Metaethics in Literature & Literary Theory

Metaethics: Etymology, Meanings and Concept

Etymology/Term:

The term “metaethics” is derived from the combination of two components: “meta,” meaning beyond or transcending, and “ethics,” referring to the study of moral values and principles. In philosophical discourse, metaethics serves as a higher-order examination that goes beyond normative ethics or applied ethics. It is concerned with analyzing the nature, origin, and meaning of ethical concepts, exploring questions about the objectivity of morality, the nature of moral truth, and the relationship between language and moral judgments.

Meanings and Concepts:

• Nature of Morality: Metaethics delves into the fundamental nature of morality, questioning whether moral principles are objective and universal or subjective and culturally relative.
• Moral Realism: Examines the position that there are objective moral facts, independent of human beliefs or attitudes, and contrasts it with moral anti-realism, which denies the existence of such objective moral truths.
• Cognitivism and Non-Cognitivism: Explores whether ethical statements express factual information (cognitivism) or are merely expressions of emotion or attitudes without truth-value (non-cognitivism).
• Moral Epistemology: Investigates how individuals come to know or understand moral truths, considering the role of reason, intuition, and cultural influences in moral knowledge.
• Moral Language: Analyzes the semantics and pragmatics of moral language, examining how moral terms function and whether they carry objective meaning.
• Free Will and Moral Responsibility: Discusses the implications of metaethical views on the concepts of free will and moral responsibility, exploring how our understanding of morality relates to questions of agency and accountability.

Metaethics: Definition of a Theoretical Term

Metaethics is a branch of philosophy that focuses on the analysis and examination of fundamental concepts within ethical discourse rather than prescribing specific moral principles. In metaethics, a theoretical term refers to a term that abstractly addresses fundamental aspects of morality, such as the nature of moral values, the existence of moral truths, and the basis for ethical judgments. These terms are employed to explore and understand the conceptual underpinnings of ethics, transcending practical applications and normative guidelines.

Metaethics: Theorists, Works, and Arguments

Theorists:

1. G. E. Moore (1873-1958): A key figure in early metaethics, Moore is known for his open-question argument and his defense of a non-naturalistic approach to ethics in works like “Principia Ethica.”
2. A. J. Ayer (1910-1989): A proponent of logical positivism, Ayer contributed to metaethics with his influential work “Language, Truth, and Logic,” where he argued for emotivism, the idea that ethical statements express emotions rather than objective facts.
3. J. L. Mackie (1917-1981): In his seminal work “Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong,” Mackie argued for moral skepticism and the error theory, contending that moral language is inherently flawed due to the non-existence of objective moral facts.
4. Simon Blackburn (b. 1944): Blackburn is associated with quasi-realism, a metaethical position that seeks to reconcile realism and anti-realism. In “Spreading the Word,” he introduced the concept of quasi-realism as a way to make sense of moral discourse.
5. Christine Korsgaard (b. 1952): Korsgaard has explored the relationship between metaethics and moral psychology, particularly in her works on moral realism and constructivism, emphasizing the role of rationality in ethical decision-making.

Works:

1. “Principia Ethica” by G. E. Moore (1903): Moore’s influential work that addresses metaethical issues, including his discussion on the naturalistic fallacy and the concept of “good.”
2. “Language, Truth, and Logic” by A. J. Ayer (1936): Ayer’s groundbreaking work in logical positivism, where he presents emotivism as a metaethical theory, claiming that ethical statements are expressions of subjective feelings.
3. “Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong” by J. L. Mackie (1977): Mackie’s influential book that argues for moral skepticism and the error theory, asserting that moral judgments involve a mistaken belief in objective moral facts.
4. “Spreading the Word” by Simon Blackburn (1984): Blackburn’s work where he introduces quasi-realism, a metaethical position that attempts to make sense of moral language without committing to the existence of objective moral facts.
5. “The Sources of Normativity” by Christine Korsgaard (1996): Korsgaard’s exploration of metaethics and moral philosophy, where she presents a constructivist approach to ethics, emphasizing the role of practical reason in determining moral principles.

Key Arguments:

1. Open-Question Argument (G. E. Moore): Moore’s argument against ethical naturalism, asserting that any definition of “good” in naturalistic terms will still allow the question of whether “good” is identical to the defined natural properties to remain open.
2. Emotivism (A. J. Ayer): Ayer’s theory that ethical statements are expressions of emotions rather than objective facts, suggesting that they lack cognitive content and are expressions of personal attitudes.
3. Error Theory (J. L. Mackie): Mackie’s argument that our moral judgments involve a mistaken belief in the existence of objective moral facts, asserting that the error lies in attributing objectivity to moral values.
4. Quasi-Realism (Simon Blackburn): Blackburn’s attempt to reconcile moral realism and anti-realism, proposing that moral statements are not straightforwardly descriptive or prescriptive but carry a “quasi-real” status that allows for meaningful discourse.
5. Constructivism (Christine Korsgaard): Korsgaard’s argument that ethical principles are constructed through the rational deliberation of agents, emphasizing the role of practical reason in grounding moral norms.

Metaethics: Major Characteristics

1. Higher-Order Inquiry: Metaethics engages in a higher-order examination of ethical discourse, going beyond the specifics of moral principles and conduct. Instead of prescribing particular ethical guidelines, it focuses on analyzing the nature, origin, and meaning of ethical concepts.
2. Analyzing Ethical Language: A central characteristic involves the scrutiny of ethical language. Metaethics investigates the semantics, pragmatics, and ontology of moral terms, exploring questions about the meaning of moral terms, their objectivity or subjectivity, and the nature of moral truths.
3. Nature of Moral Reality: Metaethics delves into questions about the nature of moral reality. It considers whether moral facts are objective and exist independently of human beliefs and attitudes (moral realism) or if moral judgments are subjective and contingent on individual or cultural perspectives (moral anti-realism).
4. Cognitivism vs. Non-Cognitivism: Metaethics explores the nature of ethical statements, distinguishing between cognitivist views that assert moral propositions convey objective information and non-cognitivist perspectives that contend ethical statements express emotions or attitudes without truth-value.
5. Exploration of Moral Epistemology: Metaethics investigates how individuals come to acquire knowledge about moral truths. It examines questions related to moral epistemology, including the role of reason, intuition, emotions, and cultural influences in shaping our understanding of morality.
6. Connection to Free Will and Responsibility: The field often addresses the implications of metaethical views on concepts like free will and moral responsibility. It explores how different perspectives on the nature of morality intersect with questions of human agency, accountability, and the justification of moral judgments.
7. Foundational Debates and Theories: Metaethics encompasses foundational debates and theories, including discussions on moral realism, moral anti-realism, ethical naturalism, non-naturalism, emotivism, error theory, and constructivism. These theories offer distinct perspectives on the nature and status of moral truths.
8. Metaethical Disagreements: Metaethics is characterized by significant philosophical disagreements. Scholars within the field often grapple with fundamental questions, such as whether there are objective moral truths, the source of moral values, and the implications of cultural relativism.
9. Reflection on Normative Ethics: While distinct from normative ethics, metaethics informs and reflects on normative ethical theories. It provides a conceptual framework for understanding the nature of ethical principles, evaluating their validity, and exploring the underlying assumptions of various normative approaches.
10. Intersection with Other Disciplines: Metaethics intersects with other philosophical disciplines, including epistemology, philosophy of language, and metaphysics. It draws on insights from these areas to address questions about the nature of ethical knowledge, language, and the ontological status of moral entities.

Metaethics: Relevance in Literary Theories

Literary Theory	Relevance of Metaethics
Deconstructionism	Metaethics plays a role in deconstructionist literary theory by questioning the stability of moral concepts and their representation in language. Deconstructionists may explore how ethical language functions in texts and how it can be deconstructed to reveal underlying assumptions and contradictions.
New Criticism	While New Criticism tends to focus on close reading and formal analysis, metaethics can be relevant when examining the ethical implications within a literary work. This may involve exploring how the author’s ethical stance or the characters’ moral dilemmas contribute to the overall meaning of the text.
Feminist Literary Theory	Metaethics is crucial in feminist literary theory as it allows scholars to examine and critique traditional ethical norms and gender roles. Feminist critics may use metaethical perspectives to question the portrayal of morality in literature and its impact on gender dynamics and societal expectations.
Postcolonial Theory	Metaethics intersects with postcolonial theory by enabling an examination of the ethical implications of colonial and postcolonial narratives. It allows for an exploration of moral perspectives, power dynamics, and cultural relativism in literature that addresses issues of imperialism and identity.
Psychoanalytic Criticism	In psychoanalytic literary theory, metaethics can be relevant when exploring the ethical dimensions of characters’ motivations and actions. It provides a framework for analyzing the moral implications of psychological conflicts and desires depicted in literature.
Marxist Literary Criticism	Metaethics is relevant in Marxist literary criticism as it allows for an examination of the ethical dimensions of social structures and economic systems depicted in literature. It facilitates an analysis of how literature reflects and critiques prevailing moral ideologies and power relations.
Reader-Response Theory	Metaethics is pertinent in reader-response theory by inviting readers to reflect on their own ethical interpretations and judgments of literary texts. It acknowledges the subjective nature of ethical responses and explores how individual readers’ moral perspectives shape their understanding of a narrative.
Ecocriticism	In ecocritical literary theory, metaethics is relevant when examining the ethical dimensions of human-nature relationships portrayed in literature. It provides a framework for questioning and analyzing the ethical implications of ecological themes and environmental ethics in literary works.
Queer Theory	Metaethics is significant in queer theory as it allows for an exploration of the ethical implications of societal norms regarding gender and sexuality depicted in literature. Queer theorists may use metaethical perspectives to critique and challenge normative ethical frameworks within texts.
Postmodern Literary Theory	Metaethics is relevant in postmodern literary theory by encouraging an examination of the instability and relativism of ethical concepts in literature. Postmodernists may explore how literary texts challenge traditional moral narratives and engage with diverse ethical perspectives.

Metaethics: Application in Critiques

1. Waverley by Sir Walter Scott:
   • Relevance of Metaethics: Metaethics can be applied to Waverley to analyze the moral landscape within the novel. The exploration of characters’ ethical decisions, the portrayal of historical events, and the underlying moral philosophy of the narrative can be scrutinized using metaethical perspectives. Questions may arise concerning the author’s stance on moral realism or anti-realism, as well as the influence of cultural relativism on the ethical dimensions of the story.
2. The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde by Robert Louis Stevenson:
   • Relevance of Metaethics: Metaethics is pertinent in critiquing Stevenson’s work to examine the dual nature of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde and the ethical implications of their actions. The novella invites questions about moral realism and the nature of good and evil. Metaethical analysis can explore how Stevenson uses the narrative to comment on the duality of human nature, moral responsibility, and the consequences of ethical choices.
3. Sunset Song by Lewis Grassic Gibbon:
   • Relevance of Metaethics: Metaethics can be applied to Sunset Song to delve into the moral and ethical dilemmas faced by the protagonist, Chris Guthrie, in the context of the changing rural landscape of Scotland. The analysis may involve examining the moral realism or anti-realism embedded in the narrative, exploring Chris’s moral development, and considering how cultural and societal norms shape ethical decisions in the story.
4. Trainspotting by Irvine Welsh:
   • Relevance of Metaethics: Metaethics is relevant in critiquing Trainspotting to explore the ethical dimensions of the characters’ lives, choices, and the socio-economic context depicted in the novel. The examination can involve questions about moral realism, the consequences of addiction, and the portrayal of morality in a gritty urban setting. Metaethics provides a framework to assess the moral perspectives presented and the impact of the characters’ actions on the narrative’s overall ethical landscape.

In each case, the application of metaethics allows for a nuanced critique that goes beyond surface-level analysis, enabling a deeper exploration of the ethical underpinnings, moral dilemmas, and cultural influences within the Scottish literary works.

Metaethics: Relevant Terms

Theoretical Term	Brief Description
Normative Ethics	Focuses on prescribing and evaluating moral principles.
Applied Ethics	Addresses specific ethical issues in practical contexts.
Descriptive Ethics	Describes and analyzes existing moral beliefs and practices.
Moral Epistemology	Examines how individuals come to know or understand morality.
Moral Realism	Asserts the existence of objective moral facts and values.
Moral Anti-Realism	Denies the existence of objective moral truths.
Cognitivism	Claims that ethical statements convey factual information.
Non-Cognitivism	Posits that ethical statements express emotions or attitudes.
Emotivism	Asserts that ethical language is an expression of emotions.
Constructivism	Holds that ethical principles are constructed by rational agents.

Metaethics: Suggested Readings

1. Blackburn, Simon. Spreading the Word: Groundings in the Philosophy of Language. Oxford University Press, 1984.
2. Copp, David. Morality, Normativity, and Society. Oxford University Press, 1995.
3. Dancy, Jonathan. Ethics Without Principles. Oxford University Press, 2004.
4. Mackie, J. L. Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong. Penguin Books, 1977.
5. Moore, G. E. Principia Ethica. Cambridge University Press, 1903.
6. Railton, Peter. Facts, Values, and Norms: Essays Toward a Morality of Consequence. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
7. Raz, Joseph. The Morality of Freedom. Oxford University Press, 1988.
8. Sayre-McCord, Geoffrey. Essays on Moral Realism. Cornell University Press, 1988.
9. Smith, Michael. Ethics and the A Priori: Selected Essays on Moral Psychology and Meta-Ethics. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
10. Street, Sharon. Mind-Independent Ethics: Essays on Meta-Ethics. Oxford University Press, 2006.