan, 1999, p. 62).
Impact: Demonstrates that culture itself is constituted by sedimented metaphors, aligning metaphor theory with cultural semiotics.

Examples of Critiques Through “Metaphor As Hermeneutic” by Richard D. Johnson Sheehan

🎨	📚 Work	🖋️ Critique through Metaphor as Hermeneutic	🎯 Explanation
🌵	“The Road” by Cormac McCarthy	The barren, ash-covered landscape as a “dead sea” invites inventing a narrative of isolation and survival.	Readers’ interpretations rely on personal concepts of desolation and hope, crafting meaning from the novel’s metaphoric world. (Sheehan, p. 55–57)
🌊	“Moby-Dick” by Herman Melville	The White Whale metaphorically functions as a projection of obsession and unknowable truth.	Rather than “decoding” Moby-Dick, readers invent narratives based on prior beliefs about fate, struggle, and nature. (Sheehan, p. 48, 60)
🔥	“The Waste Land” by T.S. Eliot	Eliot’s image of the barren wasteland invites endless invention of modern alienation and spiritual drought.	Meaning emerges hermeneutically through the reader’s negotiation of fragmented imagery, not through “hidden” semantic content. (Sheehan, p. 55–58)
🕊️	“Beloved” by Toni Morrison	The character Beloved as a living ghost metaphor urges reinterpretations of memory, trauma, and identity.	Metaphor serves to invent shifting narratives about slavery’s haunting legacy, shaped by each reader’s cultural and historical lens. (Sheehan, p. 59–61)

Criticism Against “Metaphor As Hermeneutic” by Richard D. Johnson Sheehan

❗ 1. Overemphasis on Reader Subjectivity

Critics argue that Sheehan’s insistence on the interpreter’s invention of meaning risks radical relativism, where any interpretation could be justified without constraint.
Concern: Without any anchor, interpretations could become untethered from textual evidence or authorial intent.

🧩 2. Neglect of Cognitive Dimensions of Metaphor

Cognitive linguists (like Lakoff and Johnson) might object that Sheehan underestimates the deep cognitive structures that make metaphors meaningful across cultures.
Concern: Metaphor is not purely invented situationally; it also taps into shared conceptual systems.

📚 3. Undermining the Literary Craft of Metaphor

By treating metaphors as mere tools for narrative invention, Sheehan risks flattening the artistry and specific craft of how metaphors are constructed by writers.
Concern: Authors’ deliberate choices and stylistic innovations may be overlooked in favor of focusing only on reader response.

🧠 4. Insufficient Engagement with Historical Contexts

Critics from New Historicism or Cultural Studies could argue that Sheehan’s model ignores the socio-political contexts in which metaphors are created and interpreted.
Concern: Meaning isn’t invented solely by individuals but is deeply shaped by power structures, ideologies, and history.

🔍 5. Reduction of Metaphor’s Epistemological Power

Philosophical critics could argue that Sheehan downplays metaphors’ ability to reveal new aspects of reality, reducing them to narrative tricks.
Concern: Metaphor isn’t just about “inventing” stories; it can also disclose truths not otherwise articulable in literal language.

⚡ 6. Ambiguity in Distinguishing ‘Literal’ and ‘Metaphorical’ Use

Although Sheehan critiques the literal/figurative divide, he doesn’t provide a clear methodology for distinguishing when a metaphor is being used metaphorically or literally.
Concern: Readers may be left without guidance on how to responsibly identify and interpret metaphors.

🚪 7. Closure Against Scientific and Linguistic Advances

By largely rejecting semantic/cognitive models, Sheehan could be seen as closing the door to useful insights from neuroscience, psychology, and computational linguistics about metaphor.
Concern: A hermeneutic-only view might isolate literary theory from interdisciplinary developments.

Representative Quotations from “Metaphor As Hermeneutic” by Richard D. Johnson Sheehan with Explanation

🌟 Quotation	🧠 Explanation
🏔️ “The meaning of Abbey’s metaphor is dependent completely on the interpreter’s prior experiences and beliefs.” (p. 48)	Meaning isn’t inherent in the metaphor itself; it is created by readers’ personal histories and worldviews.
🔄 “Metaphors should be defined by how they are used, not how they work.” (p. 48)	Sheehan shifts the focus from cognitive mechanics to practical application—emphasizing use over mechanism.
🎻 “Just as studying the physics of a violin rarely makes someone a better musician, knowing how metaphors work rarely makes one a better writer or speaker.” (p. 48)	Knowing technical aspects of metaphor doesn’t necessarily help in using them effectively for communication.
🔥 “Our pretense to do without metaphor is never more than a bluff waiting to be called.” (citing Richards, p. 50)	Metaphors are fundamental to all human language and thought—inescapable and ever-present.
🕰️ “Western culture layers metaphors like ‘time is a stream’ and ‘time is money’ that cannot be merged into a single narrative.” (p. 49)	Different metaphors create competing, irreconcilable worldviews rather than unifying perspectives.
🧩 “Both sides of metaphor theory assume metaphors ’cause’ something in the mind of a passive reader.” (p. 52)	Sheehan criticizes the assumption that metaphors are automatic triggers in cognition instead of collaborative acts.
🗣️ “All communication by speech assumes the interplay of inventive construction and inventive construal.” (citing Davidson, p. 53)	Meaning-making is active and dynamic, not a passive reception—even outside metaphors.
🎭 “Metaphors are used to urge us toward further and further invention of meaning.” (p. 54)	Rather than “delivering” meaning, metaphors inspire continuous creative interpretation.
🔄 “An interpreter’s understanding of a metaphor is dependent completely on her inventions of meaning within a contextual narrative.” (p. 55)	Interpretation is context-sensitive and dynamic, not universal or fixed.
🛠️ “A metaphor is a tool that can be used to guide or change perspective.” (p. 64)	Metaphors function as tools for transformation, not static ornaments or decorations in language.

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Month: May 2025