Introduction: Charles Baudelaire as a Literary Theorist
Charles Baudelaire as a literary theorist is distinguished by his capacity to join volupté (aesthetic shock) with connaissance (critical knowledge), making him, in Walter Benjamin’s words, “the writer of modern life” whose analysis of modernity emerges from within poetic creation itself (Benjamin 1). Born on 9 April 1821 and dying on 31 August 1867, Baudelaire entered the world in Paris, shaped first by an elderly father steeped in pre-Revolutionary culture and later by a mother whose remarriage he experienced as a profound emotional rupture. Rosemary Lloyd notes that Baudelaire’s childhood in the rue Hautefeuille, among “old furniture from the period of Louis XVI” and eighteenth-century pastels, forged his early visual sensitivity and his “permanent taste, since childhood, for all images” (Lloyd 9; 11). Educated at the Collège Louis-le-Grand, Baudelaire developed an early passion for art, language, sensuality, and rebellion, later transforming these experiences into the theoretical vocabulary that underpins his criticism: modernité, spleen, the ideal, the primacy of the imagination, and “the heroism of modern life,” articulated in his Salon essays (Baudelaire, Mirror of Art 220). His critical method—rejecting “cold, mathematical, heartless” criticism in favour of a “partial, passionate, and political” approach (Baudelaire, Mirror of Art ix)—established him as the first modern critic of urban life and the founder of an aesthetic theory grounded in modern experience.
Major Works of Charles Baudelaire as a Literary Theorist
• The Salon of 1845
Pages: 1–37
- Baudelaire’s first major theoretical intervention, establishing his method of criticism as rooted in sensation, intuition, and “the shock of pleasure.”
- Rejects “cold, mathematical, heartless criticism,” arguing instead for criticism that is “partial, passionate, and political” (p. ix).
- Lays the foundation for his belief that the critic must be a poet-observer, capable of transforming emotion into judgment.
- Introduces early defenses of Eugène Delacroix, whom he later calls “the most original painter of the age.”
• The Salon of 1846
Pages: 38–130
- Considered the first fully mature statement of Baudelaire’s aesthetic theory.
- Defines Romanticism as “modern art—that is, intimacy, spirituality, colour, and aspiration toward the infinite” (p. 88).
- Argues that art must be “modern yet eternal,” combining immediacy with ideality.
- Introduces several of his most important theoretical concepts:
- Individualism
- The Ideal vs. the Real
- Naïveté as artistic mastery
- Declares: “The critic who is poet will be the greatest critic” (p. ix).
- Contains early formulations of his idea of modernité—the fleeting beauty of contemporary life.
• On the Essence of Laughter (1855)
Pages: 131–153
- A philosophical investigation into comedy, cruelty, and the grotesque.
- Argues that laughter arises from “the superiority of man over nature” and is rooted in Satanic pride (p. 131).
- Establishes Baudelaire’s theory of the comic as metaphysical, not merely social or psychological.
- Influential for later thinkers including Bergson and Bataille.
• Some French Caricaturists (1857)
Pages: 154–178
- Discusses the role of caricature in modern visual culture.
- Claims that caricature reveals truth through distortion—a concept aligned with his poetic method in Les Fleurs du mal.
- Praises Honoré Daumier for embodying “the drama of contemporary life in a single gesture” (p. 154).
- Explains how caricature participates in Baudelaire’s broader theory of modern perception.
• Some Foreign Caricaturists
Pages: 179–191
- Extends his theory of the grotesque and modern satire to international artists.
- Argues that the comic is universally human, yet shaped by national temperament.
- Expands his view that the artist of modern life must observe crowds, public spaces, and fleeting expressions.
• The Exposition Universelle of 1855
Pages: 192–219
- A wide historical-aesthetic reflection on art at mid-century.
- Provides one of his most profound theoretical statements:
- “To criticize is to see, to choose, to judge in the name of an ideal” (p. ix).
- Includes major essays on Delacroix and Ingres, demonstrating his view that imagination, not technique, determines the greatness of art.
- Establishes the role of the critic as a philosopher of modern culture.
• The Salon of 1859
Pages: 220–305
- The most complete expression of his theory of modernity.
- Introduces his famous definition of the modern artist:
- “The painter of modern life must capture the ephemeral, the fugitive, the contingent.”
- Contains his critique of photography as a threat to imaginative art:
- Photography appeals to “the queen of the faculties—the imagination—only by negation” (p. 220).
- Argues for an aesthetic of beauty in the everyday, influenced by urban crowds and industrial rhythm.
• The Life and Work of Eugène Delacroix (Obituary Essay)
Pages: 306–338
- A landmark theoretical essay in which Baudelaire elevates Delacroix as the archetype of the modern artist.
- Describes Delacroix’s imagination as “a flame that devours the real in order to remake it” (p. 306).
- Synthesizes Baudelaire’s lifelong principles:
- primacy of imagination
- modern heroism
- expressive colour
- symbolic truth
- Serves as a culminating statement of his aesthetic philosophy.
Major Literary Ideas of Charles Baudelaire as a Literary Theorist
• The Idea of Modernity (Modernité)
- Baudelaire defines the modern artist as one who captures “the ephemeral, the fugitive, the contingent” in contemporary life (Salon of 1859, p. 220).
- Modernity is not merely the present moment but a dual movement: the transient + the eternal.
- He insists that the artist must “extract the eternal from the transitory,” making modernity a philosophical category rather than a time period (p. 220).
- This becomes the foundation for later modernist theory (Benjamin, Writer of Modern Life, pp. 46–47).
• The Role of the Critic: Partial, Passionate, and Political
- Baudelaire rejects “cold, mathematical, and heartless criticism,” insisting instead on critique that is “partial, passionate, and political” (Editor’s Introduction, p. ix).
- Criticism must involve emotion transformed into knowledge (“volupté into connaissance”).
- He argues: “The poet is the best of all critics,” because creation and criticism spring from the same imaginative faculty (p. xi).
- This position collapses the binary between artist and critic, making criticism a creative act.
• Romanticism Re-defined
- Rejects simplistic definitions of Romanticism.
- Defines Romanticism as “modern art—that is, intimacy, spirituality, colour, aspiration towards the infinite” (Salon of 1846, p. 88).
- Romanticism becomes a method of seeing, not a historical label.
- It depends not on subject matter but on the intensity of expression.
• The Doctrine of the Ideal and the Real (Spleen vs. Ideal)
- Baudelaire sees art as a struggle between spleen (boredom, decay, despair) and ideal (aspiration, beauty, transcendence).
- He argues that “images of melancholy kindle the spirit most brightly” (Benjamin, p. 3).
- His theory holds that the Ideal emerges from the Real’s negativity, making tension productive rather than destructive.
• Imagination as the Queen of the Faculties
- In the Salon of 1859, he insists: “The imagination is the queen of the faculties” (p. 220).
- Imagination transforms rather than copies reality.
- It is the root of all artistic and critical creation, for “to imagine is to choose, to judge, and to create in the name of an Ideal” (Exposition Universelle, p. 192).
- This idea underlies his critique of realism and photography.
• Critique of Photography and Positivism
- Warns against the rising dominance of photography, claiming it appeals to imagination “only by negation” (Salon of 1859, p. 220).
- Photography becomes a symbol of materialism and mechanical objectivity, which he opposes to the soul and spiritual insight of art.
- For Baudelaire, art should “elevate the mind,” not merely replicate things.
• The Heroism of Modern Life
- In Salon of 1846, he argues that modern life contains “heroism” equal to classical antiquity (p. 88).
- The modern hero is found in crowds, working-class lives, prostitutes, dandies, soldiers, and ordinary city dwellers.
- This idea shapes his praise for Delacroix as embodying “the drama of contemporary life” (Salon of 1845, p. 1).
• The Grotesque, Laughter, and the Comic
- In On the Essence of Laughter, he argues:
- “Laughter is rooted in the superiority of man over nature” (p. 131).
- It has a “Satanic” origin, tied to pride and metaphysical rebellion (p. 132).
- Distinguishes between:
- The Comic Absolute — metaphysical, universal, grotesque.
- The Signifying Comic — social, satirical, caricatural.
- Builds a theory of modern grotesque art that influenced Bergson and later theorists.
• Art as a Spiritual and Moral Force
- Art must uplift, not simply reproduce external appearances.
- He writes: “To criticize is to see, to choose, to feel, and to judge in the name of an Ideal” (Exposition Universelle, p. 192).
- Beauty has a spiritual core: “Beauty consists of an eternal element and a relative element” (implied throughout the Salons, especially 1846 and 1859).
- He repeatedly argues that art restores man’s sense of the infinite.
• Individualism and Artistic Originality
- Baudelaire insists on the individual genius, arguing that true originality is “the naiveté of complete mastery” (Salon of 1846, p. 88).
- He attacks imitation, eclecticism, and schools of art.
- For him, originality arises through inner necessity, not novelty for its own sake.
• Theory of the Flâneur (via later commentators)
(Concept developed through Baudelaire’s writings and interpreted by Benjamin.)
- The flâneur is the modern observer, “a man who goes to the marketplace to find a buyer” (Benjamin, p. 4).
- Baudelaire’s poetic persona becomes a theoretic figure of urban perception, collecting “the debris of modern life” (Benjamin, p. 4).
- Modern literature begins with this new urban consciousness.
Theoretical Terms/Concepts of Charles Baudelaire as a Literary Theorist
| Theoretical Term / Concept | Reference | Detailed Explanation |
| Modernité (Modernity) | “The modern artist must capture ‘the ephemeral, the fugitive, the contingent’” (Baudelaire, Salon of 1859, p. 220). | Baudelaire defines modernity as a dual phenomenon: the fleeting rhythms of urban life combined with an eternal, symbolic dimension. Modernity is the task of transforming daily experience—crowds, fashion, speed, commodities—into lasting artistic vision. This principle becomes the foundation of modernism and influences Walter Benjamin’s reinterpretation of Baudelaire as “the writer of modern life.” |
| The Ideal and the Real (Spleen vs. Ideal) | “It is the images of melancholy that kindle the spirit most brightly” (Benjamin, On Some Motifs in Baudelaire, p. 3). | Baudelaire theorizes a perpetual struggle between spleen (decay, monotony, despair) and ideal (beauty, transcendence). Rather than opposites, they produce a dialectic from which poetry and art emerge. The Ideal requires the Real’s negativity; thus the artist descends into modern suffering to extract spiritual intensity. |
| Imagination as the Queen of the Faculties | “The imagination is ‘the queen of the faculties’” (Baudelaire, Salon of 1859, p. 220). | Imagination is the supreme creative power. For Baudelaire, art must not imitate but transform reality. Imagination chooses, judges, exaggerates, and creates symbolic beauty. This idea structures his critique of photography, which he believes enslaves art to superficial accuracy. |
| Criticism as Partial, Passionate, and Political | “Criticism must be ‘partial, passionate, and political’” (Editor’s Introduction summarizing Baudelaire’s theory, p. ix). | Baudelaire rejects objective, scientific criticism. A true critic must take a position, expressing temperament, taste, and conviction. Criticism is a creative act powered by emotion (“volupté”) that transforms into judgment (“connaissance”), dissolving boundaries between poet and critic. |
| Romanticism Re-Defined | “Romanticism is ‘modern art—that is, intimacy, spirituality, colour, aspiration toward the infinite’” (Baudelaire, Salon of 1846, p. 88). | Baudelaire overturns traditional definitions of Romanticism. It is not about subject matter, the Middle Ages, or exotic landscapes; rather it is an artistic disposition that aspires toward inwardness and symbolic intensity. Romanticism becomes a method of seeing modern life spiritually. |
| Heroism of Modern Life | “Find the ‘heroism of modern life’” (Salon of 1846, p. 88). | Baudelaire argues that modernity contains forms of heroism equal to antiquity. Prostitutes, soldiers, dandies, workers, and Parisian crowds embody the drama of modern life. Modern beauty emerges not by escaping the present but by elevating it. |
| Theory of the Grotesque and Laughter | “Laughter is rooted in ‘the superiority of man over nature’” (Baudelaire, On the Essence of Laughter, p. 131). | Baudelaire distinguishes between the comic absolute (metaphysical, grotesque, universal) and the signifying comic (social, satirical). Laughter expresses human pride and fallen nature, making the grotesque a privileged mode of modern art. |
| The Flâneur (Modern Observer) | “Baudelaire knew how it stood with the poet: as a flâneur he went to the market…to find a buyer” (Benjamin, Writer of Modern Life, p. 4). | The flâneur is the wandering city observer who collects impressions, commodities, and human gestures. He becomes the symbol of modern perception—mobile, critical, fragmented. Baudelaire’s poet walks through urban crowds decoding modern life as text. |
| Caricature and the Truth of Distortion | “Caricature reveals the drama of contemporary life ‘in a single gesture’” (Baudelaire, Some French Caricaturists, p. 154). | For Baudelaire, caricature and exaggeration reveal deeper truths than realism. Distortion expresses symbolic essence. Modern art must use signs, not copies, to critique society and reveal psychological depth. |
| Art as a Spiritual-Moral Force | “To criticize is ‘to see, to choose, to judge in the name of an ideal’” (Exposition Universelle, p. 192). | Art elevates the mind toward the infinite. Beauty consists of two elements: 1) the eternal (soul, imagination), and 2) the relative (fashion, epoch). The artist must unify them. Art allows humanity to rise above materialism, boredom, and mechanized modern life. |
Application of Theoretical Ideas of Charles Baudelaire as a Literary Theorist to Literary Works
1. The Picture of Dorian Gray — Oscar Wilde
• Application of “Modernité: the ephemeral + eternal”
- Wilde merges the fleeting beauty of youth with the eternal corruption of the soul, directly mirroring Baudelaire’s command to extract “the ephemeral, the fugitive, the contingent” into symbolic form (Baudelaire, Salon of 1859, p. 220).
- Dorian becomes a modern figure whose physical perfection (ephemeral) contrasts with the monstrous portrait (eternal).
• Application of “Imagination as the Queen of the Faculties”
- Wilde’s magical portrait reflects Baudelaire’s belief that imagination “transforms rather than copies reality” (Salon of 1859, p. 220).
- The portrait is an imaginative exaggeration — a symbolic embodiment of vice.
• Application of “The Ideal and the Real (Spleen vs. Ideal)”
- Dorian exemplifies the dialectic between Ideal beauty and the Real corruption.
- Like Baudelaire’s “images of melancholy” that “kindle the spirit” (Benjamin, p. 3), the novel uses aesthetic melancholy to expose moral decay.
2. Heart of Darkness — Joseph Conrad
• Application of “The Flâneur / The Observer of Modern Life”
- Marlow resembles Baudelaire’s flâneur—an observer moving through symbolic spaces and recording impressions, as Benjamin describes: “Baudelaire…as a flâneur went to the market…to find a buyer” (p. 4).
- He reads the Congo the way the flâneur reads the modern city.
• Application of “Heroism of Modern Life”
- Baudelaire insisted modern life contains “heroism” equal to antiquity (Salon of 1846, p. 88).
- Conrad redefines heroism through psychological endurance rather than classical bravery; Marlow’s confrontation with the darkness of civilization becomes a modern epic.
• Application of “The Grotesque and the Comic Absolute”
- Kurtz embodies the grotesque element that Baudelaire links to metaphysical truth (“laughter is rooted in…superiority of man over nature,” p. 131).
- The horror Kurtz represents exposes the grotesque underside of imperial “civilization.”
3. Mrs. Dalloway — Virginia Woolf
• Application of “Modernité: capturing the moment”
- Woolf’s novel mirrors Baudelaire’s theory that modern art must seize “the ephemeral, the fugitive” (Salon of 1859, p. 220).
- The entire narrative is structured around moment-to-moment impressions of a single day in London.
• Application of “Spirituality in Modern Life (Romanticism Re-Defined)”
- Woolf’s “moments of being” reflect Baudelaire’s Romanticism defined as “intimacy, spirituality, colour, aspiration toward the infinite” (Salon of 1846, p. 88).
- Everyday consciousness becomes transcendent through aesthetic perception.
• Application of “Art as a Moral-Spiritual Force”
- Clarissa’s reflections elevate ordinary experiences into a form of spiritual communion, supporting Baudelaire’s statement:
- “To criticize is to judge in the name of an ideal” (Exposition Universelle, p. 192).
- Woolf uses interiority to restore meaning to fragmented modern life.
4. The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock — T. S. Eliot
• Application of “Spleen vs. Ideal”
- Prufrock’s paralysis reflects Baudelaire’s dialectic between the Real (spleen) and the Ideal (aspiration).
- Benjamin observes that for Baudelaire, melancholy “kindles the spirit” (p. 3); Eliot’s poem uses melancholy to reveal modern alienation.
• Application of “The Flâneur in the Modern City”
- Prufrock wanders through “half-deserted streets” like Baudelaire’s flâneur.
- He observes modern urban life with weary detachment, mirroring the poet who “goes to the market…to look it over” (Benjamin, p. 4).
• Application of “Caricature and the Truth of Distortion”
- The poem’s grotesque images (“the women come and go…”) function like caricature, capturing spiritual truths through distortion — a method Baudelaire champions when he praises caricaturists for showing drama “in a single gesture” (p. 154).
Representative Quotations of Charles Baudelaire as a Literary Theorist
| Quotation | Theoretical Idea | Detailed Explanation |
| “Always be a poet, even in prose.” | Poetic Consciousness / Imaginative Vision | Baudelaire insists that poetic perception is not limited to verse but is a mode of seeing the world. This anticipates his critical idea that imagination is “the queen of the faculties”—capable of transforming even ordinary prose into a heightened aesthetic experience. |
| “One should always be drunk… with wine, with poetry, or with virtue, as you choose.” | Escape from Time / Aesthetic Intoxication | Through “drunkenness,” Baudelaire expresses his theory of aesthetic transcendence: art, virtue, or sensation can liberate the mind from the oppressive weight of time (“le poids du Temps”). This reflects his modernist belief that art must resist the crushing monotony of modern life. |
| “Genius is nothing more nor less than childhood recaptured at will.” | Genius as Vision / Memory as Rebirth | Baudelaire defines genius as the ability to recover the freshness, wonder, and immediacy of childhood perception. This parallels his essay The Painter of Modern Life, where artistic vision depends on recapturing naïveté “in full consciousness.” |
| “The beautiful is always bizarre.” | Aesthetics of Strangeness / Modern Beauty | Baudelaire challenges classical ideals by arguing that beauty arises from tension, distortion, and strangeness. True beauty contains an element of the unexpected or uncanny—anticipating Symbolist aesthetics. |
| “Extract the eternal from the ephemeral.” | Definition of Modernity (Modernité) | This is Baudelaire’s most famous theoretical formula: the modern artist must capture the fleeting (“ephemeral”) and reveal within it an unchanging spiritual truth (“eternal”). This becomes the foundation of his theory of modern poetry and visual art. |
| “What strange phenomena we find in a great city… Life swarms with innocent monsters.” | Urban Modernity / The Flâneur | Baudelaire’s urban vision emphasizes the grotesque, the unexpected, and the multiplicity of city life. The poet-flâneur wanders through the metropolis observing “innocent monsters”—a metaphor for modern alienation and fascination. |
| “Strangeness is a necessary ingredient in beauty.” | Aesthetic Innovation / Symbolist Sensibility | Beauty cannot be reduced to symmetry or harmony. For Baudelaire, true beauty disrupts expectations and introduces surprise—a principle central to modernist and Symbolist poetics. |
| “Remembering is only a new form of suffering.” | Memory, Melancholy, and Spleen | Baudelaire’s concept of spleen ties memory to psychological suffering. The past returns as pain, reinforcing his idea that modern consciousness is divided between aspiration (Ideal) and despair (Spleen). |
| “If the word doesn’t exist, invent it.” | Language as Creation / Poet’s Authority | Baudelaire affirms the poet’s creative power to reshape language itself. Words are not fixed but must bend to expressive need—aligning with his critique of realism and his advocacy for imaginative re-creation. |
| “He who looks through an open window sees fewer things than he who looks through a closed window.” | Perception / Imaginative Projection | A closed window forces the imagination to work, transforming limitation into a generative space for vision. This exemplifies Baudelaire’s belief that imagination—not empirical observation—produces artistic truth. |
Criticism of the Ideas of Charles Baudelaire as a Literary Theorist
Over-Reliance on Subjectivity in Criticism
- Baudelaire insists criticism must be “partial, passionate, and political,” which many scholars argue collapses critical distance.
- His method privileges temperament over analysis, risking emotional bias rather than objective evaluation.
- Opponents argue that this weakens the universality and rigor of criticism.
• Ambiguity and Vagueness in Key Concepts (e.g., Modernité, Spleen, the Ideal)
- Baudelaire’s central concepts remain elusive, metaphorical, and not systematically defined.
- “Modernity” as “the ephemeral and eternal” is memorable but abstract, leaving room for contradictory interpretations.
- Critics suggest that his theoretical vocabulary functions more poetically than analytically.
• Romanticization of Suffering and Melancholy
- His valorization of spleen, ennui, and psychological torment is seen as glamorizing suffering.
- Later critics accuse him of aestheticizing despair instead of diagnosing or resisting it.
- This tendency influenced Symbolists toward a cult of morbidity and decadence.
• Problematic Moral Philosophy Underlying His Aesthetics
- His notion that “goodness is an art” and “evil is effortless” has been criticized as fatalistic.
- Critics argue that this aligns too closely with theological pessimism and undermines moral agency.
- His fascination with the devil, evil, and corruption is seen as self-indulgent.
• Limited Social Awareness / Elitism
- Baudelaire’s focus on the flâneur positions the observer as a detached, upper-class male gazing upon crowds.
- This perspective ignores class struggle, labor exploitation, and structural oppression in urban modernity.
- Feminist critics argue that his portrayal of women as muses, seductresses, or monsters reflects a male-centric aesthetic ideology.
• Aestheticism at the Expense of Ethics
- Baudelaire’s belief that beauty may arise from the grotesque or bizarre has been criticized for its moral neutrality.
- The idea that the beautiful is “always bizarre” risks severing aesthetics from ethical responsibility.
- Critics argue that his aesthetics enables decadence and detachment from moral realities.
• Hostility Toward Realism and Photography
- Baudelaire’s strong critique of photography (“it appeals to imagination only by negation”) is often viewed as reactionary.
- He fails to anticipate how photography and realism become innovative artistic forms.
- His dismissal of realism has been called narrow and elitist.
• Self-Contradiction Between Theory and Practice
- He advocates imaginative freedom but also imposes rigid aesthetic preferences (e.g., Delacroix as the ideal artist).
- His own poetry sometimes contradicts his theory: for example, his obsession with the grotesque complicates his doctrine of beauty.
- This inconsistency leads some theorists to call his criticism “brilliant but unsystematic.”
• Dependence on Metaphysical and Theological Categories
- Ideas such as the “fallen nature of man,” “Satanic laughter,” and the moral duality of good/evil root his theory in theology.
- Critics argue that this makes his theory incompatible with secular or materialist aesthetics.
- His theological metaphors can obscure aesthetic analysis.
• Elitist and Male-Centric Urban Vision
- His flâneur is a solitary male wanderer with leisure—unrepresentative of ordinary urban experience.
- Women appear mostly as objects of desire, fear, or symbolic functions, not as independent subjects.
- Postcolonial and feminist critics question the universality of his urban modernity.
Suggested Readings on Charles Baudelaire as a Literary Theorist
Books
- Baudelaire, Charles. Baudelaire as a Literary Critic: Selected Essays. Translated and edited by Lois Boe Hyslop and Francis E. Hyslop Jr., Pennsylvania State University Press, 1964.
- (You may use one of the uploaded files) Baudelaire, Charles. The Mirror of Art: Critical Studies. Anchor Books Edition.
Academic Articles - Newmark, Kenneth. “Now You See It, Now You Don’t: Baudelaire’s ‘Modernité’.” Journal of European Studies, vol. 45, no. 3, 2015, pp. 220-240. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/44122735.
- Lubecker, N. “21st Century Baudelaire? The Affective Ecology of Le Crépuscule du soir.” Oxford Literary Review, vol. 42, 2020, pp. 1-22. Oxford University Research Archive, https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid%3A93006aac-e59f-403d-8970-0235281110a1/files/m50de8faf51b4d727d0ccb5e5fe9474ab.pdf.
Websites
- “Charles Baudelaire.” Poetry Foundation, Poetry Foundation, https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/charles-baudelaire.
- “Symbolism, Aestheticism and Charles Baudelaire.” Literariness, 13 Nov. 2017, https://literariness.org/2017/11/13/symbolism-aestheticism-and-charles-baudelaire/.
