December 16, 2025 - English Studies

Ferdinand de Saussure as a Literary Theorist

Ferdinand de Saussure as a Literary Theorist is best understood through his foundational quality as a structural thinker who reconceptualized language not as a mere nomenclature of things but as a self-regulating system of differences that generates meaning.

Introduction: Ferdinand de Saussure as a Literary Theorist

Ferdinand de Saussure as a Literary Theorist is best understood through his foundational quality as a structural thinker who reconceptualized language not as a mere nomenclature of things but as a self-regulating system of differences that generates meaning. Born in Geneva in 1857, Saussure received early training in classical languages and later studied historical and comparative linguistics at Leipzig and Berlin, where he earned his doctorate with distinction, before teaching in Paris and ultimately at the University of Geneva. Although he published little during his lifetime, his posthumously compiled Course in General Linguistics (1916) transformed literary and cultural theory by introducing key ideas such as the arbitrariness of the sign, the binary structure of signifier and signified, and the distinction between langue (the underlying system of language) and parole (individual utterance). Saussure famously asserts that “in language there are only differences without positive terms” (Course 120), a claim that redirected literary criticism from authorial intention and historical reference to relational structures within texts. His insistence that language is “a system in which all the terms are interdependent” (Course 113) laid the theoretical groundwork for structuralism and later developments in narratology, semiotics, and poststructuralism. As Jonathan Culler aptly observes, Saussure’s work “made possible the application of structural analysis to literature by redefining meaning as a product of relations rather than reference” (Culler 19), thereby securing Saussure’s enduring status as a central—if indirect—figure in modern literary theory.

Major Works of Ferdinand de Saussure as a Literary Theorist

· Course in General Linguistics(1916)

Compiled posthumously by Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye from Saussure’s lectures delivered at the University of Geneva (1907–1911).
This work constitutes Saussure’s most influential contribution to literary theory, semiotics, and structuralism, despite not being authored directly by him.

Introduces the foundational concept of the linguistic sign, composed of the signifier (sound-image) and the signified (concept).
Establishes the principle of arbitrariness, asserting that meaning arises from convention rather than natural resemblance.
Formulates the crucial distinction between langue (the abstract system of language) and parole (individual speech acts), which later shaped structuralist literary analysis.

Emphasizes meaning as relational, not referential, famously stating:

“In language there are only differences without positive terms” (Saussure 120).

This idea directly influenced literary critics to analyze texts as systems of relations rather than expressions of authorial intention or historical reality.
Saussure further defines language as an internally structured system:

“Language is a system in which all the parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity” (Saussure 113).

· Mémoire sur le système primitif des voyelles dans les langues indo-européennes(1879)

Saussure’s early scholarly masterpiece written at the age of twenty-one, establishing his reputation as a rigorous structural thinker.
Though a technical linguistic study, it anticipates structuralist methodology by privileging systematic relations over empirical data.

Demonstrates that linguistic elements derive meaning from their position within a structure, not from intrinsic properties.
Jonathan Culler notes that this work reveals Saussure’s lifelong commitment to structural explanation:

“The Mémoire already exhibits Saussure’s insistence on relational explanation rather than historical accumulation” (Culler 16).

This relational logic later becomes central to literary structuralism, especially in narratology and poetics.

· Anagram Notebooks(written c. 1906–1909; published later)

A collection of unpublished notebooks in which Saussure explored hidden phonetic patterns (anagrams or hypograms) in ancient poetry, particularly Latin verse.
Reveals Saussure’s intense interest in poetic language, repetition, and unconscious textual structures.

Although controversial, these notebooks significantly influenced later theorists concerned with textual unconscious, intertextuality, and poetic structure.
Jean Starobinski argues that the anagram studies expose a literary dimension of Saussure often overlooked:

“Saussure listens to the text as a network of echoes rather than as a vehicle of meaning alone” (Starobinski 23).

The notebooks prefigure poststructuralist concerns with latent textual mechanisms and the instability of meaning.

· Essai sur les langues(1872, unpublished early manuscript)

Written during Saussure’s adolescence, this early essay reflects his precocious attempt to theorize language as a unified system.
Demonstrates his early fascination with underlying linguistic structures rather than surface usage.

Though immature, it foreshadows his later insistence on abstraction and systematization.
Scholars regard it as the conceptual seed of his later theoretical framework (Bouissac 38).

· Influence through Secondary Theoretical Reception (via Structuralism)

Saussure’s ideas entered literary theory largely through later thinkers rather than through literary texts authored by him.

His concepts were foundational for:
- Claude Lévi-Strauss (structural anthropology)
- Roland Barthes (structuralist and semiotic literary criticism)
- Roman Jakobson (structural poetics)
Culler underscores Saussure’s decisive literary impact:

“Saussure made possible a theory of literature in which meaning is produced by systems of conventions rather than mimetic representation” (Culler 19).

Major Literary Ideas of Ferdinand de Saussure as a Literary Theorist

Literary Idea	Explanation (Literary Perspective)	Key Quotation
Language as a System (Structuralism)	Saussure reconceptualizes language as a self-contained system whose elements derive meaning from their relations within the whole. Literary texts, therefore, should be analyzed as structured systems rather than as reflections of reality or authorial intention.	“Language is a system in which all the terms are interdependent” (Saussure 113).
The Linguistic Sign	Every linguistic unit consists of two inseparable components: the signifier (sound/image) and the signified (concept). Literary meaning emerges from the interaction of these components, not from reference to external reality.	“The linguistic sign unites, not a thing and a name, but a concept and a sound-image” (Saussure 66).
Arbitrariness of the Sign	There is no natural or inherent connection between words and what they signify. This idea undermines mimetic theories of literature and emphasizes convention, making literary meaning culturally constructed rather than fixed.	“The bond between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary” (Saussure 67).
Meaning through Difference	Meaning does not arise from positive content but from contrast and opposition within the linguistic system. In literature, words, motifs, and symbols gain significance only through difference from others.	“In language there are only differences without positive terms” (Saussure 120).
Langue and Parole	Langue refers to the underlying abstract system of language; parole refers to individual utterances. Literary criticism focuses on langue—the codes, genres, and conventions governing texts—rather than isolated expressions.	“Langue is social; parole is individual” (Saussure 14).
Synchrony vs. Diachrony	Saussure privileges synchronic analysis (language at a given moment) over diachronic (historical development). Structuralist literary criticism similarly analyzes texts as complete systems rather than tracing historical evolution alone.	“The opposition between synchrony and diachrony is absolute and allows no compromise” (Saussure 88).
Relational Value of Signs	A sign’s value depends on its position within the system, not on intrinsic meaning. In literary texts, themes, characters, and symbols acquire value through narrative and structural relations.	“The value of a term is determined by what surrounds it” (Saussure 115).
Foundation of Semiology	Saussure proposes a general science of signs (semiology), of which literature is a central domain. Literary texts are treated as sign-systems governed by codes and conventions.	“A science that studies the life of signs within society… I shall call it semiology” (Saussure 16).
Text over Author	By prioritizing systems over individuals, Saussure indirectly shifts focus away from authorial intention. This paves the way for later theories emphasizing textual autonomy (e.g., Barthes’ “Death of the Author”).	“The individual does not create the system; he registers it” (Saussure 72).
Influence on Structuralist Literary Criticism	Saussure’s ideas form the theoretical foundation for structuralist and poststructuralist literary theory, influencing Barthes, Lévi-Strauss, Jakobson, and narratology.	“Saussure made possible a theory of literature based on relations rather than reference” (Culler 19).

Theoretical Terms/Concepts of Ferdinand de Saussure as a Literary Theorist

Term / Concept	Explanation (Literary-Theoretical Context)	Key Reference / Quotation
Sign	The basic unit of meaning in language and literature. A sign is not a word-object relation but a mental construct functioning within a system. Literary texts are networks of signs rather than reflections of reality.	“The linguistic sign unites… a concept and a sound-image” (Saussure 66).
Signifier	The material or perceptible form of the sign (sound, written word, image). In literature, signifiers (words, metaphors, symbols) generate multiple meanings depending on context.	“The signifier is the sound-image” (Saussure 66).
Signified	The conceptual meaning associated with the signifier. Literary meaning is conceptual, not referential, and remains culturally conditioned and unstable.	“The signified is the concept” (Saussure 66).
Arbitrariness of the Sign	There is no natural link between signifier and signified. Literary language is conventional, undermining mimetic or realist theories of representation.	“The bond between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary” (Saussure 67).
Langue	The abstract, collective system of language governing grammar, genres, and codes. Literary criticism focuses on langue—shared conventions shaping texts.	“Langue is social in its essence” (Saussure 14).
Parole	Individual acts of speech or writing. A literary text is an instance of parole, structured by the rules of langue.	“Parole is individual and willful” (Saussure 14).
Synchrony	The study of language at a given moment as a complete system. Structuralist literary criticism adopts synchronic analysis to examine texts as closed systems.	“The synchronic state excludes diachronic considerations” (Saussure 87).
Diachrony	The historical evolution of language over time. Saussure subordinates diachrony to synchrony, influencing anti-historicist literary analysis.	“Diachronic facts are unrelated to synchronic facts” (Saussure 88).
Difference	Meaning arises from difference and opposition, not positive essence. In literature, themes and symbols gain meaning relationally.	“In language there are only differences without positive terms” (Saussure 120).
Value (Valeur)	The meaning-value of a sign determined by its position in the system. Literary elements acquire significance through contrast with others.	“The value of a term is determined by what surrounds it” (Saussure 115).
Syntagmatic Relations	Linear relations between signs in sequence (sentence, narrative). Literary structure depends on syntagmatic ordering of words and events.	“Syntagmatic relations exist in praesentia” (Saussure 123).
Paradigmatic Relations	Associative relations among signs that can substitute for each other. Literary meaning emerges from choices among alternatives (e.g., metaphor).	“Associative relations exist in absentia” (Saussure 123).
Semiology	A proposed general science of signs. Literature is treated as a semiotic system governed by codes and conventions.	“A science that studies the life of signs within society… I call it semiology” (Saussure 16).
Relational Meaning	Meaning is produced internally within the system, not by reference to external reality. Literature is autonomous and self-regulating.	“Language is a form, not a substance” (Saussure 122).
Textual Autonomy (Implied)	Saussure’s system-centered theory indirectly marginalizes authorial intention, paving the way for structuralist and poststructuralist criticism.	“The individual does not create the system” (Saussure 72).
Structural Method	A method of analysis focusing on relations, oppositions, and systems rather than content or biography.	“What is essential is not the meaning itself but the relations” (Culler 19).

Application of Theoretical Ideas of Ferdinand de Saussure as a Literary Theorist To Literary Works

Application to Hamlet by William Shakespeare
- Saussure’s idea that meaning arises through difference helps explain Hamlet’s identity, which is defined in opposition to Claudius (action vs. hesitation), Laertes (impulsiveness vs. reflection), and Fortinbras (political action vs. moral inquiry).
- The play operates as a system of signs, where symbols like the ghost, madness, and poison gain meaning relationally rather than intrinsically.
- Hamlet’s famous soliloquy (“To be or not to be”) exemplifies paradigmatic relations, presenting binary oppositions (being/non-being, action/inaction) that structure meaning.
- A synchronic reading focuses on how these oppositions function within the play’s structure rather than tracing Elizabethan history.
- Hamlet’s speeches (parole) are governed by the dramatic and linguistic conventions (langue) of tragedy.
Application to Heart of Darkness by Joseph Conrad
- Saussure’s principle of arbitrariness of the sign exposes how terms like “civilization,” “savagery,” and “darkness” have no fixed meaning but shift according to context.
- The word “darkness” gains value through contrast with “light,” revealing colonial ideology as a linguistic construct rather than a moral truth.
- The novella functions as a semiological system, where Africa becomes a signifier loaded with European conceptual meanings rather than an objective reality.
- Meaning is produced through difference, not reference—“civilized” Europe is defined only by opposition to the constructed “primitive” Other.
- A Saussurean reading emphasizes the instability of signifieds, paving the way for postcolonial interpretations.
Application to Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen
- Social identities (gentleman, lady, marriageable woman) operate as linguistic signs, defined by their position within a social system.
- Elizabeth Bennet and Darcy acquire meaning through relational value, particularly through contrasts in class, manners, and speech.
- Marriage functions as a cultural code (langue), while individual romantic choices represent parole.
- Misunderstandings in the novel arise from unstable signifiers, such as Darcy’s reserve being interpreted as arrogance.
- A synchronic analysis highlights how Austen’s narrative system regulates meaning without requiring historical background.
Application to The Waste Land by T. S. Eliot
- The poem exemplifies Saussure’s claim that language is “a form, not a substance,” as meaning emerges from fragmentation and relational patterns.
- Repeated images (water, dryness, ruins) function as signifiers whose meanings shift depending on textual placement.
- The poem relies heavily on paradigmatic relations, drawing on myth, religion, and literature as absent but implied alternatives.
- Eliot’s intertextual method illustrates semiology, where literary tradition itself becomes a system of signs.
- Meaning is not author-centered but system-generated, reinforcing Saussure’s influence on modernist aesthetics.

Key Saussurean Concepts Applied Across the Texts

Meaning is relational, not referential
Literary texts function as self-contained sign systems
Binary oppositions structure narrative and character
Emphasis on structure (langue) over individual expression (parole)
Preference for synchronic analysis over historical explanation

Representative Quotations of Ferdinand de Saussure as a Literary Theorist

Quotation	Explanation (Literary-Theoretical Significance)
“Without language, thought is a vague, uncharted nebula.”	This statement underlines Saussure’s foundational claim that thought does not pre-exist language. In literary theory, it implies that meaning in texts is produced by linguistic structures, not by pre-linguistic ideas or authorial intention.
“Psychologically our thought—apart from its expression in words—is only a shapeless and indistinct mass.”	Reinforces the idea that language shapes cognition. Literary meaning, therefore, is inseparable from verbal form, supporting close textual and structural analysis.
“A linguistic system is a series of differences of sound combined with a series of differences of ideas.”	This quotation encapsulates Saussure’s theory of difference, central to structuralist literary criticism, where words, images, and motifs gain meaning only through contrast.
“In language there are only differences without positive terms.”	One of Saussure’s most influential ideas for literary theory. It rejects fixed meanings and supports reading literature as a relational system of signs, anticipating poststructuralism.
“Speech has both an individual and a social side, and we cannot conceive of one without the other.”	Forms the basis of the langue/parole distinction. In literary studies, individual texts (parole) are governed by shared linguistic and generic conventions (langue).
“Time changes all things; there is no reason why language should escape this universal law.”	Acknowledges linguistic change (diachrony) while still privileging synchronic analysis. Literary critics apply this to balance historical context with structural reading.
“For the study of language to remain solely the business of a handful of specialists would be a quite unacceptable state of affairs.”	Suggests that language—and by extension literature—is a social phenomenon, justifying its study across disciplines including literary criticism, anthropology, and philosophy.
“A science that studies the life of signs within society… I shall call it semiology.”	Establishes the theoretical foundation for semiotics, allowing literature to be studied as a system of signs governed by codes and conventions.
“Language is a form, not a substance.”	A crucial statement for modern literary theory: meaning arises from structure and relations, not from material or referential content.
“I’m almost never serious, and I’m always too serious… I’m like a collection of paradoxes.”	Though autobiographical, this remark reflects the tensions and dualities (system/use, stability/change) that characterize Saussure’s theory and later structuralist thought.

Criticism of the Ideas of Ferdinand de Saussure as a Literary Theorist

· Over-emphasis on Structure at the Expense of Meaning

Saussure’s focus on language as an autonomous system (langue) downplays semantic depth, emotional resonance, and lived experience in literature.

Critics argue that literary meaning cannot be fully explained through structural relations alone.

· Neglect of Historical and Cultural Context (Anti-Historicism)

By privileging synchronic analysis over diachronic study, Saussure marginalizes history, ideology, and social change.
Marxist and New Historicist critics contend that texts are inseparable from historical forces and material conditions.

· Marginalization of the Author and Intentionality

Saussure’s system-centered model minimizes the role of authorial intention.
Humanist critics argue that literature is also a product of conscious creativity, personal vision, and ethical responsibility.

· Reduction of Literature to Linguistic Codes

Treating literature primarily as a system of signs risks reducing aesthetic experience to technical analysis.
Critics claim that poetry, irony, and ambiguity exceed purely linguistic explanation.

· Problem of Fixed Structures

Structuralism inspired by Saussure assumes relatively stable systems.
Poststructuralists (notably Derrida) argue that meaning is inherently unstable and endlessly deferred, even within structures.

· Binary Oppositions Are Over-Simplified

Saussurean analysis relies heavily on binaries (signifier/signified, langue/parole).
Feminist and postcolonial critics argue that such binaries often reproduce hierarchies and suppress marginalized meanings.

· Insufficient Attention to Power and Ideology

Saussure treats language as neutral, ignoring how power relations shape meaning.

Later theorists (Foucault, Althusser) emphasize discourse as a site of ideological control, absent in Saussure’s model.

· Limited Applicability Beyond Language

While Saussure proposed semiology, critics argue that linguistic models cannot fully explain visual arts, literature, or cultural practices.
Literature involves imagination, emotion, and ambiguity beyond structural regularities.

· Dependence on a Posthumous Text

Course in General Linguistics was compiled by students, not written by Saussure himself.

Scholars question whether the “Saussurean system” accurately reflects his nuanced and sometimes tentative thinking.

· Challenged by Poststructuralism

Derrida’s critique of the sign undermines the stability of the signified assumed by Saussure.
Poststructuralism exposes internal contradictions within Saussure’s framework, particularly regarding meaning and difference.

“Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian: A Critical Analysis

“Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian first appeared in 2011 in her poetry collection The Book of Lamenting (Anhinga Press), and it articulates a deeply empathetic meditation on the immigrant experience through the formal structure and diction of a prayer.

Introduction: “Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian

“Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian first appeared in 2011 in her poetry collection The Book of Lamenting (Anhinga Press), and it articulates a deeply empathetic meditation on the immigrant experience through the formal structure and diction of a prayer. The poem foregrounds bureaucratic fatigue and emotional displacement—“long lines,” “pages of paperwork,” and “fingers growing tired of holding handrails”—while simultaneously invoking memory as sustenance, recalling the “cobalt Mediterranean” and “green valleys full of vineyards and sheep” as symbols of a lost yet sustaining homeland. Bedikian juxtaposes alienation in the host country, where “peoples’ words resemble the buzz / of beehives,” with intimate cultural markers such as “worry beads,” balconies, rugs, and vegetables, reinforcing the tension between linguistic estrangement and emotional belonging. The climactic recollection of arrival—“We arrived. Yes, thank God we made it, we are here”—captures both relief and lingering uncertainty, encapsulating migration as survival rather than closure. The poem’s popularity stems from its universalization of immigrant vulnerability through spare, lyrical imagery and its refusal of political rhetoric in favor of human tenderness, prayerful humility, and shared memory, allowing readers across diasporas to recognize their own histories within its lines (Bedikian, 2011).

Text: “Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian

While they wait in long lines, legs shifting,
fingers growing tired of holding handrails,
pages of paperwork, give them patience.
Help them to recall the cobalt Mediterranean
or the green valleys full of vineyards and sheep.
When peoples’ words resemble the buzz
of beehives, help them to hear the music
of home, sung from balconies overflowing
with woven rugs and bundled vegetables.
At night, when the worry beads are held
in one palm and a cigarette lit in the other,
give them the memory of their first step
onto solid land, after much ocean, air and clouds,
remind them of the phone call back home saying,
We arrived. Yes, thank God we made it, we are here.

Annotations: “Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian

Line / Stanza	Annotation with Literary Devices
While they wait in long lines, legs shifting,	The line captures physical discomfort and prolonged uncertainty faced by immigrants, emphasizing enforced waiting as a lived bodily experience. ◆ Imagery (visual/kinesthetic: “long lines,” “legs shifting”) ■ Enjambment (carries tension forward) ▲ Realism (bureaucratic setting)
fingers growing tired of holding handrails,	Focuses on physical strain and vulnerability, suggesting dependence and exhaustion. ◆ Imagery (tactile fatigue) ● Metonymy (handrails = institutional control/support) ■ Enjambment
pages of paperwork, give them patience.	Bureaucracy is foregrounded; the speaker’s prayer directly intervenes with compassion. ★ Apostrophe (direct appeal/prayer) ● Synecdoche (“paperwork” for immigration system) ☼ Theme: Bureaucratic burden
Help them to recall the cobalt Mediterranean	Memory acts as refuge; vivid color idealizes homeland. ◆ Color Imagery (“cobalt”) ✦ Nostalgia ▲ Symbolism (sea = origin/freedom)
or the green valleys full of vineyards and sheep.	Pastoral imagery contrasts sharply with present hardship, idealizing lost simplicity. ◆ Pastoral Imagery ▲ Contrast (homeland vs. exile) ● Symbolism (fertility, peace)
When peoples’ words resemble the buzz	Language barriers are rendered as noise, emphasizing alienation. ★ Simile (“resemble the buzz”) ☼ Theme: Linguistic alienation ◆ Auditory Imagery
of beehives, help them to hear the music	Extends the simile; shifts from chaos to harmony through prayer. ★ Extended Simile ▲ Metaphor (music = belonging) ■ Enjambment
of home, sung from balconies overflowing	Communal memory and cultural intimacy are evoked. ◆ Visual & Auditory Imagery ✦ Cultural Symbolism (balconies as social spaces)
with woven rugs and bundled vegetables.	Domestic objects embody heritage, continuity, and sustenance. ● Concrete Imagery ▲ Symbolism (tradition, survival) ☼ Theme: Cultural rootedness
At night, when the worry beads are held	Night signals anxiety and introspection; religious practice provides solace. ▲ Symbolism (night = fear) ● Religious Imagery (worry beads)
in one palm and a cigarette lit in the other,	Juxtaposes faith and habit, spirituality and coping mechanisms. ◆ Juxtaposition ● Symbolism (prayer vs. addiction) ☼ Theme: Human vulnerability
give them the memory of their first step	Recollection of arrival reframes trauma as survival. ✦ Memory Motif ▲ Metaphor (first step = rebirth)
onto solid land, after much ocean, air and clouds,	Migration is mythologized as an odyssey; survival against vast elements. ▲ Epic Metaphor ◆ Spatial Imagery ☼ Theme: Journey and endurance
remind them of the phone call back home saying,	Emotional climax; communication bridges displacement. ★ Direct Address ✦ Motif: Connection
We arrived. Yes, thank God we made it, we are here.	Affirmation of survival, gratitude, and presence; spiritual closure. ● Direct Speech ▲ Religious Diction (“thank God”) ☼ Theme: Arrival & survival

Literary And Poetic Devices: “Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian

Literary Device	Example from the Poem	Explanation
❀ Alliteration	“balconies overflowing / with woven rugs”	Repetition of initial consonant sounds of “w” creates softness and musical flow, reinforcing nostalgia.
✿ Anaphora	“give them patience,” “help them to recall”	Repetition at the beginning of clauses emphasizes the prayer-like appeal and urgency.
❁ Apostrophe	Address to an unnamed divine presence	The speaker directly addresses a higher power, reinforcing the devotional mode of the poem.
❀ Assonance	“long lines… holding handrails”	Repetition of vowel sounds enhances rhythm and emotional cohesion.
✿ Collective Voice	“my immigrant relatives”	Represents a shared diasporic experience rather than a single individual’s story.
❁ Contrast	“buzz / of beehives” vs. “music / of home”	Juxtaposes alienation with belonging, intensifying the sense of displacement.
❀ Cultural Symbolism	“worry beads”	Symbolize anxiety, faith, and cultural continuity within immigrant life.
✿ Diasporic Imagery	“first step / onto solid land”	Evokes migration, exile, and the emotional weight of arrival.
❁ Enjambment	Lines run on without punctuation	Creates fluid movement, mirroring the ongoing immigrant journey.
❀ Imagery	“cobalt Mediterranean”	Vivid visual imagery recalls homeland and emotional attachment.
✿ Invocation	“give them patience”	Mimics religious supplication, reinforcing humility and hope.
❁ Metaphor	“words resemble the buzz / of beehives”	Language is portrayed as noise, symbolizing linguistic alienation.
❀ Motif	Recurrent memories of home and arrival	Memory functions as emotional survival for displaced people.
✿ Oxymoron (Implied)	Relief and uncertainty in “We are here”	Suggests arrival without full resolution or belonging.
❁ Pathos	“fingers growing tired”	Appeals to empathy by highlighting physical and emotional exhaustion.
❀ Prayer Form	Entire poem structured as a prayer	Elevates everyday immigrant struggles into sacred endurance.
✿ Repetition	Recurrent requests for patience and memory	Reinforces vulnerability and emotional persistence.
❁ Sensory Detail	“a cigarette lit in the other”	Appeals to sight and smell, grounding abstract emotion in lived reality.
❀ Symbolism	“handrails”	Represent instability, dependence, and lack of control in migration.
✿ Tone	Gentle, reverent, compassionate	Establishes intimacy and moral seriousness throughout the poem.

Themes: “Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian

◆ Theme 1: Bureaucracy, Waiting, and Institutional Fatigue

“Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian foregrounds the dehumanizing experience of bureaucracy as a defining condition of immigrant life, particularly through images of prolonged waiting, physical strain, and relentless documentation. The opening references to “long lines,” weary limbs, and cumbersome paperwork transform administrative routines into embodied suffering, revealing how institutions regulate not only movement but also endurance and patience. These bureaucratic spaces are depicted as emotionally sterile and morally indifferent, requiring compliance while offering no recognition of human vulnerability. The poem’s prayerful voice does not rage against these systems; instead, it exposes their cruelty through compassion, asking for patience on behalf of those who must submit to them. This restrained tone intensifies the critique, as it highlights the imbalance between institutional power and individual fragility. Ultimately, bureaucracy emerges as an invisible yet pervasive force that delays belonging and compels immigrants to survive in states of suspension.

■ Theme 2: Memory and the Idealized Homeland

“Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian presents memory as an emotional sanctuary that counters the alienation of displacement. Through luminous images of the “cobalt Mediterranean” and verdant valleys filled with vineyards and sheep, the poet constructs an idealized homeland rooted in sensory richness and cultural continuity. These recollections are not mere nostalgia; they function as psychological sustenance that enables immigrants to endure present hardship. The remembered landscapes stand in stark contrast to the impersonal environments of immigration offices, thereby intensifying the sense of loss that accompanies exile. Memory in the poem is collective rather than private, encompassing shared sights, sounds, and domestic practices that affirm identity. By praying for the preservation of such memories, Bedikian underscores their vulnerability in the face of assimilation and bureaucratic erasure. Thus, memory becomes both an act of resistance and a means of emotional survival.

▲ Theme 3: Language, Alienation, and the Search for Belonging

“Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian explores linguistic alienation as a profound barrier to belonging, particularly through the simile that compares unfamiliar speech to the “buzz of beehives.” This image captures the overwhelming noise and incomprehensibility faced by immigrants navigating new social environments, where language fails to offer connection. However, the poem shifts from this dissonance toward the remembered “music of home,” suggesting that belonging is anchored in emotional familiarity rather than linguistic mastery alone. Songs sung from balconies and communal sounds replace bureaucratic speech, evoking intimacy, warmth, and shared cultural memory. Through this contrast, Bedikian demonstrates how language can both estrange and sustain, depending on context. The prayer seeks not dominance over a foreign tongue but inner coherence amid confusion. In this way, the poem reimagines belonging as affective recognition rather than institutional acceptance.

★ Theme 4: Faith, Survival, and Gratitude after Arrival

“Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian culminates in a spiritual reflection on survival, where faith intertwines with memory, endurance, and gratitude. The image of worry beads held alongside a lit cigarette encapsulates the tension between spiritual devotion and human frailty, suggesting that faith persists amid anxiety and imperfection. The recollection of the first step onto “solid land” elevates arrival into a symbolic rebirth following an epic journey across ocean, air, and clouds. The emotional climax emerges in the remembered phone call home—“We arrived… thank God we made it”—which fuses relief, gratitude, and communal affirmation. The concluding declaration, “we are here,” affirms presence itself as triumph. Rather than celebrating success, the poem honors survival, presenting faith as a quiet but sustaining force that sanctifies endurance.

Literary Theories and “Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian

Literary Theory	Reference from the Poem	Interpretation / Application
❀ Postcolonial Theory	“peoples’ words resemble the buzz / of beehives”	Highlights linguistic alienation and cultural marginalization faced by immigrants in dominant societies, a central concern of postcolonial studies.
✿ Diaspora Studies	“first step / onto solid land, after much ocean”	Emphasizes displacement, border-crossing, and the emotional trauma of migration, framing identity as suspended between homeland and host land.
❁ Reader-Response Theory	“We arrived. Yes, thank God we made it, we are here.”	Invites readers—especially immigrants and descendants of migrants—to project their own experiences of arrival and survival onto the text.
❀ Religious / Spiritual Criticism	“give them patience,” “help them to recall”	Interprets the poem as a modern psalm where faith becomes a coping mechanism for uncertainty, fear, and endurance in exile.

Critical Questions about “Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian

◆ Critical Question 1: How does the poem critique immigration systems without overt political argument?

“Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian critiques immigration systems indirectly by foregrounding the embodied and emotional consequences of bureaucracy rather than naming policies or institutions explicitly. The poem’s focus on waiting, fatigue, and repetitive paperwork exposes how administrative processes dehumanize individuals by reducing them to documents and queues. By adopting the form of a prayer, Bedikian avoids polemical language and instead appeals to empathy, positioning institutional cruelty as something that must be endured rather than confronted directly. This stylistic choice is significant because it reveals how power operates quietly, through delay and exhaustion rather than visible violence. The absence of overt political rhetoric intensifies the critique, as readers are invited to witness suffering as ordinary and normalized. The poem’s restrained tone mirrors the powerlessness of immigrants themselves, thereby transforming personal vulnerability into an implicit condemnation of systems that demand patience while withholding dignity and recognition.

■ Critical Question 2: What role does memory play in sustaining immigrant identity in the poem?

“Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian presents memory as a crucial mechanism for preserving identity amid displacement and institutional alienation. Recollections of the “cobalt Mediterranean” and fertile valleys function as emotional anchors that reconnect immigrants to a coherent sense of self rooted in place, culture, and communal life. These memories are not passive recollections but active sources of resilience that counteract the erasure produced by bureaucratic processes and linguistic marginalization. By invoking vivid sensory details, the poem suggests that memory preserves what official systems cannot acknowledge—heritage, intimacy, and belonging. Importantly, memory in the poem is collective rather than individual, encompassing shared landscapes, sounds, and domestic rituals that affirm continuity across generations. The prayerful plea to “help them recall” underscores the fragility of these memories under the pressures of assimilation. Thus, memory becomes an act of resistance against forgetting and a means of psychological survival.

▲ Critical Question 3: How does the poem represent language as both alienating and sustaining?

“Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian portrays language as a double-edged force that simultaneously isolates and comforts immigrants. The simile comparing unfamiliar speech to the “buzz of beehives” conveys the overwhelming and dehumanizing experience of linguistic incomprehension, where words lose meaning and become indistinct noise. This depiction highlights how language can exclude immigrants from social participation, reinforcing their sense of invisibility. However, the poem counters this alienation by invoking the remembered “music of home,” sung from balconies and embedded in communal life. Here, language is intimate, rhythmic, and emotionally resonant, offering solace rather than confusion. Through this contrast, Bedikian suggests that belonging is not solely dependent on mastering a dominant language but on retaining affective connections to one’s own linguistic and cultural world. Language, therefore, becomes both a barrier imposed by exile and a sustaining force preserved through memory.

★ Critical Question 4: In what ways does faith function as a coping mechanism rather than a doctrinal solution?

“Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian presents faith not as a rigid system of belief but as a flexible, human coping mechanism that coexists with anxiety, habit, and imperfection. The image of worry beads held in one hand and a cigarette in the other captures this complexity, suggesting that spiritual reliance operates alongside worldly comforts and nervous habits. Faith in the poem does not promise resolution or justice; instead, it offers emotional endurance during moments of uncertainty and fear. The remembered phone call home—“thank God we made it”—illustrates faith as spontaneous gratitude rather than formal doctrine, emerging naturally from survival rather than ritual obligation. By framing the poem as a prayer, Bedikian emphasizes faith’s role in articulating vulnerability and hope when control is absent. Ultimately, faith functions as a quiet affirmation of survival, sanctifying endurance rather than overcoming hardship.

Literary Works Similar to “Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian

🌸 “Home” by Warsan Shire: Like Bedikian’s poem, this work articulates the trauma of displacement and exile, portraying migration as an act of survival shaped by fear, memory, and longing for a lost homeland.
✿ “Immigrant Picnic” by Gregory Djanikian: This poem similarly reconstructs immigrant identity through sensory memories of food, language, and family rituals, emphasizing cultural continuity amid assimilation pressures.

Representative Quotations of “Prayer for My Immigrant Relatives” by Lory Bedikian

Quotation	Context & Explanation	Theoretical Perspective
❀ “While they wait in long lines, legs shifting,”	Context: Depicts bureaucratic delay and physical exhaustion experienced by immigrants in official spaces, foregrounding vulnerability.	Postcolonial Theory: Highlights structural marginalization and the power imbalance between immigrants and state institutions.
✿ “pages of paperwork, give them patience.”	Context: Emphasizes administrative burden and emotional fatigue, framed through supplication rather than protest.	Diaspora Studies: Reveals how migration involves prolonged liminality rather than immediate settlement.
❁ “Help them to recall the cobalt Mediterranean”	Context: Introduces nostalgic memory of homeland as emotional refuge amid displacement.	Memory Studies: Memory functions as resistance against cultural erasure and psychic dislocation.
❀ “or the green valleys full of vineyards and sheep.”	Context: Pastoral imagery idealizes the lost homeland, contrasting sharply with present hardship.	Romantic Nostalgia (Cultural Criticism): The homeland is mythologized as pure and sustaining.
✿ “When peoples’ words resemble the buzz / of beehives,”	Context: Portrays linguistic alienation and communicative disorientation in the host society.	Postcolonial Linguistic Theory: Language becomes an instrument of exclusion and othering.
❁ “help them to hear the music / of home,”	Context: Suggests emotional survival through imagined sound and cultural memory.	Diasporic Aesthetics: Sensory memory preserves identity across geographical rupture.
❀ “At night, when the worry beads are held”	Context: Nighttime reflection connects anxiety with cultural and religious practice.	Religious / Spiritual Criticism: Faith operates as a coping mechanism for immigrant precarity.
✿ “give them the memory of their first step / onto solid land,”	Context: Recalls the moment of arrival as both relief and transformation.	Migration Theory: Arrival is symbolic rather than final, marking transition not closure.
❁ “after much ocean, air and clouds,”	Context: Accentuates the long, uncertain journey and sense of suspension between worlds.	Liminality Theory: Immigrants exist in an in-between state, neither fully here nor there.
❀ “We arrived. Yes, thank God we made it, we are here.”	Context: Captures collective relief and gratitude, yet subtly implies ongoing uncertainty.	Reader-Response Theory: Readers project their own migration narratives onto this moment of arrival.

Day: December 16, 2025