Introduction: “A Rejection of Tragedy: Brecht from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
“A Rejection of Tragedy: Brecht from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams appeared in his seminal work, Modern Tragedy, published in 1966. This essay has been instrumental in shaping literary and literary theory discourse, particularly in its exploration of Bertolt Brecht’s revolutionary approach to theater. Williams critically analyzes Brecht’s rejection of traditional tragic conventions, arguing that Brecht’s “epic theater” offers a new paradigm for understanding and representing human suffering in the modern age.
Summary of “A Rejection of Tragedy: Brecht from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
· Brecht’s Rejection of Traditional Tragedy:
- Brecht rejects the notion of traditional tragedy, opting for new dramatic forms that reflect the realities of modern suffering. He views the traditional tragic response to suffering as insufficient and instead advocates for a more conscious and politically aware reaction.
- As seen in Brecht’s poem “An Die Nachgeborenen,” the experience of suffering in modern Europe is expressed vividly and literally: “I ate my food between massacres. The shadow of murder lay upon my sleep” (Williams, p. 228). This evokes the bleak reality of Brecht’s time, which informs his rejection of conventional tragedy.
· Cynical Disillusionment in Brecht’s Early Works:
- In his early works, especially in the 1920s, Brecht expressed a cynical disillusionment with public virtue coexisting with public suffering and poverty. He hardened himself against open sympathy, showcasing a deliberate rejection of both the moral systems and the principle of tragedy.
- Williams highlights this in the context of The Threepenny Opera, where Peachum exploits human pity, symbolizing the broader societal capacity to “make themselves heartless at will” (Williams, p. 229).
· Irony and Shock in Brecht’s 1920s Plays:
- Brecht turned to irony and shock to expose societal corruption. His plays often used crude, physical imagery to demonstrate the collapse of virtue in society. For instance, characters in The Threepenny Opera represent thieves and whores as accurate portraits of society’s falseness, but this shock tactic ultimately reinforces rather than dismantles societal norms (Williams, p. 230).
· Paradox of Distancing and Immorality in Brecht’s Work:
- Brecht’s attempt to make the audience think “above” the play through techniques of “complex seeing” failed to consistently produce the desired effect. Audiences often became passive consumers of his work, more entertained by the immorality and crime depicted on stage than prompted to critique it (Williams, p. 231).
· Political Morality and Simplification in Brecht’s Revolutionary Phase:
- Brecht’s political evolution in plays like Die Massnahme shows a willingness to reject traditional goodness in favor of revolutionary morality. He even suggests that revolutionary success may require the rejection of human sympathy, as illustrated by the idea that a party worker showing too much compassion endangers the cause (Williams, p. 232).
· Critique of Simplified Revolutionary Morality:
- Williams critiques Brecht’s reduction of revolutionary action to mere formalized gestures, arguing that this leads to a romanticized view of necessary violence, which, like earlier decadent art, keeps real experience at a distance (Williams, p. 233).
· Complex Seeing and the Rejection of Sacrifice in Brecht’s Later Work:
- In Brecht’s mature works, such as The Good Woman of Sezuan and Mother Courage and Her Children, he explores the tension between goodness and the societal pressures that corrupt it. Through the technique of “complex seeing,” Brecht invites audiences to observe the transformation of goodness under duress, without providing any resolution or heroic sacrifice (Williams, p. 235).
· Historical Action in Brecht’s Tragedies:
- Brecht’s later plays move beyond individual tragedy to focus on historical forces and societal structures. In Mother Courage, for example, the action shows how characters’ decisions shape their lives, highlighting the consequences of their attempts to survive in a brutal world (Williams, p. 236).
· Galileo as a Study of False Consciousness:
- In The Life of Galileo, Brecht examines the conflict between individual and social morality, demonstrating how Galileo’s submission to authority leads to the betrayal of humanist values. Brecht uses this play to reflect on the consequences of detaching scientific progress from its human purposes (Williams, p. 238).
· Brecht’s New Sense of Tragedy:
- Brecht’s “new sense of tragedy” is grounded in his rejection of inevitable suffering. Instead, Brecht affirms that while suffering is real and often unnecessary, it can be fought against through conscious political action. This perspective emphasizes history and social change as central elements of modern tragedy (Williams, p. 240).
Literary Terms/Concepts in “A Rejection of Tragedy: Brecht from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
| Literary Term/Concept | Explanation | Context in the Text |
| Epic Theatre | A theatrical movement created by Brecht, aiming to encourage critical thinking rather than emotional involvement. | Williams discusses how Brecht’s epic theatre aims for “complex seeing” to make the audience think about social issues rather than become emotionally absorbed (p. 231). |
| Verfremdungseffekt (Alienation Effect) | A technique used to prevent the audience from identifying emotionally with characters, forcing them to remain critically aware. | Brecht used distancing techniques to push the audience to think critically, such as “the attitude of one who smokes at ease and watches” (p. 231). |
| Complex Seeing | A concept where the audience is encouraged to view multiple perspectives within the same narrative, fostering critical thinking. | Williams highlights Brecht’s theory of “complex seeing,” which allows audiences to consider multiple layers of meaning, rather than follow a single emotional narrative (p. 235). |
| Cynical Disillusionment | A feeling of disillusionment where moral principles are rejected as false or irrelevant. | Brecht’s early works reflect a cynical view of public virtue, suggesting that morality coexists with murder and poverty (p. 229). |
| Historical Action | A form of dramatic action focused on showing characters within the broader context of societal and historical forces. | Brecht’s later plays, like Mother Courage and Her Children, demonstrate historical forces shaping characters’ lives, moving beyond individual tragedy (p. 236). |
| Tragic Consciousness | A modern adaptation of tragedy where suffering is acknowledged but not seen as ennobling or inevitable. | Brecht’s tragedies reject the traditional view of tragedy, focusing on avoidable suffering caused by societal structures (p. 240). |
| Paradox of Distancing | The idea that Brecht, while aiming for intellectual distancing, sometimes paradoxically reinforced emotional engagement. | Williams notes that audiences often enjoyed the immorality and crime in Brecht’s plays, which conflicted with Brecht’s aim for intellectual distance (p. 231). |
| Revolutionary Morality | The idea that traditional moral principles may be rejected in favor of actions that further revolutionary goals. | Brecht’s work Die Massnahme presents revolutionary morality, where sympathy is rejected as a threat to revolutionary success (p. 232). |
| Irony | A rhetorical device in which there is a contrast between expectation and reality, often used for critique. | In The Threepenny Opera, irony is used to critique society’s morality through characters like Peachum, who exploits pity (p. 229). |
Contribution of “A Rejection of Tragedy: Brecht from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams to Literary Theory/Theories
- Rejection of Aristotelian Tragedy
Williams highlights Brecht’s deliberate break from traditional Aristotelian tragedy, which emphasizes catharsis through emotional involvement. Instead, Brecht’s epic theatre encourages critical thinking and social action, offering a major contribution to the theory of modern tragedy (Williams, p. 231). - Development of Epic Theatre as a Theoretical Framework
Williams presents Brecht’s concept of epic theatre as a theoretical innovation, focusing on the intellectual engagement of the audience through techniques like the alienation effect (Verfremdungseffekt), encouraging viewers to critically assess societal structures (Williams, p. 231). - Introduction of ‘Complex Seeing’ in Dramatic Criticism
Brecht’s method of “complex seeing,” where different perspectives are presented simultaneously, challenges the audience to actively engage with the material rather than passively absorb it. This concept has become a significant theoretical tool in analyzing modern drama (Williams, p. 235). - Critique of Morality in Art
Brecht’s rejection of conventional morality in favor of revolutionary morality reshapes the understanding of ethical frameworks in drama. Williams elaborates on how Brecht critiques the coexistence of morality and suffering, which resonates with Marxist literary theories (Williams, p. 232). - Examination of Political Morality and Revolutionary Ethics in Drama
Through his analysis of Die Massnahme and other works, Williams underscores Brecht’s contribution to theories that examine the role of revolutionary ethics in literature, particularly the conflict between personal sympathy and collective political goals (Williams, p. 232). - Integration of History and Social Forces in Tragedy
Williams argues that Brecht’s contribution to literary theory lies in his ability to incorporate historical and societal forces into the fabric of tragedy, moving beyond personal or individual tragedy to explore the broader implications of social change (Williams, p. 236). - Rejection of Sacrifice as a Noble Dramatic Element
Brecht’s rejection of sacrifice as a form of dramatic resolution challenges traditional tragic narratives. Instead of glorifying suffering, Brecht’s work, as analyzed by Williams, presents sacrifice as part of a larger societal manipulation, contributing to modern anti-heroic theory (Williams, p. 235). - Critical Reassessment of Tragic Consciousness in Modern Drama
Williams presents Brecht’s tragic consciousness as fundamentally different from classical models. Brecht views tragedy as avoidable and rooted in societal failure, rather than inevitable fate, contributing to the critical discourse on tragedy in modern literary theory (Williams, p. 240). - Reconceptualization of Drama as Historical Action
By emphasizing historical forces in plays like Mother Courage and Her Children, Williams shows how Brecht reconceptualizes drama as an active historical process, which opposes static, timeless interpretations of tragedy found in traditional literary theory (Williams, p. 240).
Examples of Critiques Through “A Rejection of Tragedy: Brecht from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
| Literary Work | Critique Through Williams’ Lens | Key Concepts from Williams |
| The Threepenny Opera by Bertolt Brecht | Williams critiques The Threepenny Opera for failing to deliver the true “complex seeing” Brecht theorized. The audience passively enjoys the immoral characters rather than critically engaging with the societal critique. | Brecht’s concept of epic theatre and distancing effect aims to provoke thought, but here the “paradox of distancing” leads audiences to indulge in the immorality portrayed rather than challenge it (Williams, p. 231). |
| Mother Courage and Her Children by Bertolt Brecht | Williams praises Mother Courage for its representation of historical forces shaping personal tragedy. The play moves beyond individual suffering to show how societal structures perpetuate suffering. | This work embodies Brecht’s idea of complex seeing and historical action, showing the consequences of human choices within the larger historical context (Williams, p. 236). |
| Die Massnahme by Bertolt Brecht | Williams critiques Brecht’s portrayal of revolutionary morality, where human sympathy is rejected in favor of revolutionary goals. This simplistic view reduces complex human emotions to political necessities. | Brecht’s treatment of revolutionary morality is critiqued for simplifying revolutionary violence, reflecting Brecht’s evolution from cynical disillusionment to political action (Williams, p. 232). |
| The Life of Galileo by Bertolt Brecht | Williams sees The Life of Galileo as an exploration of the conflict between personal conscience and social duty. Galileo’s submission to authority is framed as a betrayal of science’s humanist purpose. | Brecht’s use of tragic consciousness and false consciousness is analyzed, showing the tension between scientific progress and societal compromise (Williams, p. 238). |
Criticism Against “A Rejection of Tragedy: Brecht from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Overemphasis on Political Interpretation
Critics argue that Williams places too much emphasis on Brecht’s political motivations, potentially overshadowing other artistic and aesthetic aspects of his works. By focusing heavily on Brecht’s Marxist and revolutionary ideologies, Williams may neglect the broader humanistic and emotional dimensions in Brecht’s dramas. - Reduction of Complex Characters to Social Constructs
Some may criticize Williams for reducing Brecht’s characters to mere representations of social and historical forces, rather than acknowledging them as complex, multi-dimensional individuals. This approach might limit the interpretation of Brecht’s plays to political critique, ignoring other potential readings. - Neglect of Emotional and Psychological Depth
While Williams praises Brecht’s rejection of emotional involvement in favor of critical engagement, some critics may argue that this downplays the emotional and psychological depth that can still be found in Brecht’s characters and narratives. This could lead to an overly clinical analysis of Brecht’s works. - Limited Exploration of Brecht’s Evolution as an Artist
Williams focuses on Brecht’s development from cynical disillusionment to political engagement, but critics might argue that this narrative oversimplifies Brecht’s evolution as an artist. There may be other factors—personal, aesthetic, or philosophical—that shaped Brecht’s work, which Williams does not fully explore. - Simplistic View of Tragic Consciousness
Some critics may argue that Williams’ interpretation of Brecht’s rejection of traditional tragedy as an evolution toward a “new sense of tragedy” oversimplifies the concept of tragic consciousness. Brecht’s works might still contain elements of classical tragedy that Williams overlooks in favor of his argument about historical materialism. - Potential Overgeneralization of Brecht’s Works
By using Brecht’s rejection of tragedy as a central theme, Williams may overgeneralize Brecht’s diverse body of work. Critics could argue that not all of Brecht’s plays fit neatly into the framework Williams proposes, particularly Brecht’s later, more nuanced explorations of morality and human complexity.
Representative Quotations from “A Rejection of Tragedy: Brecht from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams with Explanation
| Quotation | Explanation |
| “The response to suffering is crucial.” (p. 228) | Williams emphasizes the importance of how Brecht and his works respond to human suffering, highlighting that this response underpins Brecht’s rejection of traditional tragic forms and his shift toward politically engaged drama. |
| “Brecht’s method of complex seeing challenges the conventional narrative structure.” (p. 231) | Williams introduces Brecht’s concept of “complex seeing,” which requires the audience to critically engage with multiple perspectives rather than passively absorb a singular emotional narrative, transforming the nature of audience interaction. |
| “Human beings have the horrid capacity of being able to make themselves heartless at will.” (p. 229) | This quotation from The Threepenny Opera is used by Williams to highlight Brecht’s critique of society’s ability to turn off empathy, a theme central to Brecht’s rejection of traditional notions of tragedy and morality. |
| “The theatre can stage anything; it theatres it all down.” (p. 231) | Williams critiques the limitations of institutionalized theatre in Brecht’s time, which could absorb any radical or revolutionary content and neutralize its critical potential, turning even subversive material into entertainment. |
| “It is not the good person against the bad, but goodness and badness as alternative expressions of a single being.” (p. 235) | Williams highlights Brecht’s nuanced portrayal of human nature, where characters embody both good and bad traits, reflecting Brecht’s rejection of clear moral binaries in favor of complexity and contradiction within individuals. |
| “It is a bad society that needs heroes, so it is a bad life that needs sacrifices.” (p. 235) | Williams illustrates Brecht’s rejection of traditional tragic heroes and the ennobling of sacrifice, arguing that Brecht sees these as elements that perpetuate societal dysfunction rather than solutions to it. |
| “The action is continually played and replayed. It could genuinely go either way, at any time.” (p. 236) | Brecht’s work, according to Williams, rejects the inevitability of tragic outcomes. The potential for different choices and alternative futures challenges the audience to consider the possibilities for change and action in their own lives. |
| “It is a willing rejection of goodness as it is immediately known.” (p. 232) | Williams discusses Brecht’s revolutionary morality, where traditional moral sentiments, such as personal sympathy, are rejected in favor of what is seen as necessary for the success of revolutionary action, illustrating a tension in Brecht’s ethics. |
| “The sufferings of this man appal me, because they are unnecessary.” (p. 240) | This quotation encapsulates Brecht’s view of suffering in modern tragedy as preventable rather than inevitable, reflecting his commitment to depicting suffering as a social and historical consequence that can be overcome through action. |
| “The real detachment, the real distancing, required a new principle and a new start.” (p. 232) | Williams highlights Brecht’s development of his epic theatre and distancing techniques as an effort to break from both conventional theatre and false revolutionary art, pushing for a more thoughtful and critical engagement with political issues. |
Suggested Readings: “A Rejection of Tragedy: Brech from Modern Tragedy” by Raymond Williams
- Eagleton, Terry. Sweet Violence: The Idea of the Tragic. Blackwell Publishing, 2003.
- Williams, Raymond. Modern Tragedy. Chatto & Windus, 1966.
- Steiner, George. The Death of Tragedy. Yale University Press, 1996.
https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300069167/the-death-of-tragedy - Barker, Howard. Arguments for a Theatre. Manchester University Press, 1989.
- Segal, Charles. Tragedy and Civilization: An Interpretation of Sophocles. Harvard University Press, 1981.
- Kott, Jan. The Eating of the Gods: An Interpretation of Greek Tragedy. Northwestern University Press, 1987.
- Elsom, John. Post-War British Theatre Criticism. Routledge, 2013.