Introduction: Longinus As a Theorist
Longinus as a theorist was a renowned Greek philosopher, rhetorician, and literary critic whose real name was Cassius Longinus. Born around 213 AD in either Emesa (modern Homs, Syria) or Athens, and executed in 273 AD at Emesa, he was one of the most distinguished figures of late antiquity and an adherent of Platonism. A pupil of Ammonius Saccas and Origen the Pagan, Longinus remained committed to the traditional Platonic philosophy rather than embracing emerging Neoplatonism, which was being developed by Plotinus. His intellectual range earned him the reputation of being a “living library” and a “walking museum,” as described by Eunapius. Among his significant works were Homeric Questions, Homeric Problems and Solutions, Whether Homer is a Philosopher, and On the Chief End, alongside extensive commentaries on Plato’s dialogues, reflecting his analytical and critical engagement with classical thought. Although the rhetorical treatise On the Sublime was once attributed to him, it is now believed to have been written by an anonymous author in the 1st century. Longinus also served as a philosophical adviser to Queen Zenobia of Palmyra, whose revolt against Rome led to his execution by Emperor Aurelian. His philosophical stance—placing Platonic Ideas outside the divine Nous—and his critical acumen secured his status as one of antiquity’s foremost literary theorists and critics, bridging the realms of literature and philosophy through reasoned eloquence and intellectual clarity.
Summary of On the Sublime by Longinus
Definition of the Sublime
- Lofty Excellence in Expression: Longinus defines the sublime as an elevation of language – “an eminence and excellence of language” – which by itself has secured the greatest authors their immortal fame. It is a quality of writing that rises above the ordinary, giving expression to grand conceptions in a noble style.
- Aim and Unique Power: The aim of sublime writing is to transport the audience out of their normal state. It carries readers or listeners “out of themselves” into an experience of awe. Sublime passages do more than persuade or please; they overwhelm with emotive power. Unlike a gradual argument, the sublime strikes suddenly “by a single powerful and well-timed stroke,” leaving a profound impact in an instant.
Effects of the Sublime on the Audience
- Transport and Ecstasy: Truly sublime passages produce an immediate sensation of wonder and ecstasy in the audience rather than mere rational persuasion. Longinus argues that the marvelous impact of sublimity, which astonishes and uplifts, is stronger than any appeal to reason – it forces itself upon the listener with irresistible force.
- “Lightning Bolt” Impact: The effect of the sublime is compared to a lightning flash that illuminates everything at once. At the perfect moment, a sublime idea bursts forth “like a lightning flash” and reveals the speaker’s power in a single blaze. This flash of greatness strikes the audience’s imagination immediately, eclipsing any slower, methodical effect.
- Lasting Impression and Universality: Sublime works leave a lasting imprint on the mind. A true sublime passage does not dull with repetition – if an idea loses its force on repeated readings, it is not genuinely sublime. Longinus asserts that the unanimous verdict of all people through time is the ultimate test of sublimity: those works universally admired across ages prove their sublime quality. In short, real sublimity stands the test of time and strikes all audiences, in all eras, with the same awe.
Sources of Sublimity
Longinus identifies five sources (or springs) of sublime writing, assuming a basic competence in language as a given:
- Grandeur of Thought (Great Conceptions): The first and most essential source of sublimity is the ability to conceive great, elevated thoughts. Sublime expression must stem from a mind habitually dwelling on lofty ideals. Longinus famously writes that “sublimity is the echo of a great soul”, implying that only those of high intellect and noble character can produce truly sublime ideas. For example, Homer’s portrayal of Ajax’s dignified silence among the dead (in the Odyssey) is cited as a sublime moment born from the hero’s imposing greatness of spirit. Similarly, the Biblical line “Let there be light” in Genesis (which Longinus notably references) exemplifies how a simple but grand concept – the instantaneous creation of light – achieves sublimity through its sheer magnificence.
- Vehement Emotion (Passion): Genuine passion or intense emotion is a natural source of the sublime, capable of elevating language to great heights. While not every passionate outburst is sublime, strong feeling when appropriately expressed gives writing a burning energy and sincerity. Longinus regards emotion as a powerful ally to sublimity – it can lend wings to words. For instance, he lauds the poet Sappho’s famous ode describing her feverish love: by selecting the most intense symptoms of love (speechlessness, fire, trembling, paleness, etc.) and fusing them into one image, Sappho transmits an almost overwhelming passion that exemplifies the sublime.
- Effective Use of Figures (Figure of Speech and Thought): The artful use of rhetorical figures is a crafted (learned) source of sublimity. Figures such as bold metaphors, apostrophe (direct address), rhetorical question, asyndeton (omitting conjunctions for impact), and hyperbaton (inverted word order) can all heighten the emotional weight of a passage. Longinus emphasizes that such devices must be used in the service of genuine feeling – when employed naturally at moments of high emotion, they impart force and “help Sublimity”, rather than appearing as empty tricks. He offers the example of Demosthenes swearing an oath by the heroes of Marathon in his oration: this sudden adjuration is sublime because the context of passionate patriotism makes the figure feel authentic, whereas the same figure in a trivial context would seem contrived.
- Noble Diction (Choice of Words and Metaphor): A elevated style of language – reflected in word choice, phrasing, and the use of tropes – is the fourth source of the sublime. This includes the use of striking metaphors, imagery, and diction that give grandeur and emotional color to the work. Words should be appropriate and dignified, capable of enlarging the concept in the listener’s mind. Longinus notes, for example, that a well-timed metaphor or a vivid epithet can lend a noble sheen to a description. (He does warn that while rich language is potent, one must avoid overloading the work with excessive or mixed metaphors – a fault even Plato occasionally shows by overusing metaphor. The greatest writers use bold language, but with discernment.)
- Majestic Structure (Dignified Composition): The fifth source of sublimity is the arrangement of words – what Longinus calls composition – meaning a grand and harmonious structure of clauses and sentences. The rhythm and flow of language (akin to musical composition) can profoundly enhance the force of expression. A well-structured sentence, like an architectural whole, is greater than the sum of its parts and can deliver an accumulated impact on the audience. Longinus compares effective word arrangement to music in its emotional influence (though speech is not as enslaving as melody). Even authors of moderate talent may achieve moments of sublimity through skillful rhythm and cadence in their prose. He points to Demosthenes again as a master of powerful arrangement – in one famous passage, the rise and fall of clauses are orchestrated so perfectly that the persuasive and stirring effect on the audience is greatly magnified by the form alone.
Faults Opposed to Sublimity (False Sublime)
After listing the sources of true sublimity, Longinus warns against several pitfalls or defects that masquerade as sublime but are in fact failures. These vices, often born of misguided ambition or affectation, include:
- Turgidity (Overblown Language): A swollen, bombastic style that overshoots true grandeur. Turgidity or tumidity is the most common false sublime, marked by over-inflated diction and overstatement. Longinus notes that in striving to avoid being “weak and dry,” some writers know no restraint and inflate their language beyond sense. Such hollow grandiosity is like a bloated body – “all swellings which are hollow and unreal are bad”, often collapsing into ridiculousness. (He cites authors like Cleitarchus who “puff on puny pipes” with high-sounding phrases that lack substance.)
- Puerility (Childish Frigidity): A pedantic triviality and over-refinement that is the direct opposite of greatness. Puerility comes from an obsession with minute “pretty” details or novel turns of phrase at the expense of substance. Longinus describes puerile writing as “low and small-spirited, and essentially a most ignoble fault”. The writer loses the forest for the trees: in reaching for clever, affected expressions, they end up in “nonsense and affectation”, producing a cold, off-putting effect. This fault, born of an ear for the artificial rather than the grand, leaves the work trivial and unsatisfying.
- Parenthyrsus (Misplaced Emotion): An untimely or excessive display of emotion. This vice occurs when a writer or speaker indulges in passionate expression where it’s not appropriate or to a disproportionate degree. Longinus calls it “passion out of place” – effectively a drunken rapture that the audience does not share. Such unprovoked emotional outbursts (unconnected to the narrative or argument) appear absurd: the speaker is in an “ecstasy” but the hearers remain unmoved. Parenthyrsus violates the principle that passion must be fitting; true sublimity may be passionate, but always in harmony with context and purpose.
- Frigidity (Affected Cleverness): A cold, labored cleverness that sacrifices depth for novelty. Frigidity arises from an author’s compulsive pursuit of new and startling expressions or facts, regardless of their relevance or truth. The result is writing that feels forced, shallow, or overly florid – it leaves the audience unmoved (hence “frigid”). Longinus gives the example of the historian Timaeus, who despite his learning, spoils his work by peppering it with silly comparisons and epigrammatic turns that trivialize serious events. This fault often coexists with petty hypercriticism of others; the frigid writer is so busy being novel that he “sinks into mere childishness” himself.
- Cause of These Faults – The Pursuit of Novelty: Longinus observes that all these false forms of the sublime stem from a misdirected passion for novelty and display. Writers fall into turgidity, frigidity, and the rest when they chase style over substance – straining to impress rather than to profoundly move. The cure he suggests is a disciplined focus on truth and substance: by aiming at genuine elevation of thought (instead of cheap innovation), an author can avoid these pitfalls. In short, one must understand true sublimity to steer clear of its counterfeits. Writers should continually ask themselves if their grand passages have real soul, or just empty sparkle.
Cultivating Sublimity (How to Achieve Greatness in Style)
Beyond defining the sources of sublimity, Longinus offers practical guidance on how a writer or speaker can elevate their work to the sublime level:
- Nature and Art: He addresses the debate of whether sublime genius is innate or learned. Longinus concludes that both natural ability and technique (art) are crucial and must work together. Nature (inborn talent and passion) is the fundamental starting point – indeed, “Nature herself comes first” – but even the greatest natural gifts require training and guidance. Unchecked natural genius can turn destructive or erratic, just as the strongest natural forces need control. Art, in this sense, means studying and applying sound principles to channel natural inspiration. Even to recognize true genius requires a learned taste, so education refines one’s ability to both create and appreciate sublimity.
- Imitation and Emulation of Great Authors: One of the surest paths to sublimity is studying and emulating the masters who have achieved it. Longinus advises aspiring writers to steep themselves in the works of the great poets and orators of the past and even compete with them in spirit. He gives the example of Plato, who so thoroughly absorbed Homer’s poetic grandeur that he “entered the lists” against Homer – and in doing so, infused his philosophy with a sublime imaginative power. Longinus suggests a mental exercise: ask oneself, “How would Homer or Demosthenes have expressed this idea?” and “Will my words stand the test of posterity?”. By continually measuring one’s writing against the highest standards and the judgment of future generations, an author cultivates a greatness of style. Emulation isn’t mere copying, but rather internalizing the spirit of great authors to ignite one’s own genius.
- Focus on Essential Elements: A practical technique for sublimity is to select and unite only the most potent, necessary details of a subject and omit the rest. Longinus says a writer should gather the “most essential and grand points” and form a coherent whole, without slipping into trivialities. Piling on unnecessary minutiae dilutes the force. For instance, he observes how masterful authors handle description: Sappho, in portraying a lover’s experience, picks only the most extreme emotional signs (asthmatic silence, burning skin, trembling) and fuses them into one vivid image; Homer, describing a storm at sea, highlights the most terrifying aspects of the tempest; Archilochus in his poetry about a shipwreck chooses the grimmest details of peril; and Demosthenes, when recounting urgent news (the fall of a city), reports only what conveys the utmost alarm. By building with “squared blocks” (solid major points) and leaving out the “rubble,” these authors create narratives that hit the audience with concentrated power.
- Amplification vs. Elevation: Longinus draws a distinction between amplification and true sublimity. Amplification is a rhetorical method of expanding or elaborating an argument in fullness and detail, often by piling up points or employing gradation. This can be useful for emphasis or emotional effect (for example, in arousing pity or indignation through cumulative detail). However, amplification by itself is *“merely mechanical” and achieves no sublime height. It works “by mass, not by elevation”. In other words, one might impress by sheer volume of discourse, but that is different from striking the listener’s mind with a transcendent idea. True sublimity can occur in a brief flash – “quantity is irrelevant” to it – whereas amplification tends to be gradual. Longinus advises that amplification should support sublimity, not substitute for it: the best writers combine both, using amplification to lead the audience upwards to a lofty insight, but never letting it degenerate into wordiness without high purpose.
- Greatness vs. Faultless Mediocrity: In judging literature, Longinus poses a provocative question: is it better to be great with some flaws, or consistently correct but uninspired? He emphatically chooses greatness. A writer who attempts truly sublime effects may stumble at times, but their grand successes far outweigh occasional errors. By contrast, a merely flawless writer who never risks depth will remain “excellence that stops short”. Longinus states that sublimity, not just technical perfection, “brings man near to the divine.” The works of Homer, Demosthenes, or Plato have imperfections, yet they are immortal because of their towering strengths. He even argues that nature herself inclines us to prefer the stupendous with flaws over the trivial without flaws: just as we admire an irregular but mighty volcano more than a small, correct garden, we value a bold genius over a polished minor talent. This insight encourages writers to aim high – to strive for sublime greatness even at the risk of some fault – rather than play it safe and achieve only dull perfection. Human nature, he notes, has “aspirations and affinities towards greatness” and is instinctively drawn to the grand and noble.
Examples of Sublimity Cited by Longinus
- Homer: Longinus frequently references Homer as an exemplar of the sublime in poetry. He discusses the “Battle of the Gods” in the Iliad as a scene of vast grandeur (though he cautiously notes that depicting gods brawling can risk trivializing the divine). He praises Homer’s genius for description, such as an image of a storm at sea in the Iliad that conveys terror and scale: waves batter a ship, sailors are a hand’s breadth from death – a vivid tableau that Longinus contrasts with weaker imitations by later writers. He also cites Ajax’s brief prayer for light during battle and Ajax’s silent refusal to speak in the underworld as sublime moments. These examples show Homer’s talent for conveying heroic grandeur of thought and emotional impact with economy and force.
- Sappho: The lyric poet Sappho is quoted at length as a model of sublime passion. Longinus reproduces her famous Ode to Anactoria (Fragment 31), in which Sappho describes the visceral effects of love on her body and soul. He marvels at how she “gathers together” a spectrum of intense sensations – heart racing, loss of voice, flushes and paleness, trembling, and near-death faintness – all within a few lines. By concentrating these extreme emotions, Sappho creates a portrait of love’s rapture and agony that is awe-inspiring in its truth and depth. Longinus points out that it feels not like one passion, but a fusing of many passions at once, which is why the passage leaves such a powerful impression. Sappho’s ode thus exemplifies how authentic emotion expressed with precision can achieve sublime heights.
- Moses (The Book of Genesis): In a remarkable broadening of scope beyond Greek literature, Longinus cites the Biblical creation account as an instance of the sublime. He specifically mentions the verse “God said, ‘Let there be light’: and there was light.” Though a non-Greek source, this line from Genesis struck Longinus for its majestic simplicity. In a mere phrase, it encapsulates an infinitely grand action – the instant creation of the entire light of the universe – which he considered a sublime thought expressed with breathtaking economy. This example underscores Longinus’s point that the greatness of the idea itself (here, divine omnipotence) can elevate language to the sublime, even without ornate style.
- Demosthenes: Longinus frequently turns to the Athenian orator Demosthenes as a master of sublime oratory. One famous example is from Demosthenes’ speech On the Crown, where he swears “by the shades of those who met their death at Marathon.” Longinus highlights this as a sublime use of figure: the sudden oath evokes the revered war-dead, electrifying the audience with patriotic emotion. The passage’s power comes from both the profound patriotic sentiment and the strategic rhetorical device (adjuration) employed at the climactic moment. Longinus also examines Demosthenes’ style for technical excellence – for instance, his use of asyndeton in listing outrages in the speech Against Meidias to create a sense of furious momentum. Additionally, Demosthenes’ mastery of composition and rhythm is given as evidence that even the arrangement of words can reach the sublime; Longinus quotes a lengthy periodic sentence whose vigorous cadence and balance greatly enhance its persuasive force. Through Demosthenes, we see how great thought, intense emotion, and perfected technique can unite in oratory to move an audience profoundly.
- Plato: Although Plato is a philosopher, Longinus holds him up as an author who often achieves sublimity by the sheer loftiness of his ideas and imagery. He notes that Plato’s description of the supreme reality (such as the Form of the Good in the Republic) and his poetic language can attain the sublime. Plato’s imitative emulation of Homer is credited for infusing his prose with a heroic grandeur. Longinus gives an anecdote that Plato, filled with Homer’s influence, sometimes “competed” with Homer in creating grand metaphors and cosmic visions. However, Longinus also gently critiques Plato for occasionally mixing too many metaphors (a mild frigiditas), showing that even a sublime genius has faults. Overall, Plato is cited as proof that philosophical writing can reach sublime heights when it engages profound ideas with inspired language.
Causes of the Decline of Sublimity (Longinus’s Reflections)
- Diminished Greatness in an Age of Skill: Longinus observes that his era (likely the 1st century CE) had many talented or learned men, but few truly great ones. There is an abundance of cleverness and technical skill, yet a paucity of the profound genius that characterized earlier generations. This self-aware critique suggests that while education and minor talent are common, the spark of sublimity has grown rare.
- Role of Political Conditions: He acknowledges one popular explanation – the political climate. Some argued that under imperial rule (with its centralized power and loss of republican freedoms) the stimulus for grand oratory and writing was gone. In classical Athens, for example, democracy and civic life challenged orators like Demosthenes to rise to greatness; but in Longinus’s time, despotism and conformity might discourage bold, sublime expression. Thus, diminished liberty was thought to have a stifling effect on literary genius. Longinus mentions this view but does not consider it the primary cause.
- Moral Decadence as the True Cause: The author places greater blame on a widespread moral and spiritual decline in his society. He contends that the contemporary love of wealth, luxury, and trivial pleasures has enervated the minds of people. This moral decay – a focus on material gain and indulgence – is “deadly” to genuine nobility of thought, breeding mediocrity instead of greatness. In Longinus’s analysis, writers consumed by avarice or frivolity cannot summon the grandeur of soul required for sublime creation. The pursuit of money and social pleasure leaves no room for the kind of high-minded passion that elevates literature. He calls these vices “the canker of the soul”, suggesting that the decline of sublimity is rooted in character and values, not just external circumstances.
- Self-Critique of the Era: Longinus notes that it’s a common habit for people to complain their age is degenerate, but he insists there is truth to the charge in his case. The ** leveling effect of habit and vice** has, in his view, truly lowered the heights of contemporary eloquence. In a striking comment, he even suggests that given such widespread corruption, perhaps it is “better [for us] to be in servitude” under an authoritarian regime than to have freedom which might only give more scope to our vices. This melancholy observation reinforces how far he thinks the era’s ethos is from the heroic virtues that feed sublimity. Ultimately, Longinus implies that literary greatness is inseparable from greatness of soul: without virtue, ambition, and a willingness to strive for the noble, the sublime cannot flourish. His reflection serves as both a diagnosis and a moral exhortation – a reminder that to produce sublime art, a culture must value and cultivate the lofty virtues that inspire it.
Theoretical Terms/Concepts Introduced by Longinus
| Term/Concept | Explanation | Representative Passage from On the Sublime | References |
| Sublimity (the Sublime) | The supreme quality of greatness or loftiness in language that elevates the audience’s mind, transporting them beyond ordinary persuasion into a state of wonder or ecstasy. It is an “eminence and excellence” of expression that gives works their immortal impact. | “Sublimity is … an eminence and excellence in language… For it is not to persuasion but to ecstasy that passages of extraordinary genius carry the hearer” | (Longinus, 1906, p. 2) |
| Grandeur of Thought | The ability to conceive great and noble ideas – a product of a “great soul.” This is the first and most important source of the sublime, an innate capacity of genius that underpins truly elevated literature. | “Sublimity is the note which rings from a great mind. … Thus it is that… a notion, unclothed and unsupported, often moves our wonder, because the very thought is great” | (Longinus, 1906, p. 16) |
| Pathos (Passionate Emotion) | The use of strong, heartfelt emotion that invests discourse with passionate intensity. Genuine pathos is an innate source of sublimity (second only to great ideas) and, when appropriately expressed, it imbues words with fervor and “divine” force. | “I should feel confidence in maintaining that nothing reaches great eloquence so surely as genuine passion in the right place; it breathes the vehemence of frenzy and divine possession, and makes the very words inspired.” | (Longinus, 1906, p. 15) |
| Figures of Thought and Speech | The skillful use of rhetorical figures (schemes and tropes) that enhance expression and impact. These artistic devices (e.g. various turns of phrase, deviations in syntax, or imaginative tropes) can contribute to sublimity – provided they are used naturally and sincerely. Longinus emphasizes that figures must be fused with genuine passion and substance, or else they degrade into mere empty tricks. | “The Figures help Sublimity, but Sublimity and Passion are essential to the Figures, which otherwise are so many tricks.” | (Longinus, 1906, p. 45) |
| Diction (Word Choice) | The selection of noble diction – elevated, appropriate, and powerful words – including the use of metaphors and other tropes. Careful word choice adorns and dignifies style, giving language its grandeur. Longinus sees high-quality words (whether simple or grand) as crucial for sublime effect, as they carry weight and clarity. | “…then noble phraseology, with its subdivisions, choice of words, and use of tropes and of elaboration…” | (Longinus, 1906, p. 14) |
| Composition (Arrangement) | The composition or arrangement of words and sentences – i.e. the structure, rhythm, and cohesion of a discourse. This is the fifth source of sublimity, tying together the other elements. A dignified, elevated arrangement (e.g. well-formed periods, harmonious flow) gives a text its momentum and grandeur, amplifying its persuasive and emotional power. | “…and fifthly, that cause of greatness which includes all that preceded it, dignified and spirited composition.” | (Longinus, 1906, p. 72) |
| Amplification (Auxesis) | A rhetorical method of developing a point by expanding it in multiple details or stages, thereby giving an impression of magnitude or intensity. Longinus discusses amplification as a useful device for building emotional force or emphasis, but he distinguishes it from true sublimity. Amplification adds breadth or quantity to an argument, whereas the sublime arises from an elevated intensity that often resides in a single striking idea. | “To me it seems that they differ… in this, that Sublimity lies in intensity. Amplification [lies] in multitude; consequently, sublimity often exists in a single idea, amplification necessarily implies quantity and abundance.” | (Longinus, 1906, p. 28) |
| Imagination (Phantasia) | The power of imagination or vivid visualization in rhetoric. Longinus defines phantasia as the technique by which an orator or poet, often stirred by emotion, conjures images so vivid that both writer and audience seem to behold the scene before their eyes. This visionary quality heightens the emotional impact and is a hallmark of the sublime (with the caveat that in oratory such images should stay credible). | “…the word [phantasia] has now come to be used predominantly of passages where [inspired by strong emotion] you seem to see what you describe and bring it vividly before the eyes of your audience.” | (Longinus, 1906, p. 40) |
Longinus’ Contribution to Literary Theory
- The Sublime as Lofty, Soul-Transcending Language: Longinus defines the sublime as “an eminence and excellence in language” that grants authors immortal fame. For him, truly sublime writing does not merely persuade – it transports the audience into a state of astonished wonder. In a famous passage, Longinus notes that “the soul is raised by true sublimity… it is filled with joy and exultation, as though itself had produced what it hears” (Longinus, 1906, p. 12). In other words, sublime literature elevates readers out of themselves, engendering a proud exhilaration as if they were the creators of the work. This emphasis on ecstasy and rapturous impact marks Longinus’s shift from technical persuasion to the emotional power of literature (Longinus, 1906).
- Nature and Art in Achieving Sublimity: Longinus stresses that sublime genius is both innate and learned. He argues that while great writing stems from natural talent or “the first and most primary element”, it “needs the curb as often as the spur” of technique (Longinus, 1906). Nature provides the capacity for grandeur, but art – conscious craftsmanship and “good counsel” – is required to guide and refine that raw talentsocrates.acadiau.ca. As Longinus observes, “Nature fills the place of good fortune, Art that of good judgment…. the very fact that in literature some effects come of natural genius alone can only be learned from art” (Longinus, trans. Prickard, 1906, p. 4)socrates.acadiau.ca. This theoretical contribution foreshadows later literary criticism by affirming that sublimity arises from a fusion of inborn genius and trained skill, rather than from either factor alone.
- Grandeur of Thought (Great Conceptions): The first and most important source of the sublime is a profound capacity for grand or noble thoughts. Longinus insists that writers must possess a “faculty of grasping great conceptions”, since “Sublimity is the note which rings from a great mind” (Longinus, 1906, p. 14). In practice, this means an author’s ideas should be elevated, weighty, and worthy of immortal life. Longinus gives examples (e.g. the majestic silence of Ajax in Homer) to show that lofty ideas alone—“often unclothed and unsupported” by words—can evoke admiration by their inherent grandeur. This concept of sublimity rooted in the writer’s moral and intellectual greatness was a new contribution to literary theory, linking aesthetics with the character of the author’s mind.
- Vehement Emotion and Passion: The second key source of sublime effect is powerful emotion (pathos). Longinus posits that “nothing reaches great eloquence so surely as genuine passion in the right place; it breathes the vehemence of frenzy and divine possession, and makes the very words inspired” (Longinus, 1906, p. 14). In his view, great literature often draws on the writer’s intense feelings – such as righteous anger or exalted joy – which impart a kind of “fine frenzy” or divine fervor to the language. This emphasis on emotional intensity was influential in connecting literary greatness to the sincerity and vigor of the author’s feelings. Longinus even criticizes his predecessor Caecilius for omitting emotion as a source of sublimity, insisting that noble passions (when appropriately deployed) imbue discourse with an electrifying force that mere reasoned argument cannot match.
- Figurative Language and Rhetorical Figures:** Longinus identifies the skillful use of figures of speech and thought as a third source of the sublime. Such rhetorical figures (like apostrophe, hyperbole, or vivid imagery) can elevate expression “if rightly handled”, functioning as “an important element in the sublime” (Longinus, 1906)socrates.acadiau.ca. A key theoretical contribution here is Longinus’s insight that figures must be integrated naturally and passionately to enhance sublimity. He warns that overly contrived figures may seem deceitful, but when the artifice is hidden by genuine feeling and grandeur, the result can “transform a demonstrative argument into a passage of transcendent sublimity”socrates.acadiau.ca. In essence, Longinus shows how tropes and figures, far from mere ornament, serve as powerful amplifiers of emotional and intellectual force in literature.
- Noble Diction and Word Choice: The fourth component of sublimity is diction, which for Longinus means elevated word choice, use of metaphor, and ornate phrasing. He praises “noble phraseology, with its subdivisions, choice of words, and use of tropes and of elaboration” as vital to great writing (Longinus, 1906, p. 13). This theoretical point underlines that the very language of a work – its vocabulary, metaphors, and poetic eloquence – contributes substantially to its sublime effect. For example, bold metaphors can carry the audience away in a “swift onrush”, making even abstract ideas vividly present. Longinus thus anticipates later literary aesthetics by highlighting style and diction (the manner of expression) as key to producing a lofty and moving impact on the reader.
- Dignified Composition and Arrangement: The fifth source of sublimity is the structure and rhythm of the work – what Longinus calls “dignified and spirited composition”. By this he means the artful arrangement of words, sentences, and clauses (comparable to musical rhythm) to produce a grand harmony. Longinus notes that effective composition “includes in itself all that preceded it” and “appeals not to the ear only but to the mind itself”, instilling the speaker’s feelings into the listener’s heart (Longinus, 1906). This was a significant contribution to rhetorical theory: Longinus showed that syntax, cadence, and coherence can greatly heighten the emotional persuasiveness of a text. Even authors of otherwise ordinary ability, he observes, “may touch greatness by rhythm and arrangement”, rising to sublimity through the power of form and composition. In sum, Longinus extended literary criticism to consider not just what is said, but how it is orchestrated to overwhelm the audience.
- Universal and Timeless Appeal as a Test of the Sublime: Longinus introduced a critical test for true sublimity: its ability to transcend context and impress all readers. He argues that “those are beautiful and genuine effects of sublimity which please always, and please all” (Longinus, 1906, p. 12). If a passage, upon repeated readings, fails to uplift the mind or “on careful scrutiny… dwindles away,” then “it can never be true sublimity”. By contrast, authentic sublime works “give much food for fresh reflection… of which the memory is strong and indelible”. This notion – that great literature has a universal, enduring impact on the human spirit – was a formative contribution to literary aesthetics. It implies a canon of classics: works that attain sublimity are those revered across ages and cultures, as evidenced by the “unanimous verdict” of readers “of different habits, lives, ambitions, ages” all agreeing on the work’s greatness.
- Greatness Over Technical Perfection: In a bold move, Longinus asserts the superiority of greatness (sublimity) over faultlessness in literary art. He famously asks whether we should prefer “greatness with faults, or faultlessness which stops there,” concluding decisively in favor of the former (Longinus, 1906). In his view, “it is sublimity, not faultlessness, which brings man near to the divine” (Longinus, 1906, p. 35). He observes that the greatest authors (Homer, Plato, Demosthenes) have lapses and imperfections, yet “these are as nothing when set against their greatness” – hence their immortal stature. This celebration of lofty genius even at the expense of minor errors was influential in later criticism. It signaled a shift from strict adherence to rules (as in Aristotle or Horace) toward valuing the sublime impact and ambition of a work. Longinus thus paved the way for Romantic-era critics to celebrate originality, passion, and awe over polished correctness.
- Longinus’s Lasting Influence on Criticism and Aesthetics: On the Sublime had a profound impact on subsequent literary theory, aesthetics, and rhetoric. Rediscovered and translated in the 17th century (notably by Boileau in 1674), it became a “golden book” for early modern critics. Neoclassical writers like John Dryden and Alexander Pope drew on Longinus’s insights into elevated style. In the 18th century, Edmund Burke studied Longinus when formulating his own Philosophical Enquiry into the Sublime and Beautiful (1757), a foundational work in modern aesthetics. Longinus’s emphasis on awe and transport influenced Burke’s idea of the sublime as a terror-tinged grandeur beyond beauty. Likewise, Romantic-era thinkers embraced Longinus’s view of literary genius: his claim that sublime writing springs from a “great soul” and inspired passion prefigured the Romantic ideal of the poet-prophet. The treatise also informed rhetorical education; for instance, Sir Joshua Reynolds in his art Discourses and Bishop Robert Lowth in his lectures on Hebrew poetry both “applied the teaching of the Treatise” and nearly quoted Longinus’s words. Through such figures, Longinus’s ideas on the overwhelming power of language and the criteria of great literature have echoed through centuries, solidifying his reputation as a formative voice in literary criticism and rhetorical theory.
Criticism of Longinus’ Ideas
- Vagueness and Elusive Definition of the “Sublime”: Longinus’s treatise never provides a clear, rigorous definition of what the “sublime” (hypsos) truly is. Instead of pinning the concept down, he offers only a broad description of sublimity as a kind of eminence or excellence in discourse. In fact, Longinus pointedly avoids any formal definition – he even criticizes an earlier writer (Caecilius) for attempting to define the sublime “as though we did not know” what it was. This deliberate ambiguity leaves the concept of the sublime somewhat vague and open-ended, which later scholars note makes it an elusive idea to grasp. Even the term “sublime” in the title can be misleading; scholars like the 20th-century critic Rhys Roberts have argued that Longinus’s objective was really the “essentials of a noble and impressive style” rather than any narrowly defined quality. In short, the treatise’s central concept lacks a precise definition, inviting confusion and multiple interpretations.
- Uncertain Authorship and Pseudo-Longinus: The true authorship of On the Sublime is highly contested, which raises questions about the treatise’s origin and authority. A medieval manuscript heading ascribed the work to “Dionysius or Longinus,” but this was misread by early editors as a single author named “Dionysius Longinus”. For centuries the work was thus erroneously attributed to the 3rd-century scholar Cassius Longinus, an identification modern scholarship has since rejected. Today it is customary to refer to the unknown author as “Pseudo-Longinus” and to date the text to the 1st century AD. This uncertainty over authorship is a major scholarly critique – without a confirmed author or clear historical context, interpreting the intent and intellectual background of On the Sublime becomes more speculative. It is also telling that no ancient writers ever quoted or mentioned the treatise, suggesting it had little visibility in its own time. The lack of authorial identity (“a babe cast up by the waters of Time, without father or mother” as one editor famously put it) and the absence of contemporary references both undermine the work’s clarity of context and leave its authority somewhat in limbo.
- Incompleteness of the Surviving Text: On the Sublime has not come down to us in a complete form, and this fragmentary state is a significant limitation on its study. Scholars estimate that roughly one-third of the original treatise has been lost over time. For example, Longinus’s entire section on the use of similes survives only in a few stray words. The text also breaks off without a true conclusion – the final part of the work (possibly dealing with public speaking or the decay of oratory) is missing entirely. There is evidence that even the opening of the treatise was incomplete or damaged (the manuscript’s text seems to begin in the middle of an argument). These gaps mean we lack some of Longinus’s explanations and transitions, forcing later readers to infer connections that might originally have been explicit. The incomplete nature of the text therefore hampers our full understanding of Longinus’s theory, leaving certain arguments underdeveloped or open to debate because crucial portions have simply not survived.
- Subjectivity of Aesthetic Judgment: Longinus measures literary greatness by the profound emotional impact it has on an audience, which introduces a strong element of subjectivity into his critical framework. He famously asserts that truly sublime writing overwhelms the reader, transporting them “not to persuasion, but to ecstasy” beyond the reach of reasoned judgment. The effect of the sublime, in Longinus’s view, is to stun and uplift – a “loss of rationality” and a thrilling sense of being carried away. While this focus on emotional impact highlights literature’s power, it also means that identifying the sublime depends on personal response: what strikes one reader with awe might leave another cold. Later critics have noted that On the Sublime provides few concrete or objective criteria for what counts as “sublime” art, especially compared to more systematic critics like Aristotle. Even Longinus’s admirers acknowledge that the treatise is “difficult to explain in an academic setting” because it lacks many “practical rules of a teachable kind” for achieving sublime effects. In other words, Longinus celebrates a visceral, almost ineffable reaction to greatness, which by its nature resists measurement – an inherent limitation if one is seeking universally applicable standards of criticism.
- Tension Between Emotional Inspiration and Rhetorical Technique: Many scholars have pointed out a tension in Longinus’s theory between spontaneous genius and deliberate artifice – between emotional fervor and rhetorical technique. On one hand, Longinus insists that the highest sources of sublimity are inborn: a writer’s “greatness of thought” and “strong and enthusiastic passion”, which spring from the author’s natural genius or noble soul. These first two sources of the sublime are innate and emotive. On the other hand, he also enumerates acquired sources of sublimity – such as the skillful use of figures of speech, elevated word choice, and dignified composition – implying that training and technique are needed to achieve sublime effects. This duality can appear self-contradictory: how can sublimity be a spontaneous effusion of a “noble mind” yet also the product of learned rhetorical devices? This paradox did not go unnoticed. Romantic-era critics, for example, applauded Longinus’s exaltation of passionate inspiration yet were uneasy with his association with classical “rules” of composition. Longinus himself tries to reconcile these forces, arguing that while grand passions are essential, they must be guided by artistic “regulation” and craft to attain true grandeur. Nonetheless, On the Sublime ultimately straddles both emotional expressivism and formalism, leaving readers to debate whether sublimity is primarily a natural gift of genius or an art that can be systematically mastered.
Suggest Readings about Longinus
- Boileau, N. (1674). Traité du sublime ou du merveilleux dans le discours (Translation of Longinus’s On the Sublime). Paris: Claude Barbin.
- Burke, E. (1757). A philosophical enquiry into the origin of our ideas of the sublime and beautiful. London: R. and J. Dodsley.
- Grube, G. M. A. (Trans.). (1957). On Great Writing (On the Sublime) by Longinus. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
- Longinus. (1906). On the Sublime (A. O. Prickard, Trans. & Ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved from [cu31924014233450.pdf]
- Prickard, A. O. (1906). Introduction and Commentary on Longinus: On the Sublime. In Longinus, On the Sublime (pp. i–xliv). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Roberts, W. R. (1899). A history of literary criticism in the Renaissance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Roberts, W. Rhys. “Prickard’s Text and Translation of Longinus on the Sublime.” The Classical Review, vol. 21, no. 3, 1907, pp. 77–82. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/694902. Accessed 23 Oct. 2025.
