Confirmation Bias in Literature & Literary Theory

Confirmation Bias: Etymology, Meanings, and Concept

Etymology/Term:

Confirmation bias, a term prevalent in psychology and cognitive science, describes the tendency of individuals to favor information that confirms their pre-existing beliefs or hypotheses. The term originated from the concept of selectively reinforcing one’s existing views, thereby “confirming” what one already believes.

Meanings and Concept:

• Selective Perception: Individuals actively seek, interpret, and remember information that aligns with their existing beliefs, while disregarding or downplaying conflicting evidence.
• Cognitive Shortcut: It serves as a mental shortcut or heuristic, allowing people to process information efficiently by relying on their pre-existing beliefs rather than critically evaluating each piece of evidence.
• Influence on Decision-Making: It plays a significant role in decision-making, potentially leading to flawed judgments, reinforcing stereotypes, and hindering the acceptance of new information that challenges established beliefs.
• Psychological Comfort: It offers a sense of psychological comfort by validating existing opinions, contributing to the maintenance of a person’s cognitive and emotional equilibrium.
• Impact on Objectivity: The bias can distort objectivity, impeding the ability to assess situations impartially and fostering a closed-minded approach to information.

Understanding it is crucial in various fields, from psychology and sociology to decision science, as it sheds light on the ways individuals process information, make decisions, and navigate their cognitive landscapes.

Confirmation Bias: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Confirmation bias is a cognitive phenomenon where individuals tend to favor information that reinforces their existing beliefs while avoiding or downplaying contradictory evidence. This bias can lead to selective perception, where people actively seek and interpret information in a way that aligns with their preconceived notions. It has significant implications for decision-making, potentially distorting objectivity and hindering the acceptance of diverse perspectives or conflicting data.

Confirmation Bias: Theorists, Works and Argument

Theorists:

• Leon Festinger: In his theory of cognitive dissonance, Festinger highlighted bias as a mechanism to reduce discomfort by seeking information that aligns with existing beliefs.
• Peter Wason: Known for his work on the psychology of reasoning, Wason’s research on bias explored how individuals tend to selectively process information to confirm their hypotheses.
• Raymond Nickerson: Contributed extensively to the study of cognitive biases, including bias, emphasizing its role in shaping decision-making and information processing.

Key Works:

1. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance by Leon Festinger (1957): Festinger’s seminal work introduces bias as a component of cognitive dissonance theory, illustrating how individuals strive to maintain consistency in their beliefs.
2. Reasoning and the Explanation of Actions by Peter Wason (1968): Wason’s research in this work explores bias within the context of reasoning, shedding light on the mechanisms behind biased information processing.
3. Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises by Raymond Nickerson (1998): Nickerson’s comprehensive review delves into various manifestations of bias across different domains, emphasizing its pervasive nature.

Argument:

Confirmation bias, as explored by these theorists, is rooted in the human tendency to seek information that aligns with pre-existing beliefs while avoiding contradictory evidence. Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory suggests that individuals are motivated to maintain internal consistency, leading to biased information processing. Wason and Nickerson contribute insights into the cognitive mechanisms and contexts that drive confirmation bias, highlighting its ubiquitous presence in decision-making and reasoning processes.

Major Characteristics of Confirmation Bias:

1. Selective Perception: Individuals tend to actively seek, perceive, and remember information that confirms their existing beliefs while ignoring or downplaying contradictory evidence.
2. Cognitive Shortcut: It serves as a mental shortcut, allowing individuals to process information efficiently by relying on their pre-existing beliefs rather than critically evaluating each piece of evidence.
3. Influence on Decision-Making: It significantly affects decision-making processes, leading to biased judgments, reinforcing stereotypes, and hindering the acceptance of new information that challenges established beliefs.
4. Psychological Comfort: It provides a sense of psychological comfort by validating existing opinions, contributing to the maintenance of a person’s cognitive and emotional equilibrium.
5. Impact on Objectivity: The bias can distort objectivity, impeding the ability to assess situations impartially and fostering a closed-minded approach to information.

Literary Examples:

1. “To Kill a Mockingbird” by Harper Lee: It is evident in the racial prejudices of the characters, such as the biased perceptions of Tom Robinson’s guilt due to ingrained societal beliefs.
2. “1984” by George Orwell: It is reflected in the citizens’ acceptance of the Party’s propaganda, as they selectively perceive information that aligns with the regime’s narrative while disregarding dissenting views.
3. “The Crucible” by Arthur Miller: It is portrayed in the Salem witch trials, where characters selectively interpret events to confirm their preconceived notions about witchcraft and religious purity.
4. “Fahrenheit 451” by Ray Bradbury: The novel explores confirmation bias through the suppression of dissenting ideas, as individuals willingly conform to a society that reinforces their existing beliefs and rejects opposing viewpoints.
5. “The Lord of the Flies” by William Golding: It is evident in the group dynamics, where characters succumb to preconceived notions about each other, leading to conflict and violence based on biased perceptions.

Confirmation Bias: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance to Confirmation Bias
Psychoanalytic Theory:	Examines how confirmation bias can be rooted in the unconscious mind, influencing characters’ perceptions and actions based on repressed desires, fears, or unresolved conflicts.
Marxist Criticism:	Analyzes how confirmation bias can perpetuate social hierarchies and reinforce class distinctions, influencing characters’ perceptions of power dynamics and justifying existing societal structures.
Feminist Criticism:	Explores how confirmation bias may contribute to the perpetuation of gender stereotypes and the marginalization of certain voices, impacting characters’ attitudes towards gender roles and relationships.
Postcolonialism:	Investigates how confirmation bias can shape characters’ perceptions of the “other,” reinforcing colonial ideologies and influencing narratives that perpetuate stereotypes about colonized or marginalized groups.
Reader-Response Theory:	Examines how readers’ confirmation biases may influence their interpretations of a text, affecting their understanding of characters, themes, and the overall meaning of the narrative.

Confirmation bias is relevant across various literary theories, impacting characters’ perspectives, narrative dynamics, and reader interpretations. Each theory provides a unique lens through which to analyze how confirmation bias operates within literary works and their broader cultural contexts.

Confirmation Bias: Application in Critiques

1. To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee:
   • Analysis: In the novel, the confirmation bias is evident in the prejudiced attitudes of characters, particularly during Tom Robinson’s trial. Characters selectively perceive evidence that aligns with their racial biases, confirming their existing beliefs about the racial hierarchy in the society depicted.
2. 1984 by George Orwell:
   • Analysis: Orwell’s novel explores confirmation bias through the citizens’ acceptance of the Party’s propaganda. The characters selectively perceive information that aligns with the regime’s narrative, confirming their loyalty to the Party and disregarding dissenting views as misinformation.
3. The Crucible by Arthur Miller:
   • Analysis: Miller’s play delves into confirmation bias during the Salem witch trials, where characters selectively interpret events to confirm their preconceived notions about witchcraft. The confirmation bias leads to a collective hysteria based on biased perceptions and societal pressures.
4. Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury:
   • Analysis: Bradbury’s novel explores confirmation bias in a dystopian society where individuals willingly conform to a regime that reinforces their existing beliefs. The characters selectively perceive information that aligns with the government’s narrative, confirming their conformity to a censored and controlled worldview.

In each of these literary works, bias becomes a thematic element, shaping characters’ perceptions, influencing societal dynamics, and contributing to the conflicts depicted in the narratives. The critique of these works can involve an analysis of how confirmation bias operates within the context of the story, affecting character development and overarching themes.

Confirmation Bias: Relevant Terms

Theoretical Term	Brief Literary Critique Relevance
1. Cognitive Dissonance:	Explores characters’ internal conflicts.
2. Herd Mentality:	Influences societal pressures and character dynamics.
3. Selective Exposure:	Shapes characters’ perspectives and plot developments.
4. In-Group Bias:	Affects character alliances and conflicts.
5. Illusory Correlation:	Impacts character judgments based on false connections.
6. Groupthink:	Drives collective decision-making and plot developments.
7. Stereotyping:	Influences character interactions and societal representations.
8. Authority Bias:	Shapes characters’ obedience and narrative power dynamics.
9. False Consensus Effect:	Influences character perceptions in social dynamics.
10. Belief Perseverance:	Contributes to characters clinging to initial beliefs.

Confirmation Bias: Suggested Readings

1. Festinger, Leon. A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance. Stanford UP, 1957.
2. Gilovich, Thomas, Dale Griffin, and Daniel Kahneman, editors. Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment. Cambridge UP, 2002.
3. Nickerson, Raymond S. Confirmation Bias: A Ubiquitous Phenomenon in Many Guises. Review of General Psychology, vol. 2, no. 2, 1998, pp. 175–220.
4. Sunstein, Cass R., and Reid Hastie. Wiser: Getting Beyond Groupthink to Make Groups Smarter. Harvard UP, 2015.
5. Tavris, Carol, and Elliot Aronson. Mistakes Were Made (But Not by Me): Why We Justify Foolish Beliefs, Bad Decisions, and Hurtful Acts. Mariner Books, 2008.
6. Thaler, Richard H., and Cass R. Sunstein. Nudge: Improving Decisions About Health, Wealth, and Happiness. Penguin Books, 2009.
7. West, Richard F., and T. D. Brown. Theory of Addiction. Wiley, 2013.