Introduction: “A Summer Night” by Matthew Arnold
“A Summer Night” by Matthew Arnold, first appeared in 1852 in the journal Fraser’s Magazin2, is a contemplative meditation on the contrast between the external calmness of the night and the inner turmoil of the human spirit. It explores themes of existential restlessness, the constraints of societal expectations, and the struggle between contentment and longing for something greater. Arnold’s melancholy tone and vivid imagery make it a quintessential example of Victorian poetry’s introspective nature. One reason for its popularity as a textbook poem is its philosophical depth and its critique of modern industrial life, exemplified in lines such as: “For most men in a brazen prison live, / Where, in the sun’s hot eye, / With heads bent o’er their toil, they languidly / Their lives to some unmeaning taskwork give.” This powerful metaphor of a “brazen prison” resonates with readers across generations, making the poem a compelling subject for literary analysis. Arnold’s masterful use of natural imagery to mirror human emotions and his questioning of life’s purpose continue to captivate students and scholars alike.
Text: “A Summer Night” by Matthew Arnold
In the deserted, moon-blanched street,
How lonely rings the echo of my feet!
Those windows, which I gaze at, frown,
Silent and white, unopening down,
Repellent as the world,–but see,
A break between the housetops shows
The moon! and lost behind her, fading dim
Into the dewy dark obscurity
Down at the far horizon’s rim,
Doth a whole tract of heaven disclose!
And to my mind the thought
Is on a sudden brought
Of a past night, and a far different scene:
Headlands stood out into the moonlit deep
As clearly as at noon;
The spring-tide’s brimming flow
Heaved dazzlingly between;
Houses, with long wide sweep,
Girdled the glistening bay;
Behind, through the soft air,
The blue haze-cradled mountains spread away.
That night was far more fair–
But the same restless pacings to and fro,
And the same vainly throbbing heart was there,
And the same bright, calm moon.
And the calm moonlight seems to say:–
Hast thou then still the old unquiet breast,
Which neither deadens into rest,
Nor ever feels the fiery glow
That whirls the spirit from itself away,
But fluctuates to and fro,
Never by passion quite possessed
And never quite benumbed by the world’s sway?–
And I, I know not if to pray
Still to be what I am, or yield, and be
Like all the other men I see.
For most men in a brazen prison live,
Where, in the sun’s hot eye,
With heads bent o’er their toil, they languidly
Their lives to some unmeaning taskwork give,
Dreaming of naught beyond their prison wall.
And as, year after year,
Fresh products of their barren labor fall
From their tired hands, and rest
Never yet comes more near,
Gloom settles slowly down over their breast.
And while they try to stem
The waves of mournful thought by which they are prest,
Death in their prison reaches them,
Unfreed, having seen nothing, still unblest.
And the rest, a few,
Escape their prison and depart
On the wide ocean of life anew.
There the freed prisoner, where’er his heart
Listeth will sail;
Nor doth he know how there prevail,
Despotic on that sea.
Trade-winds which cross it from eternity:
Awhile he holds some false way, undebarred
By thwarting signs, and braves
The freshening wind and blackening waves.
And then the tempest strikes him; and between
The lightning bursts is seen
Only a driving wreck,
And the pale master on his spar-strewn deck
With anguished face and flying hair
Grasping the rudder hard,
Still bent to make some port he knows not where,
Still standing for some false, impossible shore.
And sterner comes the roar
Of sea and wind, and through the deepening gloom
Fainter and fainter wreck and helmsman loom,
And he too disappears, and comes no more.
Is there no life, but these alone?
Madman or slave, must man be one?
Plainness and clearness without shadow of stain!
Clearness divine!
Ye heavens, whose pure dark regions have no sign
Of languor, though so calm, and though so great
Are yet untroubled and unpassionate;
Who, though so noble, share in the world’s toil,
And, though so tasked, keep free from dust and soil!
I will not say that your mild deeps retain
A tinge, it may be, of their silent pain
Who have longed deeply once, and longed in vain–
But I will rather say that you remain
A world above man’s head, to let him see
How boundless might his soul’s horizons be,
How vast, yet of what clear transparency!
How it were good to live there, and breathe free;
How fair a lot to fill
Is left to each man still!
Annotations: “A Summer Night” by Matthew Arnold
| Stanza | Explanation in Simple English |
| Lines 1-10 | The speaker walks through an empty street at night, feeling lonely. The silent, closed windows appear cold and unwelcoming, reflecting the isolation of the world. However, the sight of the moon peeking through the rooftops opens up a vast, limitless sky, giving him a sense of perspective. |
| Lines 11-23 | The sight of the moon reminds the speaker of another night by the sea. He recalls the bright moonlit water and surrounding mountains, which were beautiful. However, despite the serene scene, he felt restless, his heart troubled as it is now. The same moon shines, yet his inner turmoil remains unchanged. |
| Lines 24-33 | The speaker imagines the moon as if it is asking him: “Are you still restless? Are you neither at peace nor passionate enough to find meaning?” He wonders whether he should remain as he is—unsettled and thoughtful—or conform to the ways of other people. |
| Lines 34-46 | The speaker describes how most people live like prisoners, trapped in meaningless work under the sun. They toil without hope, confined to routine. Year after year, they accomplish nothing truly fulfilling, and in the end, they die, never having truly lived or experienced anything beyond their “prison.” |
| Lines 47-64 | Some people manage to escape this prison and set out into the unknown sea of life. However, they are unaware of the invisible forces that control their journey. At first, they follow their own path, but eventually, a great storm (life’s hardships) strikes, leaving them lost, struggling, and ultimately disappearing into oblivion. |
| Lines 65-66 | The speaker questions whether life offers only two choices—either being a madman chasing impossible dreams or a slave trapped in monotony. Is there no other way to live? |
| Lines 67-80 | The speaker turns to the heavens, admiring their pure clarity and steadiness. Unlike humans, the stars and sky are not troubled, restless, or corrupted. They remain noble and unaffected, even while witnessing the struggles of the world. |
| Lines 81-88 | He does not believe the sky carries the sorrow of people who have suffered, but instead, it stands above mankind as a symbol of infinite possibilities. Looking at the vast sky, he realizes that life still holds opportunities, and every person has the potential to live freely and meaningfully. |
Literary And Poetic Devices: “A Summer Night” by Matthew Arnold
| Device | Example from the Poem | Explanation |
| Alliteration | “Freshening wind and blackening waves.” | The repetition of the “w” sound creates a rhythmic effect and enhances the imagery of the storm. |
| Allusion | “Trade-winds which cross it from eternity.” | Refers to the natural wind currents that sailors rely on, symbolizing predetermined fate. |
| Anaphora | “Still bent to make some port he knows not where, / Still standing for some false, impossible shore.” | The repetition of “Still” emphasizes the persistence of the struggling voyager. |
| Assonance | “The blue haze-cradled mountains spread away.” | The repetition of the “a” sound creates a flowing, musical quality. |
| Caesura | “And then the tempest strikes him; and between / The lightning bursts is seen” | The semicolon creates a pause, emphasizing the dramatic impact of the storm. |
| Contrast (Juxtaposition) | “That night was far more fair—But the same restless pacings to and fro.” | Highlights the contrast between external beauty and internal turmoil. |
| Enjambment | “And the rest, a few, / Escape their prison and depart / On the wide ocean of life anew.” | The sentence flows beyond one line, mimicking the idea of an ongoing journey. |
| Extended Metaphor | “The freed prisoner, where’er his heart / Listeth will sail.” | The journey of life is compared to sailing on an unknown sea, symbolizing unpredictability. |
| Hyperbole | “A whole tract of heaven disclose!” | Exaggerates the vastness of the sky to emphasize wonder and perspective. |
| Imagery | “In the deserted, moon-blanched street, / How lonely rings the echo of my feet!” | Vividly describes a silent, moonlit street, evoking isolation and melancholy. |
| Irony | “And I, I know not if to pray / Still to be what I am, or yield, and be / Like all the other men I see.” | The speaker is uncertain whether he should be himself or conform, even though he criticizes conformity. |
| Metaphor | “For most men in a brazen prison live.” | Life is compared to a prison, symbolizing monotony and lack of freedom. |
| Mood (Tone) | “And then the tempest strikes him.” | The shift in tone from calm reflection to chaos mirrors emotional turmoil. |
| Onomatopoeia | “How lonely rings the echo of my feet!” | “Rings” mimics the sound of footsteps in an empty street, enhancing the auditory effect. |
| Oxymoron | “Never quite benumbed by the world’s sway.” | The contradiction between “benumbed” (numb) and “sway” (influence) emphasizes inner conflict. |
| Parallelism | “And while they try to stem / The waves of mournful thought by which they are prest.” | The repetition of structure in the first and second lines reinforces the struggle against sorrow. |
| Personification | “Those windows, which I gaze at, frown.” | The windows are given human qualities, symbolizing the cold, indifferent world. |
| Rhetorical Question | “Is there no life, but these alone? / Madman or slave, must man be one?” | These questions provoke thought about the human condition, emphasizing existential doubt. |
| Symbolism | The Moon | Represents constancy, enlightenment, and self-reflection throughout the poem. |
| Synecdoche | “The pale master on his spar-strewn deck.” | “Spar-strewn deck” (part of the ship) represents the entire wreckage of life. |
Themes: “A Summer Night” by Matthew Arnold
1. Isolation and Inner Restlessness
One of the dominant themes in the poem is isolation and the restless human spirit. The speaker walks alone through a deserted street, emphasizing both physical and emotional solitude. He describes how the “moon-blanched street” echoes with his lonely footsteps, reinforcing his sense of detachment. This solitude is not merely external but deeply internal, as he recalls past nights where he felt the same “vainly throbbing heart” despite the beauty around him. The moonlight, which should offer calmness, instead reminds him of his emotional turmoil:
“And the same bright, calm moon.”
This repetition underscores his inability to find peace, highlighting a restlessness that is intrinsic to his nature. Even the stillness of the night does not quiet his inner conflict, leaving him uncertain about whether to embrace his troubled existence or conform to the world’s expectations.
2. Conformity vs. Individual Struggle
The speaker grapples with the tension between individuality and societal conformity. He observes that most men live in a “brazen prison”, trapped in the monotony of labor and meaningless tasks. These individuals are likened to prisoners who toil endlessly without fulfillment, symbolizing the mechanical, unthinking existence of the masses:
“For most men in a brazen prison live, / Where, in the sun’s hot eye, / With heads bent o’er their toil, they languidly / Their lives to some unmeaning taskwork give.”
This imagery critiques the industrial age’s demand for repetitive, uninspired labor. However, those who attempt to break free—represented by the “freed prisoner” who sets sail on the open ocean—find themselves lost, battered by forces beyond their control. Arnold presents a bleak choice: one can either conform and remain imprisoned, or seek freedom only to face existential uncertainty. This dilemma is further reinforced through a rhetorical question:
“Is there no life, but these alone? / Madman or slave, must man be one?”
The speaker’s uncertainty about whether to remain as he is or succumb to societal norms reflects Arnold’s broader critique of Victorian society’s rigidity.
3. The Uncertainty of Human Fate
Arnold portrays life as an unpredictable journey, using the metaphor of the sea to symbolize the human condition. Those who escape societal constraints embark on an uncertain voyage where they believe they have control, but in reality, they are subject to forces greater than themselves. The “trade-winds” that govern the sea represent fate, an invisible yet inescapable force:
“Nor doth he know how there prevail, / Despotic on that sea, / Trade-winds which cross it from eternity.”
Initially, the freed man believes he is in control, but soon, he faces tempests and destruction, leading to his ultimate downfall. The description of the “pale master on his spar-strewn deck” conveys the image of a man clinging to his last hopes amidst a storm. This bleak fate suggests that no matter which path one chooses—conformity or rebellion—there is no true escape from suffering and uncertainty. Arnold’s fatalistic perspective on human existence is reinforced by the idea that the voyager disappears into the depths, forgotten and unfulfilled:
“And he too disappears, and comes no more.”
This suggests that human ambition is often crushed by forces beyond our control, leaving individuals lost and directionless.
4. The Search for Meaning in a Vast Universe
Despite its bleak portrayal of life, the poem concludes with a contemplation of the heavens as a symbol of clarity and possibility. The speaker looks up at the sky, admiring its “plainness and clearness without shadow of stain”, contrasting it with human suffering. While people struggle with turmoil and limitations, the celestial world remains “untroubled and unpassionate”, suggesting an existence free from human anxieties. The heavens serve as a metaphor for a greater, boundless potential:
“A world above man’s head, to let him see / How boundless might his soul’s horizons be.”
Here, Arnold presents the idea that human beings have the capacity to transcend their struggles and expand their understanding of existence. The final lines—
“How fair a lot to fill / Is left to each man still!”
—leave room for hope, suggesting that despite the difficulties of life, each individual still has the potential to create meaning. While the poem largely dwells on existential despair, this ending offers a glimpse of optimism, implying that by looking beyond worldly struggles, humans might find a higher purpose.
Literary Theories and “A Summer Night” by Matthew Arnold
| Literary Theory | Explanation | Application to “A Summer Night” | Reference from the Poem |
| Existentialism | This theory focuses on the individual’s search for meaning in an indifferent universe. It often explores themes of alienation, free will, and the anxiety of choice. | Arnold’s speaker grapples with existential doubt, questioning whether to embrace his individual turmoil or conform to societal norms. The poem reflects on the loneliness of human existence and the uncertainty of life’s purpose. | “Is there no life, but these alone? / Madman or slave, must man be one?” → The speaker questions whether there are only two choices in life: blind conformity or chaotic rebellion. |
| Marxist Criticism | This approach examines literature through the lens of class struggle, economic systems, and the alienation of labor in capitalist societies. | The poem critiques the oppressive nature of industrial labor, depicting most people as prisoners trapped in repetitive, meaningless work with no hope of escape. Arnold portrays a rigid social system where only a few attempt to break free, often failing. | “For most men in a brazen prison live, / Where, in the sun’s hot eye, / With heads bent o’er their toil, they languidly / Their lives to some unmeaning taskwork give.” → The metaphor of a “brazen prison” represents the dehumanizing effect of capitalism on workers. |
| Psychoanalytic Criticism | Rooted in Freudian theory, this approach analyzes literature in terms of the unconscious mind, repressed desires, and internal conflict. | The speaker’s restless pacing and emotional turmoil suggest an internal conflict between his rational mind and suppressed desires. The moon, which serves as a reflective symbol, can be interpreted as a projection of his subconscious struggles. | “And the calm moonlight seems to say:— / Hast thou then still the old unquiet breast, / Which neither deadens into rest, / Nor ever feels the fiery glow…?” → The moon acts as a voice of the speaker’s subconscious, questioning his unresolved inner conflicts. |
| Romanticism | Romanticism emphasizes nature, individual emotion, and the rejection of industrial modernity. It often portrays nature as a source of inspiration and personal reflection. | Arnold contrasts the beauty and vastness of nature with the limitations of human existence. The final stanzas highlight how nature remains pure and untainted, offering a vision of clarity and possibility. | “Ye heavens, whose pure dark regions have no sign / Of languor, though so calm, and though so great.” → The heavens symbolize an idealized realm, untouched by human suffering. |
Critical Questions about “A Summer Night” by Matthew Arnold
1. How does Arnold use imagery to convey themes of isolation and existential uncertainty in the poem?
Arnold masterfully employs visual, auditory, and natural imagery to enhance the poem’s themes of isolation and existential uncertainty. The opening lines immediately establish a sense of solitude as the speaker walks alone through a silent, moonlit street:
“In the deserted, moon-blanched street, / How lonely rings the echo of my feet!”
The whiteness of the moon and the frowning, silent windows create a cold, indifferent setting, mirroring the speaker’s emotional detachment. The repetition of “silent” and “white” suggests an emptiness in both the physical world and within the speaker’s mind. Later in the poem, Arnold uses the vastness of the moonlit ocean and distant mountains to reflect on the contrast between external beauty and inner turmoil:
“That night was far more fair— / But the same restless pacings to and fro, / And the same vainly throbbing heart was there.”
Despite the grandeur of nature, the speaker remains unsettled and unfulfilled, reinforcing existential uncertainty. Even when he looks up to the heavens, he is confronted with their calmness and detachment, further emphasizing his own inability to achieve peace. Through this use of imagery, Arnold paints a melancholic portrait of a man searching for meaning in an indifferent universe.
2. How does Arnold contrast the lives of ordinary people with those who seek escape?
Arnold presents two contrasting groups in the poem: the majority, who live in a metaphorical prison, and the few, who attempt to escape but face destruction. He describes how most people are trapped in a lifeless cycle of work and routine, symbolized by a “brazen prison”:
“For most men in a brazen prison live, / Where, in the sun’s hot eye, / With heads bent o’er their toil, they languidly / Their lives to some unmeaning taskwork give.”
This imagery portrays industrial society as a dehumanizing force, where people are reduced to laborers without purpose or fulfillment. These individuals never question their condition and are ultimately consumed by monotony and death:
“Death in their prison reaches them, / Unfreed, having seen nothing, still unblest.”
However, Arnold also acknowledges those who attempt to break free, metaphorically represented as sailors embarking on an uncertain voyage:
“And the rest, a few, / Escape their prison and depart / On the wide ocean of life anew.”
At first, these individuals feel free, but they soon realize that life is governed by unseen forces—the “trade-winds which cross it from eternity”—suggesting fate, societal pressures, or the unpredictability of existence. Eventually, the freed prisoners face a violent storm, leading to their destruction:
“And then the tempest strikes him… / And he too disappears, and comes no more.”
Arnold’s portrayal of both groups is deeply pessimistic—those who remain conformists are unfulfilled, and those who seek liberation often fail. The poem ultimately questions whether true freedom and meaning are possible within human existence.
3. What role does the moon play as a symbol in the poem?
The moon serves as a powerful symbol of reflection, constancy, and emotional detachment in “A Summer Night”. It appears multiple times throughout the poem, each time reinforcing different aspects of the speaker’s contemplation. Initially, it serves as a silent observer of the world, mirroring the speaker’s loneliness:
“A break between the housetops shows / The moon! and lost behind her, fading dim / Into the dewy dark obscurity.”
This description highlights the contrast between the moon’s distant calmness and the speaker’s inner turmoil. Later, the moon takes on a more active role, almost as if it is addressing the speaker directly:
“And the calm moonlight seems to say:— / Hast thou then still the old unquiet breast?”
Here, the moon acts as a voice of self-examination, questioning whether the speaker has found peace or remains restless. This rhetorical device suggests that the moon represents self-awareness, confronting the speaker with his unresolved conflicts.
In the final section, Arnold contrasts the heavens’ divine clarity with human suffering:
“Ye heavens, whose pure dark regions have no sign / Of languor, though so calm, and though so great.”
The moon and sky stand in stark contrast to human turmoil, symbolizing an ideal realm that is untroubled by emotion and suffering. Through this symbolism, Arnold presents the moon as both a source of guidance and a reminder of human limitation—a celestial body that exists beyond human reach, embodying the vastness of the universe and the smallness of human struggles.
4. Does Arnold provide a solution to the existential dilemmas he raises in the poem?
While “A Summer Night” largely dwells on existential despair, Arnold does offer a subtle sense of hope in the final stanza. Throughout the poem, the speaker questions the value of his inner turmoil, wondering whether he should conform or remain an outsider. He recognizes the trapped existence of ordinary people, yet he also sees that those who attempt to escape often fail or disappear into obscurity.
Despite this bleak outlook, Arnold’s closing lines suggest that possibilities still exist for those who seek meaning:
“A world above man’s head, to let him see / How boundless might his soul’s horizons be.”
Here, the speaker acknowledges that while human life is filled with struggle and uncertainty, there is still potential for transcendence. He does not claim that this realization will bring definitive answers, but he implies that looking beyond one’s immediate reality—toward higher aspirations, intellectual pursuits, or spiritual enlightenment—can offer a way forward.
The final words of the poem reinforce this idea:
“How fair a lot to fill / Is left to each man still!”
Though subtle, this closing sentiment suggests that life still holds meaning if one chooses to seek and create it. Arnold does not provide a direct solution, but he gestures toward a self-determined path, implying that individuals must forge their own meaning rather than waiting for it to be given.
Literary Works Similar to “A Summer Night” by Matthew Arnold
- “Dover Beach” – Matthew Arnold
Similarity: Like “A Summer Night”, this poem explores existential doubt, isolation, and the fading of faith in the modern world, using the sea as a metaphor for human uncertainty. - “Ode to a Nightingale” – John Keats
Similarity: Both poems reflect on the contrast between fleeting human sorrow and the eternal, indifferent beauty of nature, particularly through nocturnal imagery. - “The Darkling Thrush” – Thomas Hardy
Similarity: Hardy, like Arnold, presents a melancholic meditation on life’s struggles and humanity’s search for meaning in a world that seems indifferent to human suffering. - “Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard” – Thomas Gray
Similarity: Both poems emphasize solitude, contemplation, and the inevitable passage of time, using somber natural imagery to reflect on life and death. - “Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey” – William Wordsworth
Similarity: Wordsworth and Arnold share themes of nostalgia, self-reflection, and the role of nature in shaping human thought, though Wordsworth is more optimistic about finding peace.
Representative Quotations of “A Summer Night” by Matthew Arnold
| Quotation | Context in the Poem | Theoretical Perspective |
| “In the deserted, moon-blanched street, / How lonely rings the echo of my feet!” | The poem opens with an image of solitude, as the speaker walks alone through a silent, moonlit street, emphasizing his isolation. | Existentialism – Highlights the speaker’s alienation and inner turmoil in an indifferent world. |
| “And the same bright, calm moon.” | The speaker contrasts his inner restlessness with the unchanging serenity of the moon, reinforcing the theme of existential despair. | Romanticism – Uses nature as a reflective force, but unlike Wordsworth, Arnold finds no peace in it. |
| “For most men in a brazen prison live, / Where, in the sun’s hot eye, / With heads bent o’er their toil, they languidly / Their lives to some unmeaning taskwork give.” | Arnold critiques the monotony of human labor, describing how most people live in metaphorical imprisonment, trapped in meaningless work. | Marxist Criticism – Criticism of industrial labor and class oppression, portraying workers as prisoners of economic systems. |
| “And the rest, a few, / Escape their prison and depart / On the wide ocean of life anew.” | A small number of individuals attempt to break free from societal constraints, but they enter an unpredictable and dangerous world. | Existentialism – Explores the struggle between freedom and uncertainty in human existence. |
| “And then the tempest strikes him; and between / The lightning bursts is seen / Only a driving wreck.” | Those who try to escape societal norms face destruction, as life’s chaotic forces overpower them. | Naturalism – Suggests that humans are at the mercy of uncontrollable natural and societal forces. |
| “Is there no life, but these alone? / Madman or slave, must man be one?” | The speaker questions whether humans are doomed to either mindless labor or hopeless rebellion, with no other path. | Absurdism – Reflects on the meaningless choices available to humans in a world that lacks inherent purpose. |
| “And the calm moonlight seems to say:— / Hast thou then still the old unquiet breast?” | The moon takes on a symbolic role, seemingly addressing the speaker and questioning his unchanged inner turmoil. | Psychoanalytic Criticism – The moon represents the speaker’s subconscious, forcing him to confront his unresolved anxieties. |
| “Ye heavens, whose pure dark regions have no sign / Of languor, though so calm, and though so great.” | The speaker admires the heavens, which remain untouched by human suffering, contrasting them with human restlessness. | Romanticism – The vast sky represents an idealized, transcendent state, in contrast to human limitation. |
| “A world above man’s head, to let him see / How boundless might his soul’s horizons be.” | The speaker contemplates the infinite possibilities of the universe, realizing that human life could be greater than it appears. | Transcendentalism – Suggests that individuals have the potential to expand their awareness and break free from constraints. |
| “How fair a lot to fill / Is left to each man still!” | The final lines offer a subtle hint of optimism, suggesting that meaning can still be found. | Humanism – Affirms that despite challenges, individuals can create purpose in their lives. |
Suggested Readings: “A Summer Night” by Matthew Arnold
- O’Gorman, Francis. “Matthew Arnold: Pessimist?.” English Studies 102.4 (2021): 415-430.
- Coursen, Herbert R., and Matthew Arnold. “‘The Moon Lies Fair’: The Poetry of Matthew Arnold.” Studies in English Literature, 1500-1900, vol. 4, no. 4, 1964, pp. 569–81. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/449510. Accessed 2 Feb. 2025.
- Williams, Stanley T. “Some Aspects of Matthew Arnold’s Poetry.” The Sewanee Review, vol. 29, no. 3, 1921, pp. 315–21. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27533446. Accessed 2 Feb. 2025.
- Schneider, Mary W. “The Lucretian Background of ‘Dover Beach.’” Victorian Poetry, vol. 19, no. 2, 1981, pp. 190–95. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40035470. Accessed 2 Feb. 2025.